A 16th century gold posy ring found by a metal detectorist may have a connection to the Gunpowder Plot conspirators.Posy rings were popular from the late Middle Ages through the 18th century, often given to loved ones at betrothals and weddings. While most posy rings were gifts between lovers or spouses, they were also meaningful tokens of friendship and faithfulness of a non-romantic type.Their name is a reference to poesy, not a small bunch of flowers, because of the inscriptions on the interior surface that were declarations of love and loyalty. The inside of the ring is the part that makes contact with the skin, so the message was hidden to prying eyes and conveyed a special intimacy.The recently-discovered posy ring is decorated on the outside face with a geometric relief that is deep enough it may have originally been filled with enamel. The interior surface is inscribed YOVR . FRENDE . IN . DEEDE. No inscription with this wording has been found before, and there are thousands documented. The separation between in and deed suggests the giver wanted the recipient to know he would prove himself loyal in actions, not just words.It was found in May of 2022 next to the moat of Bushwood Hall in Lapworth, the place where Robert Catesby, the leader of the Gunpowder Plot, was born. The current half-timber manor house was built 15 years after Catesby was killed for his role in the plot to blow up Parliament, but the moat around it also encircled the previous house which had belonged to the Catesby family since the 15th century.Robert Catesby was born there in 1572, and after the death of his Protestant wife in 1598, he returned to his familys undercover Catholic faith. Elizabeth I had outlawed Catholicism in 1570 after she was excommunicated, so Catholics were forced to attend Anglican churches or face fines, imprisonment and persecution. Many Catholics went underground, literally, practicing their faith in secret in hidden rooms. Those who refused to publicly disavow their faith were known as recusant Catholics.When James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots who had herself been executed by Elizabeth, ascended the throne in 1603, English Catholics had reason for optimism that the new king would loosen up the chains. He didnt. He mistrusted the powerful Catholic families and was just as ruthless in suppressing the religion as Elizabeth had been.Early in 1604, Catesby hatched a plan to blow up the King and the House of Lords with gunpowder during the State Opening of Parliament on November 5th, 1605, and install James nine-year-old daughter Princess Elizabeth as their puppet queen. He recruited other Catholics, including Eighty Years War and Franco-Spanish War veteran Guy Fawkes, to join the plot. An anonymous letter alerted authorities to the danger, and on the night before the explosion was set to go off, Guy Fawkes was found in a cellar under the Parliament building guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder. He was arrested and the other plotters ran. Catesby was tracked down by a sheriffs posse and was fatally shot at Holbeche House on November 8th. He was 33.At the time of the plot, Catesby was living at another of the family properties at Ashby St Ledgers on the Warwickshire/Northamptonshire border near Rugby. But Bushwood Hall was the base for the other plotters, with Catesby using it to stockpile weapons and supplies. It was also home to one of the key conspirators, John Wright, who had been at school with Guy Fawkes in York.It was also only accessed via a one-way road, so there was no passing traffic, and any valuable lost along the way likely belonged to someone who lived there or someone who had dealings with them.In conclusion, there is no verifiable direct link between this ring and any of the Gunpowder conspirators, but the find site, inscription and dating make it a tantalizingly plausible hypothesis.The posy ring is going up for auction on November 27th with a presale estimate of 8,000-12,000 ($10,550-$15,830).

Historical Events1913 - Russian kingdom forbids Polish congregation of speakers1917 - NHL forms with Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Maroons, Toronto Arenas, Ottawa Senators and Quebec Bulldogs; National Hockey Association disbands1941 - Lebanon independence first proclaimed by France1945 - Charlie "Bird" Parker leads a recording session with Dizzy Gillespie and Miles Davis for the Savoy label, marketed as the "greatest jazz session ever"2018 - First multidrug randomized control trial to treat Ebola started in Democratic Republic of Congo announced by the WHOMore Historical Events Famous Birthdays1436 - Princess Catherine of Portugal [Infanta Catarina], Portuguese princess, nun, writer, and daughter of King Edward of Portugal and his wife Eleanor of Aragon, born in Lisbon, Portugal (d. 1463)1754 - Georg Forster, German writer, naturalist (A Voyage Round the World) and revolutionary, born in Nassenhuben (Mokry Dwr), Royal Prussia, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (d. 1794)1928 - Don Tregonning, Australian tennis player and coach, born in Melbourne, Victoria1973 - John Zimmerman, American pairs skater (with partner Steigler), born in Birmingham, Alabama1987 - Summer Lee, American politician (1st back woman elected to Congress for Pennsylvania (D) 2023-), born in Pittsburgh, PennsylvaniaMore Famous Birthdays Famous Deaths666 - Yeon Gaesomun dictator of Goguryeo (other sources indicate death date as 664 or 665)1504 - Isabella I, Queen of Castile (1479-1504), patron of Christopher Columbus, who initiated the Spanish Inquisition with husband Ferdinand II of Aragon, dies at 531957 - Aleksei M Remizov, Russian author (Iveren), dies at 801994 - Nimrod Workman, American folk singer, dies at 992017 - Julia Mullock, American architect, artist, and (disputed) princess of Korea, dies at 90More Famous Deaths

Wikimedia CommonsMap of Ireland featuring Hy-Brasil by Abraham Ortelius in the 16th century.Every seven years, a green wonderland supposedly appears out of the mist off the western coast of Ireland. Rich with forests, gold, and even faeries, the island allegedly lingers for one day before vanishing again. Its known as Hy-Brasil, and though it seemingly exists only in legend, it appeared as a small, curious smudge on European maps for centuries. Indeed, Hy-Brasil can be seen on maps starting in the early 14th century, usually positioned just west of central Ireland. Over the centuries, some people even claimed to have visited the island, where they encountered friendly locals, black rabbits, gold and silver, and magical books. But the island stopped appearing on maps in the 19th century, around the same time that it was reportedly seen for the very last time. Since then, fascination about this mythical place has only grown. This is the story of Hy-Brasil, the mysterious mythical island near Ireland. What Is Hy-Brasil? Inside The Legend Of The Mythical Island Near IrelandLibrary of CongressA 14th-century map of Europe which appears to place Hy-Brasil just west of Ireland. Hy-Brasil existed in legend for generations, seemingly named for a legendary Irish king named Breasal. Also known as Hy-Breasal, Hy-Brazil, Hy-Breasil, Brazir, OBrasil, the Enchanted Island, and the Isle of the Blessed, its allegedly located somewhere off the western coast of Ireland. It first appeared on a map in 1325, when Majorcan cartographer Angelino Dulcert placed an island called Bracile just west of Ireland. A century later, Venetian cartographer Andrea Bianco similarly indicated the existence of an island (this time called Insula de Brasil) in the same area. The cartographers seemingly placed the island on their maps because theyd heard rumors of its existence. Indeed, though Hy-Brasil existed in legend as floating island that appeared for just one day every seven years, then vanished as anyone tried to reach it, some claimed to have stepped foot on the mythical island. According to Irish Central, some of the earliest accounts come from 5th-century Irish saints, Saint Barrind and Saint Brendan, who both claimed to have seen the island which they called the Promised Land. Public DomainSaint Brendan was associated with the island of Hy-Brasil.They were hardly the only ones who claimed to have visited Hy-Brasil. Over the following centuries, a handful of others would also provide compelling accounts of reaching the islands mythical shores. Sightings Of Hy-Brasil Over The CenturiesThough most expeditions to Hy-Brasil have ended in disappointment, a handful of explorers have, allegedly, reached the shores of this mythical island. That said, some of their stories are more fantastical than others. According to the Royal Irish Academy, one such encounter with Hy-Brasil occured in the 17th century. In the telling of Roderick OFlaherty, who wrote about the local history and lore of West Connaught in 1684, a man named Murrough OLey went for a walk in April 1668 after a fight with his wife, and was abducted by three men. His abductors took him to an island they called OBrazil, which OLey described as similar to the Aran Islands. Returned unharmed to his home, OLey purportedly found that he suddenly possessed an incredible healing ability, despite never studying medicine.Library of CongressHy-Brasil, just visible beneath the stamp on this 18th century map, has been downgraded to the Rock of Brazil.Shortly thereafter, another alleged encounter with Hy-Brasil took place when a sea captain named John Nisbet came upon the island with his crew. Described in some accounts as Scottish, and in others as hailing from Killybegs in County Donegal, Ireland, Nisbet and his men were sailing from France to Ireland in 1674 when a sudden fog moved in. When the mist lifted, they found themselves dangerously close to an outcropping of rocks. Nisbet and his crew anchored their ship, and a small expedition rowed to a nearby shore. They allegedly found themselves on Hy-Brasil, where they claimed to have encountered black rabbits, a magician in a castle, and a kind old man who gave them gold and silver. Though the story of Nesbits crew may a fictitious invention, his discovery of the island purportedly prompted a second ship, this one captained by Alexander Johnson, to explore Hy-Brasil. Apparently, Johnsons men were able to find the island as well and confirm Nesbits accounts. Two centuries later, in 1872, antiquarian and archaeologist T. J. Westrop also allegedly saw the island while sailing with his mother, brother, and several friends. Westrop had reportedly seen the island before, but in this final viewing, he and the other allegedly saw the island suddenly appear. It was a clear evening, with a fine golden sunset, when, just as the sun went down, a dark island suddenly appeared far out to sea, but not on the horizon, Westrop stated. It had two hills, one wooded; between these, from a low plain, rose towers and curls of smoke. My mother, brother, Ralph Hugh Westropp, and several friends saw it at the same time.Public DomainT.J. Westropp, an Irish antiquarian and archaeologist who claimed to see Hy-Brasil in the 19th century.Shortly thereafter, in 1878, the residents of Ballycotton, County Cork also allegedly saw the island. According to a collection of Irish tales put together in 1888 by D. R. McAnally, the residents noticed an island where none was known to exist. McAnally writes: The men of the town and island of Ballycotton were fishermen and knew the sea as well as they knew the land. The day before, they had been out in their boats and sailed on the spot where the strange island now appeared the day was clear and the island could be seen as plainly It was rugged in some parts rocky, in others densely wooded; here and there were deep shadows in its sides indicating glens heavily covered with undergrowth and grasses.Around the same time, however, Hy-Brasil began to disappear from maps of Europe. It seemingly last appeared on an 1873 British Admiralty Chart before it vanished back into the mist. The Legacy Of An Irish LegendToday, Hy-Brasil is mostly a charming setting for fantasy works, featured in films like Erik the Viking and books like Mary Stewarts Merlin Trilogy. Elusive, magical, and located on the edge of reality, its reminiscent of other lost places like Atlantis or the continent of Lemuria. So what is Hy-Brasil? Maybe the island is a mirage. Maybe adding a fake island was a mapmakers trick, to track those who copied them. Or maybe Hy-Brasil exists somewhere off the coast of island, shrouded in mist, except for one day every seven years. Whatever it is, stories of the Enchanted Island help lend a touch more magic to the history of the Emerald Isle.After reading about the legend of Hy-Brasil, the Irish island that purportedly only appears every seven years, discover the fascinating stories of mythical creatures from Irish folklore. Or, go inside the harrowing story of Loftus Hall, the most haunted mansion in Ireland. The post The Enchanting Story Of Hy-Brasil, The Mythical Irish Island That Purportedly Appears Every Seven Years appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Colorized photo of the plague of Florence in 1348, as described in Boccaccios Decameron by Luigi Sabatelli, in the Wellcome CollectionMedieval Europe faced many problems caused by a growing population that reduced the value of peasant labor. Land scarcity also caused many peasants to be bound to manors owed by landlords. Consequently, feudal lords ended up controlling the daily lives of agricultural laborers (serfs) and suppressed any resistance in order to maintain the status quo. The system shaped medieval life in Europe for hundreds of years. However, it was decimated by the Black Death, along with other factors.When the Black Death BeganDance Macabre, from the Nuremberg Chronicles, by Michael Woglemut, 1493. Source: The MET, New YorkIn 1347, Europe was struck by a demographic catastrophe as the Black Death spread. Approximately half of the continents population was wiped out in four years. The plague was indiscriminate and brutal, shattering the core system on which feudalism was based as both landlords and peasants lost their lives. Soaring death tolls soon slowed down agricultural production and crippled economic activity across the continent. The demographic shock led to a rise in demand for peasant labor due to a severe labor shortage. As entire villages were wiped out, many lords started to pay higher wages to their workers in order to get them to cultivate their lands.The Plague in Rome by an unknown artist, c. 17th century, via Getty ImagesSoon, peasants in some struggling manors started to convert their newfound leverage into social and economic freedom through wage labor. Landlords now competed for workers. In many cases, peasants demanded and received higher wages. Serfs soon abandoned their ancestral manors for better offers.How Revolts Led to the Decline of FeudalismSerfs as depicted in the Queen Marys Psalter, 14th century. Source: Medievalminds.comThe growing power of the peasantry led to aristocratic concerns and prompted authorities to pass laws designed to realign economic systems. In England, the Ordinance of Labourers of 1349, for example, partnered with the Statute of Labourers in 1351 to set fixed pre-plague wage limits across the kingdom. The attempts to turn back the clock were, however, futile as prevailing labor shortages forced landlords to pay higher wages in contravention of the statutes.Tensions between the aristocrats and peasants across Europe soon led to open revolts that decried the re-imposition of old feudal wages. According to accounts from chroniclers, the French Jacquerie revolt, for example, led to chaos in 1358. Similarly, English peasants began to use organized rebellion to fight back against aristocratic control. The English Peasants Revolt of 1381 was, for example, massively popular.Although the revolts were eventually suppressed, they sent a clear message to the ruling class, and the nobles became afraid of causing more rebellions. They were also less likely to enforce the rules of serfdom. This fear helped speed up the shift to a system of free labor.Events After the UpheavalsSheep farming, from the Luttrell Psalter, c. 13201340The long-term result of the upheavals was the slow death of traditional serfdom. The nature of the manorial system on which feudalism was based had allowed it to function across lands that may otherwise have been difficult for a central government to control. But the plague made the system inconvenient for lords looking for reliable labor. As such, lords began to abandon the old system of labor service and corve, in favor of cash payments. Alternative types of land use also started to emerge such as sheep farming for wool, which required far fewer workers when compared to grain cultivation, for example. Increased wages, additionally, created a new class of prosperous peasants and yeomen, who could now buy their own land, blurring the old social divides.How Conflicts Hastened the ProcessThe spread of the Black Death in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East (13461353) Source: WikipediaLong-lasting conflicts, especially the Hundred Years War that spanned from 1337 to 1453 between England and France, also weakened the feudal system. The nature of warfare also changed. The traditional feudal knight on horseback was no longer the most effective soldier. Paid, trained soldiers were much more powerful.To fight the new kinds of wars, kings needed to raise their own professional armies instead of relying on their nobles to provide knights. To pay for these armies, kings created new systems of taxation that collected money directly from the general population. The system achieved two things. It made the king the central, most powerful figure in the land and stripped local lords of their authority.Economic Changes That Emerged After the Black DeathThe Unicorn Purifies Water, from the Unicorn Tapestries, French/Netherlandish, c. 1495-1505. Source: The Metropolitan MuseumAfter the Black Death, the old ways of life in Europe fell apart and almost everything changed. As the serfdom social system weakened, peasants embraced creative means to improve their lives. Some poor farm workers, for example, began to sell goods in markets that used to be controlled by the rich.The changes meant that wealth came more from the money one earned rather than the land that they inherited. The new economy also compelled many peasants to leave the countryside for towns to find better jobs. As a result, many cities grew bigger. A new middle class made up of skilled workers and sellers also emerged from the shift in economic dynamics. Ultimately, the terrible sickness led to a new age where people had more economic freedom.

Nestled high in the Caucasus Mountains bordering Russia, Svaneti is a place of jaw-dropping beauty, fierce independence, and unbroken traditions. For centuries, this remote region defied the mightiest empires, from the Mongols to the Russians, managing to preserve its unique identity in a way no other region could. It is hidden among snow-capped peaks and deep valleys, its smattering of ancient villages seemingly untouched by time. Today, Svaneti is an unrivaled, off-the-beaten-path destination for lovers of untamed wilderness and historychallenging to get to but incredibly rewarding.Svaneti: A Land That Bowed to No OneSvanetis famous towers, with the Caucasus in the background, photo by Arian Zwegers. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSvanetis story is primarily one of defiance. Shielded by the sheer vertiginous walls of the Caucasus, the Svansan ancient Georgian highland peopleresisted every army that tried to subdue them. Even when Mongol and Persian forces swept through the lowlands, they never managed to break Svanetis defenses. The region became Georgias very last refuge, where kings sent their most sacred relics for safekeeping.Medieval towers of Svaneti, photo by Arian Swegers. Source: FlickrDuring the Middle Ages, Svaneti thrived in its near-complete isolation. While the rest of Georgia fell under Ottoman and Persian influence, the Svans maintained their own way of life, governed by blood ties, unwritten codes of honor, and warrior traditions. The landscape is still dotted with medieval stone towers, once used as both homes and fortresses, a sign of constant vigilance against invaders. Because in this part of the world, one must never lower ones defenses.Svanetis mountains are the highest on the European continental shelf, photo by Panoramio. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen the Russian Empire expanded into the Caucasus in the 19th century, the Svans stood their ground once again. It wasnt until 1858 that they reluctantly accepted Russian rule, but even then, control remained superficial, and the area mostly autonomous. Being cut off from the rest of the empire geographically meant Svaneti was essentially left to rule over itself. The Soviet Era saw attempts to modernize and integrate Svaneti, yet its people remained fiercely attached to their traditions, language, and autonomy. Even nowadays, the region feels like a world aparta living relic of a time when mountains meant freedom.Best Historical Highlights in Svaneti You Shouldnt Miss1. Mestia: The Beating Heart of SvanetiPhoto of Mestia after dark, by Uwe Brodrecht. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMestia is the main town and gateway to the Svaneti region, which is known for its rich history. Walking through its narrow streets, youll find medieval stone towers rising above traditional Svan homes, remnants of a time when every family built its own fortress for survival. Aside from being defensive, these iconic towers, some over 1,000 years old, were symbols of lineage, power, wealth, and resilience.A visit to the Svaneti Museum of History and Ethnography is essential. This treasure trove holds gold and silver icons, ancient manuscripts, and intricate Svan artifacts, many of which were hidden away here during Georgias darkest times to prevent them from being stolen or destroyed. Youll also find illuminated gospels from the 9th century, rare medieval armor, and religious relics that once belonged to Georgian royalty.Mestia is where past and present meet. While modernity has reached this highland town (the main road from the capital, Tbilisi, is now fully sealed, albeit with a few oversized potholes), traditions remain strong. Locals still speak the Svan languagetotally unrelated to Georgian or Russianand ancient polyphonic singing echoes through the valley during feasts and celebrations.2. Ushguli: Europes Highest Inhabited VillageUshguli and its extraordinary towers, photo by Dito1993. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerched at an altitude of 6,890 feet (2,100 meters), Ushguli is one of Europes highest continuously inhabited settlements and one of the most striking. With its cluster of ancient towers set against the backdrop of Mount Shkhara, Georgias tallest peak (17,027 feet/5,193 meters), Ushguli feels like a place untouched by time. It is no wonder it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.What makes Ushguli remarkable isnt just its (literal) breathtaking altitude but rather its exquisite isolation. The village has been inhabited for over a thousand years, with families passing down homes and fortresses from generation to generation. Many of the stone towers, which number more than houses, date back to the 9th and 10th centuries. They were built to protect against invaders and blood feuds, and some were inhabited well into the 20th century.Despite harsh winters and near-total cut-off from the outside world, people here still live by the old waysherding livestock, baking in traditional stone ovens, and preserving customs unchanged for centuries. Because of its remoteness, Ushguli was sometimes used as a place of banishment for criminals and outcasts. They had nowhere to escapethe mountains made sure of that!3. ChazhashiEverywhere you look, towers! Photo of Chazhashi by Franck Zecchin-Faure. Source: FlickrThe village of Chazhashi is a place of folkloric legends, home to one of the worlds most remarkable concentrations of medieval defensive towers. Unlike other parts of Georgia, where castles were built for rulers, in Svaneti, entire villages were fortified.Chazhashi is part of the UNESCO-listed Upper Svaneti region and is home to over 200 ancient structures, many of which likewise date back nearly a thousand years. Families would retreat inside during times of danger, sometimes living for months on stored supplies. Although external conflicts were rare, internal clashes were a regular part of Svan life.Walking through Chazhashi feels quite surreal. Stone towers rise in every direction, and you can still climb some of them for sweeping views of the Enguri River Valley. Unlike the more touristy Mestia, Chazhashi retains a raw, almost ghostly atmosphere. Many of its structures are now abandoned and make for fantastic explorations. If you want to feel the true historic spirit of Svaneti, this is where to go.4. The Church of St. Kvirike and IvlitaChurch of St Kvirike and Ivlita, photo by Natia an. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHidden away in the blink-and-youll-miss-it village of Kala, the unassuming 12th-century Church of St. Kvirike and Ivlita holds some of Georgias most beautiful medieval frescoes. Its vibrant murals, showcasing the artistry of Svaneti, have wonderfully withstood the test of time.Unlike grand European cathedrals, Svan churches were built in secrecysmall, humble, and often hidden in the mountains to protect them from invaders. This one is particularly striking because of its dramatic location, set against cliffs and wild landscapes. The frescoes inside depict biblical scenes with a distinctive mix of Byzantine and local artistic styles.One of the most fascinating aspects of this church is that it still plays a central role in local life. Every summer, Svans gather here for the Kvirikoba Festival, an ancient religious and pagan celebration that includes traditional feasts, horse races, boulder tossing, and sacred rituals. It is one of the rare chances foreign visitors have to witness a long-standing historical tradition that has remained unchanged for hundreds of years.5. The Enguri Hydro Power Dam: A Soviet Megastructure in SvanetiPhoto of Enguri dam, by Karelj. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Enguri Dam is an unmissable highlight for history lovers, although it is one of the regions most recent. It was built in the 1970s and is considered a Soviet-era engineering marvel. It has one of the tallest arch dams in the world, standing at 891 feet (271.5 meters), and feeds hydroelectric power not only to Georgia but also to the breakaway region of Abkhazia, making it one of the most politically complex and highly contentious structures in the Caucasus.The dam itself is a testament to Soviet ambition, designed to harness the raw power of the 132-mile-long Enguri River, which carves through the Svaneti mountains. Enguri is Europes tallest dam and, up until 2000, when China began constructing mega-dams in earnest, was the third tallest in the world. Beyond its gargantuan size, the Enguri Dam is also a symbol of Georgias complex relationship with its Soviet past and its present geopolitical struggles. Youll learn much more on this on guided tours of the dam, which are highly recommended!6. The Monastery of MkheriThere are no shortages of remote monasteries to visit in Georgia. Pictured above is Jvari, near Mtskheta. Photo by Alexxx1979. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIf you seek to visit a remote historical highlight, the Mkheri Monastery might just be the spot for you. It is an arduous pilgrimage well worth making. The remote 12th-century monastery sits high above Mestia and is accessible only by a grueling hike, but the reward is unmatched.In contrast to Georgias more well-known religious sites, Mkheri remains way off the tourist trail. Its isolated location was intentionalmonks built it in the mountains to escape invasions and practice their faith in peace. Few foreign visitors make it here, which makes the experience even more extraordinary. The silence is broken only by the wind, the occasional ringing of cowbells, and the distant murmur of mountain streams.7. The Nakipari Church of St GeorgeA fresco in the Nakipari church, depicting the torture of St George, photo by Teodore. Source: National Agency for the Cultural Heritage of GeorgiaDeep in the Iprari Valley, snuggled between mountain slopes and rushing rivers, stands the Nakipari Church of St. George, a site that embodies both the spiritual and warrior traditions of Svaneti. It was built in the 10th century near the village of Iprari, and houses frescoes painted by the famous Tevdore, one of Georgias most celebrated medieval artists. His work also appears in Zarzma Monastery and other important sites across the country.The frescoes inside Nakipari are strikingly bright, showing Christ, saints, and warrior figures in rich reds and deep blues. One of the most intriguing details is how some figures are depicted wearing traditional Svan warrior gear, showing the fusion of religious and local traditions that has defined Svanetis history since Christianity was introduced to the region in the 4th century.Nakipari is also home to a prized relica 9th-century icon of St. George, one of the most revered saints in the country. It was once at risk of being stolen, so locals moved it to Mestias Historical-Ethnographic Museum, where it is now safely displayed. Although some believe the country was named after St. George, debates as to its etymology abound. Mostly, because in Georgian, the country is named Sakartvelo, deriving from the Kartvelian people.

Beowulf is the longest and most well-known Old English poem, probably composed between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. However, while Beowulf was composed in Old English, it describes heroes from Germanic tribes living in Scandinavia in the 6th century CE. Why did the English composers decide to produce such a complex work about their overseas neighbors, and how much of the poem preserves verifiable information about the pre-Viking world versus how the Christian English imagined life in the pagan world on the other side of the North Sea?When Was Beowulf Composed?The opening words ofBeowulf, in the Nowell Codex (Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, f. 132r.), c. 11th century. Source: British LibraryThe oldest surviving manuscript of Beowulf, known as the Nowell Codex, dates between 975 and 1025 CE. It is part of Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, which is considered one of the four major Old English poetic manuscripts. The manuscript also contains The Life of Saint Christopher, Wonders of the East,Letter of Alexander to Aristotle, and Judith. However, it is best known for its association with Beowulf and is sometimes referred to as the Beowulf Manuscript. Nevertheless, it is presumed that the poem itself was composed earlier and transmitted orally before it was finally recorded.The story is set in Scandinavia during the pre-Viking era of the 6th century CE, providing this version of the poem with a terminus post quem. But determining when the poem was composed is important, because while the poem describes a thoroughly pagan world, England was undergoing swift Christianization in the 6th and 7th centuries. Therefore, the composition date can help us better understand the origins of the descriptions of paganism in the poem.If the poem is old, with a long oral tradition, the pagan elements described in the story may recall first-hand knowledge and experience preserved over the centuries. A later composition date, for example in the 10th century, suggests that pagan elements were added to create atmosphere and may have been based on assumptions about heathen neighbors.Reconstructed rider motif from the Sutton Hoo Helmet and a Danish stamp from Tsinge showing a similar motif. Source: National Museum of DenmarkScholarly opinion is currently divided. Some scholars favor a composition date in the 7th century, during which time there were strong cultural and economic ties between East Anglia and Scandinavia. This connection is evident in the archaeological record, for example, the Sutton Hoo ship burial, an Anglo-Saxon ship burial with clear Norse influences. It has long been suggested that the famous Sutton Hoo Helmet could have been imported from Scandinavia. Moreover, a newly discovered metal stamp found in Denmark shows a warrior on horseback that matches a motif on the Sutton Hoo Helmet, potentially confirming Danish origins. New DNA studies also suggest a significant Scandinavian presence in East Anglia between 500 and 800 CE.Other scholars suggest that the poem could not have been composed until the start of the 11th century, when Norse influence in England had become more pronounced following Viking raids, the arrival of the Great Heathen Army, and the reigns of Viking kings of England, including Swein Forkbeard and Cnut the Great. This is supported by clear Christian references in the text, for example, Grendel is described as a descendant of Cain, one of the sons of Adam and Eve.Beowulf: Plot SummaryReconstruction of the Sutton Hoo Helmet. Source: Smart HistoryThe poem is named for the eponymous hero Beowulf, who is described as coming from the Germanic Geats tribe that had settled in the Gotland region of southern Sweden. However, the story starts by introducing King Hrothgar of Denmark, who built a mighty mead hall called Heorot to celebrate his prosperous reign. The noise from his hall angers a monster living in nearby swamplands, called Grendel, who proceeds to attack Hrothgars kingdom every night for 12 years.Beowulf hears about Hrothgars situation and is inspired to take up the challenge. He sails to Denmark with a small group of warriors determined to slay the monster. While he is welcomed, and a great feast is held in his honor, one of the Danes, called Unnfert, taunts Beowulf, suggesting that he is not worthy of his reputation. Beowulf responds by telling stories of his great exploits.Illustration of Grenel, by J.R. Skelton, 1908. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThat night, Grendel appears as expected, and Beowulf fights him bare-handed. He rips off the monsters arm, and the mortally wounded Grendel returns to his swamp to die.While the community is celebrating the fall of Grendel, his mother, a swamp hag, descends on the hall to get revenge. On the night she arrives, she murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgars most trusted advisors. This time, a company of warriors travels to the swamp, where Beowulf dives into the water and fights with Grendels mother, killing her with a sword forged for a giant. He also finds Grendels corpse and decapitates it, bringing his head back to the hall as evidence of his victory.As a result of these great victories, Beowulfs fame spreads. When he returns to his homeland, he recounts the stories to his king and queen. Beowulf gives his king most of the treasure he had been given by Hrothgar, and the king rewards him richly in return.Bees, Serpents, and Dragons in a Bestiary, Harley 3244, fols. 58v59, c. 1236-75, Source: The Getty BlogSoon after, both the king of the Geats and his son die. Beowulf is made the new king. He rules wisely for 50 years, but as an old man, a thief disturbs a burial barrow where a dragon is hiding a hoard of treasure. The enraged dragon starts attacking the Geats. Even though Beowulf feels his imminent death, he goes to fight the dragon, and with the help of his friend Wiglaf, kills the beast. But the dragon also bites his neck, and its venom kills him moments after the encounter. His body is burned and buried in a barrow.Beowulfs Historical SettingMap of Germanic tribe migrations between 400-600 CE. Source: University of CambridgeWhile the debate over when Beowulf was composed remains open, there is evidence that the epic tale was set in the historical world of 6th-century Scandinavia.First, many of the clans and people mentioned in Beowulf also appear independently in Norse sources. To take just one example, Healfdene is named as the father of Hrothgar and as the previous king of the Scyldings in Beowulf. He also appears in Old Norse sources as a king of the same people and as a son or brother of Frodi, a Viking who appears in many historical sources. Healfdene appears in two 12th-century Danish works, the Chronicon Lethrense and Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Danorum. He also appears in later Icelandic works, including the Ynglinga saga, the Saga of Hrolf Kraki, and the Skjoldunga saga, which recounts the story of the historical clan he is said to have led.Certain historical events referenced also appear to be genuine. In Beowulf, there is a battle on the ice of Lake Vanern. It begins with the death of the Swedish king Ohthere, often regarded as the first historical king of Sweden, when his brother Onela attempted to seize his throne. Ohtheres sons flee to the Geats, currently ruled by Beowulfs brother Heardred. When Onela attacks the Geats, Headred is killed, so in vengeance, Beowulf decides to help one of the sons, Eadgils, retake the Swedish throne. This results in a battle between Eadgils and the Geats against Onela on the ice of the lake. This event also appears in the same Norse sagas, which describe a conflict between Onela, also known as Ali, and Eadgils, also known as Adils. The raid by King Hygelac into Frisia is also mentioned by Gregory of Tours in his History of the Franks, confirming it as another historical event.Ragnark, color lithograph on paper by Louis Moe, 1898, in Alfred Jacobsen, Danmarks Historie i Billeder VII. Ragnark, Source: GetArchiveThis suggests that whoever composed the poem had a good grasp of the legendary history of Scandinavia. They also seem to have been familiar with Norse mythology, as Beowulfs battle with the dragon clearly mirrors the story of Thors final fight with the serpent monster Jormungandr at Ragnark. According to the prophecy, at the end of days, the god Thor will kill Jormungandr, but will die within seconds of his victory due to the amount of venom the serpent spits onto his body.Beowulf is then laid to rest according to Viking pagan tradition, with his body cremated and his remains placed in a burial mound.Is Beowulf a Useful Historical Source?Reconstructed Viking Age longhouse at the Trelleborg Museum. Source: National Museum of Denmark, CopenhagenDue to the clear Christian references in the surviving text of Beowulf, scholars have suggested that we be cautious when using Beowulf as a historical source for the Norse world of the 6th century. However, there is also evidence that the composers of Beowulf had some knowledge of the pre-Viking world of that time.In a recent publication, Beowulf and the North Before the Vikings, historian Tom Shippey cites archaeological evidence to support certain aspects of Norse life depicted in Beowulf. He cites a passage about taking away the mead-benches from many tribes. This suggests that as part of their territorial conquests within the Norse realm, the Scyldings destroyed the long halls of other tribes as a way of destroying their power centers. This kind of activity is now being supported by archaeologists at the University of Uppsala. They have found evidence of mead halls that have been deliberately smashed and vandalized but not plundered, suggesting ritual over violence.This suggests that Beowulf may contain interesting insights about the early Viking world, but like all our written sources for the Viking Age, written by Christian observers, everything must be evaluated with care to unpick genuine memory preserved through centuries of oral tradition from the projections of Christian authors who had already been living in a very different world for centuries.

Trade in the Indian Ocean carried cultures, religions, ideas, food, and objects across vast distances, creating the foundations for global trade. Ships with boards sewn together by coconut fibers were guided by the regular patterns of the monsoon winds. Ivory and gold from East Africa would be brought as far as China, and religions took root in distant lands, merging foreign belief with local customs. Although not quite global, many of the objects that emerged from this trade network would lay the foundations of the modern world.Before the CompassSailing the Monsoon WindsTabula Rogeriana by al-Idrisi, 1154. This 12th century map of the known world was made by Muslim geographer al-Idrisi for King Roger II of Sicily. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor centuries, movement on and across the Indian Ocean was shaped by the monsoon winds. These are seasonal wind patterns that blow in one direction for one part of the year, and blow back in the opposite direction during the latter part of the year. There were variations of monsoon winds within each pocket of the Indian Ocean, but what was certain was that these winds were consistent every year. This stability allowed merchants to plan accordingly, as they could accurately estimate their arrival to desired destinations.Because the monsoon changed twice per year, in cases of merchants travelling long distances, they would have to stay in port until the next monsoon, several months later, could carry them back to their native region. This fostered relationships between merchants and the local communities, resulting in cosmopolitan or culturally diverse port cities. This is how Islam spread as far east as Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singaporealthough it originated in Arabia, Islam arrived in Southeast Asia through the trade networks connecting ports throughout the Indian Ocean.From Malay to MadagascarOpening of a Malay Quran manuscript by an unknown artist, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTrade on the Indian Ocean existed for centuries prior to the rise of Islam. Sailors from Malaya, a term referring to present-day Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia, arrived in East Africa at least by 100 BCE. This is why Madagascar today is a cultural blend between the Malaysian peninsula and East Africa in terms of its language, people, and traditions, synthesized through centuries of this trading relationship. However, after the rise of Islam, a religion that promotes trade and commerce, and the proliferation of Muslims throughout the Indian Ocean ports, distant areas became more entwined than before.This is because Muslim merchants became intermediaries between Muslim consumers and the producers or vendors of foreign objects, while directly coordinating the shipment of objects across the Indian Ocean. Prior to European arrival, some of the main trading ports were Kilwa (Tanzania), Mombasa (Kenya), Muscat (Oman), Aden (Yemen), Siraf (Iran), Surat and Cambay (west India), Goa, Calicut (southwest India), Kolkata (northeast India), the Bay of Bengal, Kalah Bar (Malacca Strait), then Guangzhou or Canton (China). Beginning with the Portuguese, Europeans entered into this Indian Ocean trade network in the late 15th century.There was also no single concept of merchant in the Indian Ocean, and the traders came from different religious and cultural backgrounds. While Islam was the dominant faith in the region, there were also Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Buddhists participating in the trade. Trading ports would echo with the sounds of a variety of different languages, although the lingua franca was Arabic.Trading VesselsIndian Ocean Dhow with Lateen Sail. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe sailing vessels used for trade were made from wooden planks that were sewn together, rather than nailed, using coconut fibers. Coconuts had many uses in the Indian Ocean, so much so that they are referred to as the Swiss Army knife of the plant kingdom in Swahili, a culture and language present throughout East and Central Africa (Mugane, p. 60). In the Indian Ocean, this type of ship is popularly referred to as a dhow.The use of sewn boards as opposed to metal nails was not due to a lack of available resourcesinstead, many cultures across the Indian Ocean recognized that the magnetism within metal nails would adversely affect the sailing of the ship. Sewn planks addressed this issue. Dhows were also accompanied by the lateen or triangular sail, which may have had its origins with Malay sailors (Shaffer, p. 5). Its shape helped dhows properly capitalize on the monsoon winds. This sailing technology was eventually adopted by sailors from the Arabian Peninsula and Persia.Navigational TechnologySouth-pointing Chinese spoon, the origins of the first compass. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEmerging from this cross-cultural exchange throughout the Indian Ocean were technologies that provided us with the foundations of our modern world, some of which we still use today. Han Dynasty Chinese rulers and religious leaders used a spoon shaped like the Big Dipper constellation placed upon a flat board as a way to track the seasons. Over time, this technology developed into an early form of the compass. Its tail, made from the magnetic mineral lodestone, would point south (as opposed to the modern compass which points north), and the Chinese word for compass is south-pointing needle.In addition to revolutionizing sailing, this technology became a vital object for Muslims, as it was a requirement to face in the direction of Mecca during prayer. The transmission of the compass did not stay confined to the Indian Ocean, and Islamic merchants introduced it to Europeans, most likely via the Mediterranean. In a famous example, Christopher Columbus used the compass, albeit to no avail, when trying to find an alternate route to India.Chinese painting on paper by an unknown Han Dynasty artist, circa 25220 AD. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnother form of technology originating in the Indian Ocean was that of paper-making. From China, this technology transmitted westward via Chinese prisoners of war, who were forced to remain in Samarkand (Uzbekistan) for ten years after their defeat at the Battle of Talas, a conflict between the Tang Dynasty and Abbasid Caliphate in 751 CE. Chinese paper proved more sturdy than fragile papyrus and was cheaper to make than vellum, or paper made from animal skin. Paper-making technology transferred into Europe, again via Muslims, around the 12th century, who readily adopted this technology.The Indian Ocean is the birthplace of another concept that revolutionized math, science, and technology. This was the invention of the number zero within present-day India as early as 499 CE. Zero was transformativeequations could be done faster, were more accurate, and now could be more complex. Although this number was perceived by Europeans to be an Arab invention, Arabs in fact referred to this number as a Hindi number, alluding to its South Asian origins. The concept of zero is central to the development of computing and the mathematics that enabled humans to send satellites to space.Natural MarvelsFragment of Indian cotton cloth by an unknown artist, 12th-14th century. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art, ClevelandSome natural objects traded in the Indian Ocean included cotton, silk, and indigo, which was used for creating navy blue dyes in clothing and other textiles. Spices such as cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg were native only in Southeast Asia, but had a special place within food and medicine across different Indian Ocean cultures. The demand for these spices was so great that merchants of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) collapsed the society of the Banda Islands (Indonesia), the worlds only source of nutmeg, to monopolize their trade.China was one of the main producers of silk and silk cloth, a fiber made from the native Chinese silkworm. Silk was used for making clothing, Persian rugs, Islamic prayer mats, or was given as tribute. South Asia produced the highest quality cotton due to long-standing cotton cultivation and production traditions. Cotton was used as material for sails, bedding, and other textiles, but especially clothing. It was revered for its quality, softness, breathability, and color. A 17th century French merchant, Pyrard de Laval, even remarked that India clothed the world. The desire for cotton became one of the driving forces for Europeans to facilitate the Transatlantic Slave Trade.Human-Made MarvelsPrayer rug by an unknown Iranian artist, 16th century. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkThe objects circulating the Indian Ocean trade network were products from specific regions, but in some cases, they were products of trade itself. Trade created a cross-cultural exchange of visual patterns, styles, and symbols that permeated objects such as Persian rugs and tapestries, ewers, and Chinese porcelain. Date palms and fig, peacocks, jasmine flowers, and almond trees were not native to China, but were included in designs on Chinese porcelain. This is because China was being influenced by objects coming in from Persia and Arabia in the form of textiles and silver vessels, whose intricate patterns and designs they adopted.Additionally, many pieces of Chinese porcelain refrained from depicting people, attributed to a large consumer base of Muslims, whose religion was against portraying idols. Simultaneously, Persian and Arabian producers were influenced by Chinese porcelainsome West Asian pottery even incorporated Chinese symbols such as dragons into their designs. Chinese influence is also evident in textiles and silver objects.Plate with fish by an unknown artist, mid-14th century. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkAccentuating this feedback loop of influence and exchange was blue and white porcelain. The cobalt blue in this style of porcelain did not naturally exist in China, but was sourced only from Persia, which had a long tradition of using this mineral in art and objects. This mineral was brought to China slightly prior to 830 CEevidence of this is supported by the Belitung shipwreck, an Arab merchant ship that crashed off the coast of Indonesia near Belitung on its way back towards West Asia. It was carrying three porcelain bowls with cobalt designs in its cargo.However, after the consolidation of Asia by the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries, cobalt was brought in significant numbers to China through the promotion and stabilization of the Indian Ocean trade. Chinese artists used cobalt blue to create intricate designs that bore symbols from many cultures around the Indian Ocean. The finished product proliferated across trade networks and filtered into Europe. Porcelain, especially blue and white, was so highly sought after by Europeans that France sent a Jesuit missionary, Franois Xavier dEntrecolles, to try and uncover Chinas porcelain recipe. It was only after dEntrecolles success that factories began sprouting in Europe in the 18th century.Whoever controls the Indian Ocean will dominate AsiaThe Capture of Cochin and Victory of the Dutch VOC over the Portuguese in 1656, from the Atlas Van der Hagen, 1690. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe above quote by Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, an influential 19th century United States naval theorist, highlights the significance of Indian Ocean trade to the rest of the world. The allure of the Indian Ocean world through its objects, technology, and spices is what enticed Europeans to try to assert themselves into this trade network after the 15th century, landing in the Americas during the process.While European powers exploited the commercial potential of their American colonies, they continued to compete against each other to establish colonies and obtain trading privileges in well-established Asian ports. The Columbian Exchange from the Old World to the New marks the foundation of the modern world, but this would have been impossible without the well-established lucrative Indian Ocean trade.BibliographyChaudhuri, K. N. Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750, 1985.Mugane, John M. Story of Swahili. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2015.Pearson, Michael Naylor. The Indian Ocean. London New York: Routledge, 2003.Shaffer, Lynda. Southernization. In The New World History, 23: 24258. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2019.

Wikimedia CommonsEarly humans who inhabited Europe and Western Asia, Neanderthals went extinct about 40,000 years ago.Roughly 45,000 years ago, one group of Neanderthals in present-day Belgium killed and cannibalized another group made up of vulnerable women and children, according to grisly evidence uncovered in Goyet Caves.These caves were first explored by archaeologists in the latter half of the 19th century. The caves were eventually found to hold more than 100 Neanderthal bone fragments, though it long proved difficult to conduct a detailed analysis of these remains.But now, with the help of DNA analysis, radiocarbon dating, isotopic measurements, and virtual reconstructions, researchers were able to construct biological profiles of the six individuals whose remains were found in the cave. Sure enough, the bone fragments all showed cut marks and intentional breakage similar to those found on the bones of animals that were killed and eaten.The Cannibal Attack That Killed Six Neanderthals In Belgiums Goyet CavesQ. Cosnefroy et al./Scientific ReportsThe bones of the victims revealed that the adult women who were targeted were shorter than average.A new study published in Scientific Reports found that, of the six individuals that researchers identified, four of them were adult females and two were male children. They also determined that the adult women were not related to each other.However, there was something about the adults in this group that set them apart from other Neanderthals who lived near Belgiums Goyet Caves. These adult females all were shorter and had smaller builds than the average Neanderthal woman.With this information in hand, researchers compared their results with an existing isotopic analysis from a previous study. They soon found that both the adult females and the children were not from Goyet, but instead from a completely different region.Researchers then determined that the death and consumption of this small group of Neanderthals by the Neanderthals from Goyet was an example of exocannibalism, or the cannibalism of one group by a different group.We cannot determine exactly why these individuals were targeted, but the composition of the assemblage four adult females and two immature individuals is too specific to be accidental, lead author Quentin Cosnefroy told Live Science.Researchers theorized that these smaller women and children may have been targeted because they were the weaker members of a neighboring population. Its also possible they were killed as a way to try and stop a competing population from reproducing.It is also still unclear whether this group all came from the same region outside of Goyet and were cannibalized in a single event, or if they all came from different areas and were killed at separate times.How Exocannibalism Fits Into The Larger History Of Late European NeanderthalsThilo Parg/Wikimedia Commons License: CC BY-SA 4.0More than 100 Neanderthal bone fragments were found inside Goyet Caves.The timing of this cannibal attack, between 41,000 and 45,000 years ago, is also significant.During this period, Homo sapiens began to spread throughout the European continent, and may have already been present in Goyet by the time these individuals were killed. In fact, its not exactly clear whether the perpetrators were Neanderthals or early Homo sapiens.However, researchers do know that it was relatively uncommon for cannibalism among Homo sapiens to be connected to anything other than funerary rituals. This may suggest that the killers were indeed Neanderthals.Researchers believe its unlikely that the six cannibalized individuals were consumed for ritual purposes. For one thing, researchers uncovered the nearby bones of animals that were surely hunted and eaten, and they showed similar butchering marks to those found on the human remains.Furthermore, there is prior recorded evidence of survival cannibalism among Neanderthals in France and Croatia. Perhaps, in this case, the cannibalism was due to inter-group competition.Nevertheless, its possible that as Homo sapiens began to become more common in territories previously occupied only by Neanderthals, the latter group may have begun to get more territorial, and that this may have been the impetus for the macabre cannibal incident that unfolded some 45,000 years ago.After reading about the Neanderthal women and children who were cannibalized 45,000 years ago, see the evidence of prehistoric cannibalism found in a Polish cave. Then, learn about the oldest evidence of early human cannibalism.The post Researchers In Belgium Just Uncovered Evidence Of Brutal Cannibalism Against Neanderthals 45,000 Years Ago appeared first on All That's Interesting.

MediaPunch Inc / Alamy Stock PhotoViola Ford Fletcher testifying in Congress in 2021.Viola Ford Fletcher, one of the last survivors of the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre, died on Monday, Nov. 24, 2025, surrounded by family at a Tulsa hospital. She was 111. She had a beautiful smile on her face, her grandson Ike Howard told CNN. She loved life, she loved people. Fletcher had spent her later years seeking justice for the massacre, a deadly attack by a white mob on the once-thriving Black community of Greenwood in Tulsa, Oklahoma. She was seven years old when the assault on her neighborhood began on May 31, 1921, after local news outlets released sensationalized reports about a young Black man accused of assaulting a white woman, with one outlet running the headline Nab Negro for Attacking Girl in an Elevator.Over 18 hours, the Greenwood district once referred to as Black Wall Street was decimated by an angry white mob that killed hundreds of people, burned and looted homes and businesses, and left 35 city blocks destroyed.The questions I had then remain to this day, Fletcher wrote in her memoir, Dont Let Them Bury My Story. How could you just give a mob of violent, crazed, racist people a bunch of deadly weapons and allow them no, encourage them to go out and kill innocent Black folks and demolish a whole community? The Devastation Of The Tulsa Race MassacreThe Tulsa Race Massacre was the culmination of years of mounting tension between Black and white residents of Tulsa, Oklahoma. Greenwood had been established in 1906 by wealthy Black landowner O. W. Gurley, who purchased 40 acres of land and began loaning money to other Black citizens who wanted to start businesses. Soon enough, Greenwood was thriving and had earned the nickname Black Wall Street.Racist white residents in the surrounding regions took note, too. The prospering Black community made their blood boil. Resentment built up in them. They were ready to explode with rage. All they needed was something to light the fuse. This spark came in the form of a newspaper article, published in the white-owned Tulsa Tribune, which published a sensationalized report about a 19-year-old Black shoeshine named Dick Rowland who was accused of assaulting 17-year-old Sarah Page in an elevator. The girl said she noticed the negro a few minutes before the attempted assault looking up and down the hallway as if to see if there was anyone in sight but thought nothing of it at the time, the paper reported. A few minutes later he entered the elevator she claimed, and attacked her, scratching her hands and face and tearing at her clothes.Tulsa Historical Society & MuseumBlack men being marched down the street at gunpoint during the Tulsa Race Massacre in 1921.Page never pressed charges against Rowland. According to his account, he had simply tripped and fallen on Page while on his way to the restroom. Either way, the fuse was lit.Rowland was taken into custody, and a white mob quickly formed, intending to kidnap Rowland from the local jail to lynch him. The Black men of Greenwood, however, formed their own armed militia to meet the white mob and prevent the injustice from being carried out. A separate violent confrontation between Black and white residents plunged the city into full-on war. Though it lasted less than 18 hours, the Tulsa Race Massacre would end with the declaration of martial law, the deployment of the Oklahoma National Guard, as many as 300 people dead, 35 city blocks leveled, 191 businesses destroyed, and roughly 10,000 Black residents displaced. Thousands of white rioters flooded into Greenwood, unleashing their fury as they shot Black men in the streets while buildings burned around them. One man even fired his shotgun at Fletchers familys horse-drawn buggy as they attempted to flee, mere moments after she watched a Black mans head explode like a watermelon dropped off the rooftop of a barn.These horrific sights remained drilled into Fletchers mind for the rest of her life.Survivors Continue To Fight For ReparationsAlthough she spent much of her life silent on the massacre, Fletcher began to speak about it more publicly in her later years, especially as surviving victims of the attack publicly fought for reparations and accountability. Fletchers death carries significant symbolic weight, too. In June 2024, the Oklahoma Supreme Court dismissed a lawsuit from the survivors on the basis that Tulsas current residents had nothing to do with the massacre and that the perpetrators of that violence had all since died. The lawsuit was filed in 2020. Public DomainGreenwood residents dig through the ruins of the Gurley Hotel in the aftermath of the massacre.I still see Black men being shot, Black bodies lying in the street. I still smell smoke and see fire. I still see Black businesses being burned. I still hear airplanes flying overhead. I hear the screams, Fletcher testified in front of the House Judiciary Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Civil Liberties in 2021, per CBS. None of the perpetrators of the massacre were ever prosecuted for their crimes. Up until her death, Fletcher was one of the few people still alive who could speak to the horrors of the massacre firsthand. Another survivor, Fletchers brother Hughes Van Ellis, died in October 2023 at the age of 102. With Fletchers passing, the only living survivor of the massacre is Lessie Benningfield Randle, who is also 111. I will never forget the violence of the white mob when we left our home, Fletcher wrote in her memoir. I have lived through the massacre every day. Our country may forget this history, but I cannot.After learning about the death of Viola Ford Fletcher, read the often untold story of the 1919 Elaine Race Massacre. Or, learn how the Brixton Riots forced Britain to have a national reckoning on race.The post Viola Ford Fletcher, The Oldest Living Survivor Of The Tulsa Race Massacre, Has Died At Age 111 appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Wikimedia CommonsA depiction of the Spanish galleon San Jos (center left) exploding during Wagers Action in 1708.Deep beneath the Caribbean waters off the Colombian coast lies the Spanish galleon San Jos, a once-floating fortress that met its demise after being attacked and sunk by the British in 1708. At the time, the ship was said to be carrying a massive cargo of gold, silver, jewels, and other goods to help the Spanish king pay for his war against the British.The San Jos shipwreck and the fortune it was allegedly carrying have been estimated to be worth as much as $20 billion in todays money. It isnt hard to see why so many treasure hunters set their sights on exploring the San Jos, or why it earned its title as the holy grail of shipwrecks. Countless people and organizations conducted surveys to try and locate the San Jos shipwreck over the years. It wasnt until 2015 that the Colombian Navy finally found the San Jos with the help of an autonomous underwater vehicle, but even with the discovery made, several questions remained. For starters, no one could agree on who actually owned the sunken galleon. Was it now Colombian property, given that they were the ones who found it? Or did it belong to Spain, since it was a Spanish vessel? Or how about Indigenous groups in Bolivia and Peru, who say that most of the treasure wouldve been plundered by the Spanish from mines in the Andes? Meanwhile, others have questioned whether the site should be explored much at all, considering its a war grave and hundreds of lives were lost when the ship went down. Its also worth noting that its unclear exactly how much of the treasure has survived. Ultimately, the future of the San Jos shipwreck is uncertain, but its historical significance most definitely is not. A Ship Built For An EmpireFrom the beginning, the San Jos was no ordinary vessel. Constructed around 1698, the imposing 64-gun galleon represented the pinnacle of Spanish naval engineering. Measuring about 150 feet long, with multiple decks, it was designed to handle warfare and transporting cargo particularly the wealth flowing from New World mines back to Europe. For a long time, Spains American empire had been the envy of much of Europe. The Spanish took silver from present-day Bolivia, extracted gold from modern-day Colombia, and uncovered emeralds from the Andes.And the San Jos, the flagship of the Flota de Tierra Firme, was entrusted with possibly the most valuable cargo ever loaded onto a single ship. In May 1708, the San Jos departed from Portobelo, Panama, en route to Spain. It was said to be packed to the brim with treasure: chests of gold doubloons, bars of silver, bags of uncut emeralds, and other items. While the exact inventory has been lost to history, colonial records suggest the official cargo alone included up to 200 tons of precious metals and stones. Public DomainKing Philip V of Spain was supposed to receive the treasure loaded on the San Jos.That said, unofficial estimates accounting for the contraband that Spanish colonists routinely smuggled on their ships to avoid taxation suggest that the actual treasure may have been even greater. Some have even claimed it was the biggest treasure in the history of humanity.For Spain, though, the treasure was also a lifeline. The nation was embroiled in the War of the Spanish Succession, a brutal conflict that had European powers battling over who would inherit the Spanish throne. Britain and her allies wanted to curb the power of the French and Bourbons, Ann Coats, an associate professor of maritime history at the University of Portsmouth in England, told HISTORY in an interview. Britains Royal Navy needed to control the Atlantic to protect its merchant trade coming back from the Americas.King Philip V of Spain desperately needed the treasure to pay his armies, finance his fleet, and maintain his claim to the crown. Essentially, this meant that the San Jos was carrying the fate of the empire when it departed.The Tragic Sinking Of The San JosOn June 8, 1708, as the San Jos and its fleet sailed near Cartagena, preparing to return to Europe, lookouts spotted their sails. A British squadron under Commodore Charles Wager had been lying in wait. The British forces, which were allied with other countries like the modern-day Netherlands against the rise of King Philip V in Spain, hoped to capture the presumed treasure onboard the San Jos and bring it back to England. Before long, Wagers ships closed in. The San Jos moved to engage the British vessels, but what happened next isnt entirely clear. According to Vanity Fair, commands were shouted, cannons were fired, and, as the air was thick with smoke and the smell of gunpowder, disaster struck. Public DomainThe War of the Spanish Succession made the ships cargo invaluable to King Philip V.Suddenly, the San Joss powder magazine ignited amidst the ambush by the British. The explosion was catastrophic, and some witnesses claimed that the fireball could be seen for miles. The ship broke apart and plunged to the ocean floor in moments, taking with it approximately 600 souls sailors, soldiers, and other passengers. Only 11 men survived.The loss of such a massive cargo of valuables at sea sent shockwaves throughout the Spanish empire. With the San Jos went not only hundreds of lives, but also the financial resources that Philip V needed to continue his war. Some historians have even argued that the sinking directly influenced the wars outcome, eroding both Spain and Frances power.But in Spain and beyond, word also spread of the lost treasure, lying at the bottom of the ocean for anyone clever enough to discover it. Centuries Of Searching For Spains Lost TreasureFor more than 300 years, the San Joss location remained one of maritime historys greatest mysteries. Treasure hunters, both amateur and professional, combed the Caribbean searching for the legendary wreck and its fabled cargo but the task was easier said than done. Imprecise 18th-century navigation records, strong currents, and the vast expanse of potential search areas all compounded the difficulty.It wasnt until the 1980s that an American salvage company named Sea Search Armada claimed to have located the San Jos shipwreck and entered into agreements with the Colombian government. However, disputes over the terms of the agreements led to decades of litigation. Armada de ColombiaThe Colombian Navy said that they discovered the true San Jos shipwreck in 2015.As Ann Coats outlined in a piece for The Conversation, Sea Search Armada had proposed a 50-50 split of the proceeds from the wreckage, which Colombia would later contest. Eventually, in 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court determined that Colombia would be entitled to any artifacts that were declared to be national cultural patrimony, further complicating things.But the story took yet another turn in 2015, when the Colombian government called Sea Search Armadas findings into question. Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos announced that the Colombian Navy had found the true wreckage, with the help of an autonomous underwater vehicle, British maritime archaeology consultants, and the U.S. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Of course, they released few details about the exact location of the wreckage due to concerns about looters. Given that estimates for the treasures value lay anywhere between $4 billion and $20 billion, it seemed as if the Colombian government had just earned itself a fortune. Except, it was unclear if they actually owned it. The Ongoing Battle For The San Jos ShipwreckSince 2015, a number of non-invasive campaigns have surveyed the sunken galleon, some details of which were published in the journal Antiquity in June 2025. Researchers reportedly found hand-struck, irregularly shaped coins known as cobs in English and macuquinas in Spanish, which served as the primary currency in the Americas for more than two centuries, providing further evidence that this wreckage was the San Jos.While its still unclear exactly how much of the vessels presumed treasure survived following the attack by the British and centuries of lying on the ocean floor, images released of the shipwreck have shown some promising clues, like gold coins, blue and white porcelain, and bronze cannons. ARC-DIMAR 2022/Vargas Ariza et al. Antiquity 2025Coins from the San Jos shipwreck.Beyond the potential monetary value, though, the wreck holds significant archaeological value, making the debate of ownership even more complex.Colombia has claimed the San Jos, arguing that it was the Colombian Navy that discovered the wreckage and the vessel sank in Colombian waters. Spain, however, has countered that the San Jos was a Spanish naval vessel, and it should remain Spanish property. Meanwhile, Indigenous groups from Bolivia and Peru say they should receive at least some of the vessels treasure because much of it was plundered by the Spanish from mines in the Andes.Throughout all of this, Sea Search Armada has maintained it discovered the wreck first and has contractual rights to a portion of its contents. Colombian PresidencyColombian President Gustavo Petro examining a cannon from the San Jos shipwreck.Yet others, including many archaeologists, think that the vessel should only be explored in a limited capacity on the ocean floor, considering the age of the treasure and the hundreds of lives lost when the ship went down.The Colombian government has expressed interest in raising the wreckage and putting its contents on public display in a museum, but questions about recovery, preservation, and ownership are still somewhat unresolved. As of November 2025, only a handful of artifacts have been recovered from the San Jos, including a cannon, a porcelain cup, and coins. For the time being, the San Jos itself remains on the ocean floor, its presumed treasure at least partly intact and its ultimate fate uncertain. After reading about the San Jos shipwreck, see more famous shipwrecks from history. Then, go inside some frightening stories of ghost ships.The post Inside The Sinking Of The Spanish Galleon <em>San Jos</em> And Why Its Considered The Holy Grail Of Shipwrecks appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Center for PaleogeneticsThe gritted teeth of a 14,000-year-old dog discovered in Tumat, Siberia in 2011.In 2011, Russian researchers unearthed a perfectly preserved Ice Age puppy in Siberia. Recently, while examining the 14,000-year-old wolf-dogs stomach contents, researchers were stunned to find evidence of what could be one of the last woolly rhinos on Earth still in its prehistoric bowels.Its completely unheard of, professor of evolutionary genetics Love Dalen said. Im not aware of any frozen Ice Age carnivore where they have found pieces of tissue inside. Scientists originally found the furry canine at a dig site in Tumat, Siberia and shortly afterward found a piece of yellow-haired tissue inside its stomach. Experts initially believed that the tissue belonged to a cave lion, but after sharing the evidence with a resourceful team in Sweden, learned otherwise.We have a reference database and mitochondrial DNA from all mammals, so we checked the sequence data against that and the results that came back it was an almost perfect match for woolly rhinoceros, Dalen explained. Centre for Palaeogenetics/TwitterThe 14,000-year-old wolf-dog is just one of a few perfectly preserved canine specimens found in the Siberian permafrost over the last decade.Dalen works at the Centre for Paleogenetics, which is a joint venture between Stockholm University and the Swedish Museum of Natural History, so his team had access to both highly-detailed DNA databases and radiocarbon dating.After Dalen and his colleagues were able to assess with overwhelming likelihood that this half-digested tissue belonged to a woolly rhinoceros, they then radiocarbon dated it at around 14,400 years old.This puppy, we know already, has been dated to roughly 14,000 years ago, said Dalen. We also know that the woolly rhinoceros goes extinct 14,000 years ago. So, potentially, this puppy has eaten one of the last remaining woolly rhinos.Centre for Palaeogenetics/TwitterThe tissue of the woolly rhino.Modern research has shown that the woolly mammoths extinction was partly due to severe climate change. As for how this lucky puppy got its paws on such a specimen, which is the same size as a modern-day white rhino that weighs nearly 8,000 pounds and stands six feet tall, remains largely unclear. Indeed, Edana Lord, a PhD student who co-authored a research paper studying the woolly rhinos road to extinction, asserted that due to the rhinos size it is impossible that the puppy killed the animal itself.Additionally, experts were surprised to see that the rhino was left mostly undigested in the puppys stomach, leading Dalen to conclude that this puppy must have died very shortly after eating the rhino. We dont know if it was a wolf, but if it was a wolf cub, maybe it came across a baby rhino that was dead, Dalen hypothesized. Or the (adult) wolf ate the baby rhino. Maybe as they were eating it, the mother rhino had her revenge.Albert Protopopov/TwitterA reconstruction of a woolly rhino using the remains of one found in the Siberian permafrost.This wolf-pup is just one of a few amazing prehistoric canines specimens to be found in the last decade. In 2016, a miner in the Yukon region of Canada found a mummified 50,000-year-old wolf pup alongside a prehistoric caribou. Then, in 2019, researchers found an 18,000-year-old wolf-dog hybrid perfectly preserved in the Siberian permafrost. They have since named that specimen Dogor.Ultimately, researchers hope that this latest find can shed some more light on the last days of the woolly rhino which are still being debated millennia later.After learning about the stomach contents of an Ice Age puppy, read about the Russian lab that is seeking funds to bring back the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros. Then, meet Stuckie, the mummified dog thats been lodged in a tree for the last 50 years.The post Researchers In Russia Find The Remains Of What Could Be One Of The Worlds Last Woolly Rhinos In The Stomach Of An Ice Age Puppy appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Missing PagesJohn Edward Robinson in his earlier years, presenting the faade of a professional and family man.On the surface, John Edward Robinson was a typical Midwestern family man. He was married, had four children, and was active in his community. But beneath that respectable image, Robinson lived a secret double life that would later expose him as one of Americas most manipulative and calculating serial killers.For nearly two decades, Robinson targeted women who were vulnerable, financially desperate, or simply looking for connection. Some were promised jobs and stability, while others believed they had found love. Instead, they disappeared and their bodies were later found on Robinsons property. By the time authorities uncovered his crimes in 2000, Robinson had started using online forums to find and control his victims, earning him the chilling title of the Internets first serial killer.John Edward Robinson was ultimately sentenced to death for killing eight women and teenage girls between 1985 and 2000 but investigators believe he may have murdered even more victims who havent been discovered yet.The Early Life And Crimes Of John Edward RobinsonJohn Edward Robinson was born in the suburbs of Chicago in 1943. He had a promising childhood, achieving the rank of Eagle Scout and traveling to London with fellow Scouts to sing for Queen Elizabeth II at the Palladium theater. He even met Judy Garland backstage. However, Robinson frequently got into trouble at school, fought with other boys his age, and didnt excel academically. He dropped out of a radiography program after high school and ultimately moved to Kansas City, got married, and started a family.Missing PagesYoung John Edward Robinson, years before anyone suspected what he was capable of.To outsiders, Robinsons relationship with his wife and four children seemed stable and loving. He worked various jobs in healthcare and business to support the family, but behind the scenes, he was forging checks and falsifying documents. In 1969, he was arrested for embezzling $33,000 from a medical practice using fake credentials and was sentenced to three years of probation.But this brush with the law didnt slow John Edward Robinson down. In fact, it just taught him how to be more careful.John Edward Robinsons First VictimsIn the 1980s, Robinsons crimes took a dark turn. He began preying on women who were seeking employment or housing, often under the guise of legitimate business opportunities.In 1984, 19-year-old Paula Godfrey vanished after Robinson offered her a sales position at his fictional consulting firm. Her loved ones later received letters allegedly from Paula claiming that she was fine but didnt want to see her family. Investigators suspected the letters were forged by Robinson, but without physical evidence to back up their suspicions, they couldnt prove it.The following year, Robinson met a 19-year-old single mother named Lisa Stasi at a Kansas City homeless shelter. He fabricated a program that he claimed helped struggling young women and promised Stasi job training and a place to stay. He put her up in a motel with her infant daughter, Tiffany, but a few days later, Stasi called her mother-in-law in a panic, saying that a man named Mr. Osborne wanted her to sign four blank pieces of paper. That was the last time her family ever heard from her. After murdering Lisa and kidnapping four-month-old Tiffany, Robinson forged adoption papers and gave the infant to his brother and sister-in-law, Donald and Helen Robinson. He convinced them that the childs mother had taken her own life and that baby Tiffany needed a home. He also charged them $5,500 in legal fees.YouTubeJohn Edward Robinson holding Tiffany Stasi just after murdering her mother.For years, the family raised Tiffany, renaming her Heather Robinson, but they were unaware of her true identity and of the circumstances surrounding her mothers death. It wasnt until Heather reached adulthood that she learned that her biological mother had been murdered by the man she knew as her uncle.In 1987, 27-year-old Catherine Clampitt disappeared after responding to an advertisement for a position at Robinsons consulting firm. Like the women before her, she had been promised financial stability and travel opportunities. She hasnt been seen since she left her house for a meeting with Robinson that June.That same year, John Edward Robinson was imprisoned for fraud. He remained behind bars until 1994 but while he was incarcerated, he met Beverly Bonner, the prison librarian. After Robinson was released, Bonner left her husband to be with him, even though he was still married. She was never heard from again.Around the same time, Robinson discovered a new method of luring in unwitting victims.Becoming The Internets First Serial KillerIn the 1990s, the rise of the internet offered Robinson a fresh way to deceive women. He joined online BDSM chat rooms, where he used the name Slavemaster and presented himself as a dominant man seeking submissive partners. Through these chats, Robinson lured women into trusting him to provide companionship and financial support.His first known online victims were Sheila Faith and her 15-year-old daughter, Debbie, who had spina bifida and used a wheelchair. Robinson claimed he was a philanthropist and businessman and offered Sheila a job and financial aid if she would move to Kansas City from California. In 1994, Sheila agreed and she and Debbie immediately vanished.Johnson County Sheriffs DepartmentJohn Edward Robinson in a 1986 mugshot, years before investigators uncovered his murders across Kansas and Missouri.Another victim was 21-year-old Polish immigrant Izabela Lewicka, who later moved to Kansas City from Indiana to be with Robinson. She told friends she was in a consensual BDSM relationship and that Robinson had promised her a future together. In reality, John Edward Robinson had Lewicka sign a slave contract with 115 rules that gave him complete control over every aspect of her life, from her finances to her daily activities. Not long after their 1999 meeting, Lewicka vanished without a trace.Then, a 27-year-old nurse named Suzette Trouten agreed to become Robinsons sex slave. As reported by Vanity Fair in 2013, she called her mother not long after moving to Kansas City and told her, Everythings fine. John is nice. Im not as lonesome as I thought Id be. Trouten vanished shortly after. Behind the scenes, Robinson meticulously maintained the illusion that his missing victims were alive and well. According to court documents, he would forge letters, emails, and even phone calls in their names, often using information he had learned from online conversations or personal documents. These deceptions allowed John Edward Robinson more time to continue his crimes undetected.By 2000, however, investigators realized that his name was connected to multiple missing persons reports. And after a woman filed a sexual battery complaint against him that spring, the police had what they needed to search his property. What they uncovered was far worse than anyone could have imagined.John Edward Robinsons Trial And ConvictionOn Robinsons rural property in Linn County, Kansas, authorities opened two metal barrels and found the decomposed bodies of Izabela Lewicka and Suzette Trouten. Their remains had been sealed inside for months.ABC/20/20/FacebookThe victims of serial killer John Edward Robinson.A subsequent search of a storage unit in Missouri led to three more barrels containing the bodies of Beverly Bonner and Sheila and Debbie Faith. This discovery linked Robinson to at least five murders.As investigators pieced together the evidence, they connected Robinson to even more disappearances, including those of Paula Godfrey, Lisa Stasi, and Catherine Clampitt. While the remains of these women were never found, the pattern of manipulation surrounding their cases was eerily similar.Kansas Department of CorrectionsJohn Edward Robinson is on death row for his heinous crimes.John Edward Robinson was ultimately found guilty of the murders of Trouten, Lewicka, and Stasi and sentenced to death. He later pleaded guilty to killing his other five victims in order to avoid an additional death sentence. He remains on death row to this day, and he has never expressed remorse for his unfathomable crimes. After learning about the crimes of John Edward Robinson, read about notorious serial killer Ted Bundy. Then, check out this article on 33 of the worst serial killers in history.The post Chat Rooms, Sex Slaves, And Fraud: The Chilling Story Of Serial Killer John Edward Robinson appeared first on All That's Interesting.