A unique 10th century structural beam carved with the image of a face has been recovered from Lake Lednica in west-central Poland. Dendrochronological analysis has found the tree used to make the beam was cut down between 960 and 975 A.D., a period when human faces used as decorative elements were very rare. This is the first artifact of its kind from the early Middle Ages found in Poland.The object is an oak beam 1.34 meters (4.4 feet) long with a human face carved into one end. It is a bas relief approximately 13.5 by 10 cm (5.3 by 4 inches) with a deep curved groove above the forehead that, coupled with the rounded base of the beam under the chin, gives the face an oval shape.Discovered last year, the timber was part of the massive defensive ramparts of the Piast dynasty stronghold in Ostrw Lednicki. Four years ago, worked wood elements surfaced on the shore of Lake Lednica after a dry summer led to unusually low water levels. For the next four years, archaeologists uncovered the remains of the 10th century fortifications that had collapsed and been preserved in the lake.The beam with the carved face was one of four hooks found. Hooks were used to hold ramparts together against pressure from the earthen fill. This was the only one with a carved face, although there was so much damage to the wooden elements of the rampart that its possible other carvings originally existed but were lost.Konrad Lewek from the Center for Underwater Archaeology, emphasizing the uniqueness of the find, noted that researchers assumed the face most likely represented a figure from the spiritual world. He added that this type of art may have been more popular among the Slavic people of the time than the limited archaeological discoveries to date indicate.According to the researchers, the discovered facial image is stylistically reminiscent of small wooden figurines with anthropomorphic representations. The lake element may resemble artifacts discovered in Wolin, including the four-faced image. The researchers do not rule out that the Lednica find may allude to beliefs that lakes were inhabited by various creatures. The discovered face was turned outside the stronghold, towards the water.The beam is still undergoing conservation and stabilization to ensure it does not dry out now that it has been removed from the lake water. Once conservation is complete, the carving will go on display at the Museum of the First Piast Dynasty in Lednica, probably in the second half of 2026.

Few man-made disasters before the 19th century have caused as much damage or reformed a city as much as the Great Fire of London did in 1666. Not only did the fire cause untold damage, devastation, and carnage in the city, but it also helped to change the way that buildings were constructed in its aftermath. In fact, it was arguably the effect of the 1666 fire that transformed London from its medieval-style buildings to its early modern ones.London in 1666Panorama of London in 1647, by Wenceslaus Hollar, 1647. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTo understand how the fire spread so rapidly and destroyed so much of the medieval city, it is a good idea to take a look at what London would have looked like in the mid-17th century.Despite an increasing population, the city had not made many changes to its architectural style since the Middle Ages, even during the Tudor Era, and as such, London remained the archetype of a medieval city. Tightly compact, with small, winding, narrow lanes connecting roads to each other, with a few major roads that horse-drawn carriages could travel down.Thatched roofs were still very common, and most of the houses were primarily built from wood, meaning that the entire medieval city of London was essentially a huge fire risk.Nevertheless, there were still some precautions that took place when fires did erupt, as they did quite often in a city filled with bakeries, blacksmiths, shipyards, farriers, and more. The primary tactic was not dousing large fires with water, but rather quick firebreaks.This involved removing structures in the way of the fires path, so that it would eventually peter out until it was small enough to be doused with water and could thus burn out. However, when a fire broke out on Pudding Lane on Sunday, September 2, 1666, things looked slightly different.The Outbreak of the Great Fire of LondonSamuel Pepys, by John Hayls, 1666. Source: National Portrait GalleryShortly after midnight on Sunday, September 2, 1666, a fire at a bakery on Pudding Lane in London broke out and soon became unmanageable for the baker, Thomas Farriner. While no definitive cause of the fire has been established, it is presumed that a spark from one of Farriners ovens set a pile of nearby wood alight, and thus the whole place was soon engulfed in flames.The fire began to spread down Pudding Lane, and while the family managed to escape via an upstairs window, one of the housemaids was too frightened to jump, and she thus became the first victim of the Great Fire.The neighbors attempted to douse the fire, but it soon became clear that it was an impossible task. As such, the parishioners were called in, and they deemed that the houses should be demolished (a firebreaking technique), but the neighbors refused. As such, the Lord Mayor, a man called Sir Thomas Bloodworth, was called in to give his permission.It was Bloodworths indecisiveness that undoubtedly contributed to the spread of the fire. He agreed with the neighbors, and as the fire spread toward factories and other flammable sites near the river, he stated that, because most of the houses were rented and the owners could not be found, it would be impossible to demolish the houses without their permission.As such, the fire spread even further throughout Pudding Lane and nearby streets.Shortly after sunrise on the same morning, the famed diarist Samuel Pepys ascended the Tower of London to get a look at the flames. He recorded in his diary that it had transformed into a huge flaming conflagration, and his estimate was that around 300 houses had now been engulfed by the flame, and the fire had reached the riverfront.Pepys and the KingKing Charles II, by John Michael Wright, 1671-6. Source: The Royal Collection TrustPepys was summoned to King Charles II, and he urged the king that the houses needed to be pulled down immediately to stop this destructive fire from becoming even worse and causing more untold carnage.The King agreed and commanded Pepys to go to Bloodworth and insist that no houses be spared. James, Duke of York (Charles IIs brother), offered the assistance of the Royal Life Guards to help with the firefighting efforts.High winds throughout Sunday spread the flames even quicker, and people began to abandon any attempts to extinguish it, instead simply fleeing. Unfortunately, because of the citys narrow lanes, they quickly became overcrowded; carts and other items that were left behind blocked the lanes, stopping firefighters and, quite literally, adding more fuel to the fire.When Pepys arrived at the place where Bloodworth was coordinating efforts to extinguish the fire, the Mayor claimed that he was pulling houses down, and, exhausted, returned home to go to bed. By this point, Charles II had sailed down from Whitehall, and upon his arrival, he realized that Bloodworth had not pulled any houses down as he claimed. The King overrode the Mayors authority and had them pulled down.Monday, September 3, 1666Ludgate in flames (St Pauls in the background also catching fire), c. 1670. Source: Yale Center for British ArtThe fire continued to rage on, and spread west and north throughout Monday, reaching the financial heart of the city in Lombard Street, where many of the bankers rushed to grab as much gold as they could to prevent the fire from melting it.While the fire threatened the houses near London Bridge, it did not cross the bridge over to Southwark, which was the citys only remaining connection to the safe south of the river.It was during this time that people started to have suspicions that the fire was not started accidentally. England was in the full swing of the Anglo-Dutch War at this point, so foreign immigrants became a scapegoat and a target, with many of them (wrongly) being accused of starting the fire.Wealthy north Londoners wanted to remove as many of their belongings out of the city as possible, and it was now that some of the poor began to take advantage as porters, sometimes carrying items for them for a price, or driving carts, while some collected valuables and simply made off with them.The price of a cart had been a couple of shillings on the Saturday before the fire, by Monday it was 40equivalent to 133,000 today. Bloodworths name was not mentioned in any contemporaneous documents regarding Monday, and it is assumed that he had left the city by now. James, Duke of York (who would eventually go on to rule as King James II) was instead put in charge of the firefighting efforts.Tuesday, September 4, 1666The Great Fire of London, c. 1675. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTuesday was the biggest day of destruction. The Duke of York had hoped that the River Fleet would offer a form of natural firebreak, but by Tuesday morning, the flames had leapt over the river, and the fire began to spread further westward thanks to the easterly gale behind it.The fire, which had moved north, then began to move back eastward, and the garrison at the Tower of London took matters into their own hands, blowing up nearby buildings, which acted as a successful firebreak, preventing the flames from engulfing the Tower.The mighty St Pauls Cathedral, with its thick stone walls, was seen as a safe haven, and multiple people flocked inside, as well as storing important papers and documents in the cathedrals crypts. However, the architect Christopher Wren had put up some piecemeal wooden scaffolding around the edges of the cathedral, and naturally, the flames caught the scaffolding, which melted the lead roof, and the books and papers in the crypt, as well as the whole cathedral, were soon up in flames.Immediate Aftermath of the Great Fire of LondonJames II, by Peter Lely, c. 1650-75. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBecause of a change in the weather, most notably the wind dropping, the firebreaks began to take effect and stopped the spread of the fire by Wednesday, September 5.Samuel Pepys climbed to the top of Barking Church to take a look at the ruins of his city, writing in his diary that it was the saddest sight of desolation that I ever saw.While there were many separate fires still burning, the Great Fire had burnt itself out, but not without causing untold devastation to the city that would never be the same again.While Wednesday, September 5, 1666 is generally considered the day that the fire formally ended, it was reported that coal in cellars was still burning over two months later as a result of the fire.Remarkably, the official death toll for the fire stands at just six people. Naturally, this is hard to believe because this doesnt account for those who died of smoke inhalation, or even those who were unaccounted for, such as the homeless or refugees.Damage from the Great Fire of London. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe first response was to get enough food back into the city, and by Saturday, September 8, there was enough food for the markets to begin trading again. Charles II encouraged refugees who had escaped the fire to leave London, and insisted that all other cities in the country should take them in with no hesitation.The official cause of the fire in the London Gazette claimed that it was an accident, but many people were not happy with this account, instead looking for a scapegoat. A simple-minded French watchmaker, Robert Hubert, allegedly claimed that he was part of a gang that started the fire near Westminster. He then changed his story to say that he had started it in Pudding Lane.Despite the scepticism of some people who acknowledged that he probably was not in a fit mental state to plead, he was nevertheless hanged at Tyburn on October 29, 1666. Around two months after his death, it was clear that he was on a ship in the North Sea when the fire started, and did not arrive in London until Tuesday.Reaction and Rebuilding of LondonThe Great Plague of London, by Rita Greer, 2009. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor some people, the years 1665-66 had been a nightmare. England (and especially London, which saw most of the action and heard the reports first) had been at war, a great plague had erupted in the city, and now the Great Fire had engulfed the city in a year with the digits 666 in it.Many people thought this was punishment from God for sins that had been committed: Catholics blamed Protestants, Protestants blamed Catholics, foreigners were blamed, animals were blamed, everything, it seems, bar the structure of the city.Charles II encouraged radical rebuilding schemes so that such devastation and destruction could never happen again.Despite the fact that a grid system was greatly favored (which would be used in the United States in the following centuries) and that Baroque architecture was also popular, Charles realized that it was going to be impossible to raise the funds for such a project. Furthermore, the thousands of refugees who had left the city meant that there was a huge shortage of laborers.Instead, the city was rebuilt in the New City area, and in much the same design. However, certain precautions were taken, such as making wider streets, with no houses obstructing access to the river, more wharves along the riverbanks, and the most important aspect of all: new houses were constructed out of brick and stone, not wood.In fact, the Rebuilding of London Act of 1666 forbade wood on the exterior of buildings and regulated the price of building materials and the wages of workers. As such, most of the building work was completed by 1671.The Great Fire of London: In ConclusionJohn Evelyns Plan for Rebuilding London, John Evelyn, c. 1666-76. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Great Fire of London was arguably the most catastrophic event that hit London in the Early Modern Period. However, without such a disaster, it is hard to believe that London would have evolved the way it did.How much longer would the city have remained a medieval city, cramming thousands into compact spaces, just waiting for a huge fire to tear through the city and claim the lives of hundreds, if not thousands?It was not just the redesign of the city that helped London to progress into the Early Modern Era and indeed beyond, but the improvements in hygiene (to an extent) that helped London develop.

Present-day Coimbra hides an extraordinary past. Here, you can find the most well-preserved cryptoporticus from the Roman Empire and the richest Baroque library in Europe. At Coimbra, you will also discover remnants of the Moorish occupation.Coimbra also played a vital role in the foundation of the Portuguese Kingdom and became home to kings and queens in the Middle Ages. While visiting this striking city, you can admire a vibrant city with a rich historical heritage that defined the countrys history.Aeminium: The Roman MarvelCoimbra, by Uriel Soberanes. Source: UnsplashAlthough Coimbra is an old city, historians find it difficult to establish the exact date the first inhabitants arrived. It was already known as Aeminium in the pre-Roman era and the city kept its name during the Roman occupation in the 2nd century BCE. Located beside the Mondego River, Aeminium sits on top of a hill. Its name means elevation or height. This strategic location was perfect for a blooming city. The river allowed commercial trade between the coastal hamlets and people in the inland mountains. The fertile land and the abundance of freshwater allowed agriculture to thrive.When the Romans arrived, they acknowledged the citys location and its relevance to other cities in the Iberian Peninsula. As a result, the Romans designed route XVI, which connected Olissipo (Lisbon) to Bracara Augusta (Braga) and included Aeminium. It quickly became the perfect stopping point for travelers to change horses, have some sleep, and enjoy a warm meal before resuming their journey.Aeminium became one of the most important cities in the Northern Lusitanian region. Unfortunately, there are few monuments left from this period. Yet, underneath the current Machado de Castro Nacional Museum, you can find a very well-preserved cryptoporticus from the Roman Empire. This construction was the base for the Roman Forum.We know from excavations that the Aeminium Forum had two gallery floors, the main purpose of which was to support the buildings weight while standing on a steep slope. It is the largest preserved Roman building in Portugal.The Cryptoporticus. Source: Wikimedia CommonsArchaeologists have found several sculptures of the empresses Livia and Agrippina and the emperors Trajan and Vespasian inside the Cryptoporticus. These were once placed in the forums square.After the 4th century, the forum gradually transformed into a ruin. The cryptoporticuss galleries were filled with rubbish and the remains of the surrounding fallen walls. With the Roman Empires decline, the Visigoths took over the city. Just like those who came before them, they also recognized the strategic importance of Aeminium.In the 6th century, the city replaced Conmbriga, a Roman city 16 kilometers (10 miles) south of Aeminium, as the episcopal seat. It quickly became known as the city of the bishop of Conmbriga. As a result, the citys name also changed to Colimbria, and finally to Coimbra.The Moorish Kulmriyya and the ReconquistaA busy street in Coimbra, by Joao. Source: UnsplashThe Visigoth kingdom ruled over Coimbra for over a century until the first Moorish hoards arrived in the Iberian Peninsula. Led by Abdalazize ibne Mua, the Moors conquered Coimbra in 714, and it became Kulmriyya.The strategic location and surrounding geography allowed Kulmriyya to grow. It became an important trading post between the Christian regions to the North and the Moorish regions to the South. During Moorish rule, Kulmriyya was the largest city in the Al-Andalus, with a 10-hectare walled enclosure and over 3,000 inhabitants.During this period, the Moors built an 80-meter-long (262-foot) square-shaped alczar with circular towers where the governor lived. The fortified palace foundations remain where the Pao das Escolas and the Porta Frrea of the University of Coimbra now stand. Although there is little evidence of the Moorish occupation, today you can still admire the remnants of the city wall at Almedina Gate and Tower, the Barbican Gate, the Contenda Tower, and the Anto Tower.In 871, the Christians captured the city, which became the Condado de Coimbra. Yet, it was recaptured by Al-Manrs armies in 987. In 1064, Kulmriyya was reconquered by King D. Fernando of Leon and his Christian armies.King D. Fernando handed over the control of Coimbra to D. Sesnando Davides. As a Mozarab, a Christian living under Moorish rule, he found a way to keep the peace between the Moors and Christians. That is why scholars consider him a diplomat ahead of his time. Nevertheless, Sesnando was also responsible for building a defensive line of castles such as Coimbra Castle (which has disappeared), Montemo-o-Velho Castle, and Penacova Castle.Sesnando ruled the Condado de Coimbra until 1091, always keeping a distance from the mighty Condado Portucalense and the Christian kings in the North. As a result, Coimbra enjoyed a peaceful period and became the most important city south of the Douro River.Coimbra in the Middle AgesGothic Arch of Se Velha Cathedral, Coimbra, by Maria Korniiova. Source: UnsplashIn 1096, King Afonso VI handed the Condado Portucalence and Condado de Coimbra to Count D. Henrique. In return, the count had to marry the kings bastard daughter D. Teresa, and expand the frontier lines further south.The Condado de Coimbra merged into Condado Portucalense after D. Henriques death, and his wife D. Teresa, became Countess of Portucale and Coimbra. As the Condado Portucalense expanded, D. Teresa and D. Henriques son, D. Afonso Henriques, rose to power and led his armies to face the Moors.After his mother died and he achieved several victories against the Moorish armies, Afonso Henriques moved his court to Coimbra and made it the capital of the Condado, replacing the original capital city of Guimares. The strategic location and the imposing walls favored the kings goal of conquering more territory. Over time, military expeditions departed from Coimbra, heading south. At the same time, a network of castles protected the city to the south and west, such as Leiria, Soure, Rabaal, Alvorge, and Ansio.In the 12th century, Coimbra was divided between the upper city, the Alta or Almedina, where the aristocrats and the clergy lived, and the Baixa, dedicated to commerce and handicrafts. This was Coimbras golden era. At the time, an estimated 6,000 inhabitants enjoyed the fortified city with its river port and fertile lands.Additionally, King Afonso Henriques ordered the construction and reconstruction of several buildings. Santa Cruz Monastery, the Old Cathedral, and the Roman Bridge were some infrastructure projects included in the kings orders. The city wall, fountains, streets, and sidewalks were also refurbished.Interior Coimbra Se Velha cathedral, by Miguel Monte. Source: PexelsIn 1290, King Dinis created the first university in Portugal in Lisbon. By 1537 it had permanently moved to Coimbra.Since then, Coimbra has become known as the City of Knowledge, a reference to those pursuing an academic career here. By the 16th century, students could focus on Theology, Canon Law, and Medicine in the city.Modern CoimbraDeparture of the Prince Regent of Portugal, John VI of Portugal, during the Napoleonic Invasion, by Henri LEveque, 1812. Source: IssuuBetween 1807 and 1810, Napoleons armies invaded Portugal. With the assistance of the British, the Portuguese were able to repel the French. During this period, Coimbra experienced troubled times. Knowing the French were coming, the British ordered the population to evacuate, leaving what they could not carry. Anything that might help the French was destroyed. When Junots and Massenas armies arrived in Coimbra, they found an empty city and very little they could use.In no time, the French marched south toward Lisbon. Along the way, they fought many battles against the Portuguese and British armies. Due to the casualties and the lack of support and supplies, the French finally left Portugal in 1811.Today, Coimbra is one of the busiest cities in Portugal. It offers a rich cultural, historical, and architectural heritage that shaped Portugals history.

Historical Events1911 - Great Britain and Japan renew their alliance of 1902 for another four years; the reason Japan joins WWI on the Allies side1967 - Race riots break out in Newark, New Jersey; 27 die2012 - Financially troubled Scottish football club, Rangers, is voted into the third division2018 - Outline of 5,000-year-old henge is discovered at Newgrange, Ireland, through drought and drone footage2022 - Sri Lankan President Gotabaya Rajapaksa flees to the Maldives just before leaving office amid nationwide protests and economic unrestMore Historical Events Famous Birthdays1895 - Sidney Blackmer, American actor (played Ted Roosevelt in 7 movies, Rosemary's Baby), born in Salisbury, North Carolina (d. 1973)1913 - Dave Garroway, American TV host (Today Show, 1951-61), born in Schnectady, New York (d. 1982)1924 - Carlo Bergonzi, Italian operatic tenor, born in Vidalenzo, Italy (d. 2014)1941 - Lut Tomsin, Belgian actress and director (Knock on the Door), born in Tongeren, Belgium1974 - Jarno Trulli, Italian auto racer (Monaco F1 GP 2004; German Formula 3 Series 1996), born in Pescara, ItalyMore Famous Birthdays Famous Deaths1762 - James Bradley, English astronomer, 3rd Royal, discovered Earth's nutation motion, dies at 691965 - Photis Kontoglou, Greek writer, painter and iconographer, dies at 691997 - Alexandra Danilova, Russian-American ballerina (The Turning Point), dies at 922012 - Richard Darryl Zanuck, American Academy Award-winning film producer, dies from a heart attack at 772020 - Chuck Hulse, American auto racer (USAC Champ Car Series, 26 x top 10 finishes), dies at 92More Famous Deaths

From her love affairs with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony to her powerful army to her savviness as a politician, go inside the real story of Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII.The post 15 Facts About Cleopatra That Reveal The Woman Behind The Queen Of The Nile appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Few monarchs have captured the imagination of a nation as much as King Henry V (r. 1413-22). The inspiration behind hundreds of books, plays, and movies, the nine-year reign of this English monarch is deemed as one of the most successful not just of any English king, but of any monarch in history. Read on to discover why he inspired William Shakespeare, how England fared during the Hundred Years War, and why he left behind a legacy that fewif anymonarchs have been able to match ever since.Early LifeHenry V, c. 1550. Source: The National Portrait GalleryHenry was born in Monmouth Castle on September 16th, 1386, which led him to be known as Henry of Monmouth in his early years. His father was Henry of Bolingbroke, who would go on to become King Henry IV of England (r. 1399-1413), and his mother was Mary de Bohun.When Henry was born, his fathers cousin was the King of England (Richard II, r. 1377-99), and as Richard was an unpopular monarch and heirless, the young Henry was deemed a threat to Richards throne in his later years. Henry IV was the son of John of Gaunt, an influential younger son of King Edward III, so young Prince Henry (and his father) both had valid claims to the throne.When Henrys father was exiled in 1398, he was taken under the care of Richard II, who, by all accounts, treated him well. This early experience of kingship would no doubt influence Henrys later life.However, just a year later, John of Gaunt died, and Richard was overthrown by Henrys father, who was crowned as King Henry IV of England. As such, Henry was made the Prince of Wales and was next in line to the throne.During his fathers reign, Henry spent time at Queens College, Oxford, where he was living under the care of his uncle, Henry Beaufort, who was also Chancellor of the University. Henry took a liking to both literature and music, and learned to read and write in English, thus becoming the first English monarch to be educated in such a manner, further adding to his image as the idealistic English monarch.Henrys Rise to the ThroneDepiction of Owain Glyndwr by Arthur Cadwgan Michael, 1918. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the defining moments in Henrys life before he became king was the invaluable military experience that he gained. He fought against the Welshspecifically, Owain Glyndwrin several of the Welsh Wars at the turn of the century.In 1403, at the Battle of Shrewsbury, Henry was hit in the face by an arrow, which entered his skull. He was lucky to survive; most other soldiers would have died from infection if not from the impact, but Henry was fortunate enough to have access to the best physicians in the land. He made a recovery, although he would bear the scar for the rest of his life.Until 1408, it was the efforts of the Welsh leader Owain Glyndwr that took up most of Prince Henrys time, but with his fathers ailing health, he ended up devoting less time to the Welsh campaigns and more to the ruling of the kingdom.The young Prince Henry was also known to have a bit of a wild side as a young man, known to be a womanizer, which caused grievances between the prince and his father. However, by the time he came to the throne, much of this side of Henry had calmed down. However, it did not fail to capture the imaginations of playwrights and other creatives centuries later.A Brief History of Henry Vs ReignThe Battle of Agincourt, by Enguerrand de Monstrelet, c. 1450. Source: BnFHenry IV died on March 20th, 1413, and the next day, Henry claimed the throne as King Henry V of England. His reign would last less than a decade, but the impact he had would live on in the imagination for centuries.When Henry ascended the throne, he not only had the Welsh problem to deal with, but also the Hundred Years War with France. Not since the reign of his great-grandfather, Edward III, had England had as much success in the conflict, and France had taken the upper hand for a number of years by this point.In 1415, Henry renewed the Hundred Years War with France, and this stage came to be known as the Lancastrian Phase of the War (Henry was descended from the House of Lancaster).The most famous victory of all was at Agincourt, on October 25, 1415, when a hugely outnumbered English force defeated the French, to their complete surprise and shock, and Henrys popularity among his troops and back in England inspired feelings of patriotism and proto-nationalism. He was revered as the Hero of Agincourt by many and would go down in history for this underdog victory.Miniature of the battle of Agincourt, from the St Albans Chronicle, 1422. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrom 1417-20, Henry undertook a second campaign in France, taking advantage of Frances mentally-incapacitated king, Charles VI the Mad, putting huge pressure on him. He took Paris, and France lost more territory under Charles VI than they had lost in the whole of the war, which had been raging on since the 1330s.In 1420, Henry V and Charles VI signed the Treaty of Troyes, which acknowledged that Henrys heirs would become kings of France as well as kings of England, while Henry V himself was recognized as King Regent of France. This meant that Charles had to disinherit his own son, the Dauphin Charles.Furthermore, Henry also married one of Charless daughters, Catherine of Valois, which meant that there was now also a physical union between France and England. However, Henry V died on August 31, 1422, leaving behind a nine-month-old son, Henry VI, but Charles VI outlived him by just two months, throwing plans of the English succession to the French throne into turmoil.How Accurate Was Shakespeares Portrayal of Henry V?William Shakespeare, by John Taylor, c. 1611. Source: ArtukWhenever Henry V is mentioned, most people think of one of the many movies (which will be discussed next) or of Shakespeares Henry V, which was written in 1599.For the most part, William Shakespeares interpretation of Henry V is accurate. He got most of his information from the Tudor historian and writer Raphael Holinshed, but there are, naturally, some exaggerations in favor of the nationalistic spirit and propaganda.It is important to remember that Shakespeare was writing in a time when English national fervor was at an all-time high, so he had to showcase the power of the English against other forces and portray the English as saints, rather than sinners.Two of the key events that Shakespeare portrays well in his play are the relationship between Catherine of Valois and Henry V. They are portrayed as being a genuinely loving couple, and by most accounts, this seems to be the case of what the royal couple was actually like. Secondly, another area that Shakespeare portrays very accurately is the Battle of Agincourtthe focal point of the play, and of Henry Vs reign in general.Henry V receiving a book, 1411-2. Source: British LibraryHowever, some elements have been inserted in the play for dramatic effect, which is only natural given that it is a dramatic adaptation of the life and reign of King Henry V, but also goes to show that we as historians should not take for granted the work of playwrights, and instead turn to historical sources like chronicles and books.One of these elements is the St Crispins Day speech. While rousing and patriotic, this is simply credited to Henry V for dramatic effect, and there is no evidence to suggest that he gave such a speech. Secondly, Shakespeare also simplifies the role of Charles VI, portraying him as a fairly stable king, rather than the mentally incapacitated monarch that he actually was. Whether this was done out of respect for Charless condition we do not know, but the more likely answer is because it showed Charles as even more pathetichow could a mentally stable ruler be such a bad king, and let his enemy (Henry V) take over France in the way that he did? This again highlights the patriotism and feelings of national pride that Shakespeare was aiming for when writing the play.So overall, while the play is a solid reflection on Henry Vs life and reign, it is worth taking Shakespeares interpretation of the man and the king with a pinch of salt. Dramatic effect is one thing, but generating a feeling of patriotism and proto-nationalism was perhaps the main aim behind the writing of the play about one of Englands finest kings, almost two centuries after his death.Henry V on the Big ScreenTom Hiddleston as Henry V, in The Hollow Crown, by LPSoulX. Source: DeviantartSimilarly, other interpretations have been made of Henry V, predominantly in the 20th century, when the medium of cinema was at arguably its golden age. People wanted the life and reign of a man they had read about in books, in classrooms, and seen on the stage brought to life in the cinema.There are three main movies about Henry V: one released in 1944, another released in 1989, and a third released in 2019. All of them show the king in slightly different ways.The 1944 movie, starring the legendary actor Laurence Olivier as King Henry V, is arguably the most famous. Again, the context is important: Britain was fighting in the Second World War, and feelings of national pride were important, not just for good morale at home, but for showing how England had previously come from being underdogs to emerge victorious. This film naturally shows Henry V as the legendary underdog monarch, who emerges victorious against the French.The 1989 adaptation (starring Kenneth Branagh as Henry V) is similarly patriotic. The Cold War was coming to an end, and British popular nationalism was at an all-time low. While the Falklands War of 1982 had brought back some popular feeling, for much of the country, rule under Margaret Thatcher for the previous decade, who had attempted to bring patriotism back, had felt tight and restricted. This movie shows more about Henry as a ruler, rather than Henry as the all-winning, quintessential English hero.Finally, the most recent adaptation, released in 2019 and starring Timothe Chalamet as Henry V and titled The King, came under criticism for its historical inaccuracies. While the movie itself focuses on the young Henry rather than his role as king (despite the name), the play took the focus away from feelings of national patriotism (perhaps wise in the wake of the Brexit referendum three years prior). It was based more loosely on Shakespeares plays Henry IV and Henry V. While not historically accurate, it is an interesting interpretation of the life of the young king.Henry Vs LegacyMorning of the Battle of Agincourt, by John Gilbert, 1884. Source: ArtukHenry V is undoubtedly one of the greatest monarchs to ever rule England, and a testament to that is how often he has been portrayed through works of historical fiction. From Shakespeares 16th-century play to interpretations of the king being made into films as recently as 2019, the idea that Henry V was a hugely important monarch has never left the British imagination.Brits are known for loving an underdog story, so perhaps this is what draws Henry V to the attention of so many of us. Either way, it goes without saying that Henry V was one of the greatest monarchs to ever sit on the English throne, and he will be remembered long past the end of the 21st century.

Less than 30 percent of the worlds surface is covered in land, yet this is still a massive amount of space that humans have sought to explore and exploit. Included in all this land are around 200,000 islands.From the icy Arctic to the tropics, here are the five biggest islands in the world.1. Greenland, the Biggest Island in the WorldA map of Greenland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated north of Canada and Iceland, and with much of its landmass in the Arctic Circle, Greenland, the largest island, is also an inhospitable and very cold place. Yet there are many people who live comfortably there, and who know how to survive the territorys harsh climate.Greenland is an autonomous territory administered by Denmark, and is 2,166,086 km2 (836,330 sq mi). For context, Alaska is 1,717,856 km2 (663,268 sq mi). Overlaid onto the contiguous United States from north to south, Greenland would stretch from Canada to Mexico.Greenland was first inhabited around 4,500 years ago by the Saqqaq culture and the Independence culture, followed by the Greenlandic Dorset culture. There is academic debate over this cultural crossover, with the Greenlandic Dorset culture possibly representing two cultures: Independence II and Dorset. Recent studies show that Independence II evolved into the early Dorset culture.Nevertheless, the culture disappeared and Greenland was likely uninhabited until around 700 CE when the Late Dorset people occupied the northwestern part of the island. Around 980 CE, the Norse arrived and settled the southern tip of the island. After surviving there for 450 to 500 years, the Norse eventually abandoned the island, due to a number of suggested factors, such as climate, and environmental change, possible conflict with the Inuit, as well as loss of contact with their European counterparts.The city of Nuuk, the capital of Greenland. Source: GoodFonDenmark did not know that the settlements had disappeared, and continued to claim sovereignty over the island. During the colonial era, Denmark-Norway sent missionaries to Greenland, and discovering a lack of Norse people, converted the native Inuit to Christianity, and kept their claim on the island. More colonies were developed along the coast, and trade was expanded.During the Second World War, Denmark was occupied by Germany, and the United States took custody of Greenland until the end of the war when Denmark was liberated and the territory was handed back. Despite its close ties with Denmark, Greenland today is largely autonomous, and the territory is well-represented in Denmarks parliament.The population is mainly Inuit with around 90 percent of Greenlanders identifying as such. Minority ethnic groups include mostly Danish and other Nordic peoples.2. New Guinea: Thick Forests and Mysterious SecretsA map of New Guinea. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated in Melanesia, New Guinea is the second largest island in the world, and is home to around 15 million people. The island is 785,753 km2 (303,381 sq mi) and is separated from Australia to the south by the Torres Strait.People first arrived on the island around 60,000 years ago, and there is evidence that agriculture took place with irrigation systems around 10,000 years ago, making it one of the oldest centers of ancient agriculture.A tribesman from Papua New Guinea. Photograph by Jon Radoff, 2005. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAustronesian people arrived on the island around 1,500 years ago, bringing with them new languages, cultural practices, and new technology, such as pottery to the island. Europeans first had contact with the island in the 16th century, but the island remained mostly unexplored until the late 19th century. The thick rainforests made exploration difficult and hid the local populations well. Many of the tribes that lived in New Guinea practiced cannibalisma practice which mostly died out by the 1950s, although there have been later instances. The truth of whether the practice continues today is a subject of debate and one that demands a deeper understanding of the nuances and beliefs of the practice.Today, the island is split between two nations. The eastern half forms the major landmass of Papua New Guinea, while the western half is part of Indonesia.3. Borneo, an Island of Incredible BiodiversityThe island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Source: Google EarthThe third largest island in the world, the Southeast Asian island of Borneo covers 743,330 km2 (287,000 sq mi) and is divided among three sovereign states. To the north, the tiny nation of Brunei makes up around 1 percent of the islands landmass, while the rest of the island is divided between the northern 25 percent belonging to Malaysia, and the southern 74 percent belonging to Indonesia.Sentarum Lake National Park in Indonesian Borneo. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWith the vast majority of the island covered in rainforests, Borneo is home to much floral and faunal diversity. Amongst the species of teak, oak, and conifer is the Rafflesia arnoldii, the monster flower, which is the largest species of flower in the world. Borneos animals include orangutans, gibbons, elephants, leopards, and proboscis monkeys. Sadly, however, the Sumatran rhino, which used to roam these rainforests, is close to extinction, and most of the total population of around 40 individuals lives on the neighboring island of Sumatra.By contrast, the human population of Borneo currently stands at around 21.5 million. The biggest city is Samarinda, which is home to around 1 million people, and is located in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island.Human habitation of the island stretches back to around 65,000 years ago, and the island is home to some of the worlds oldest cave paintings. During the colonial period, the island was split between Dutch and British colonizers.4. MadagascarMadagascar. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated off the east coast of Africa, Madagascar is the worlds fourth-largest island and covers 587,040 square kilometres (226,660 sq mi). Madagascar is home to a unique, and fascinating array of diverse flora and fauna that evolved separately from mainland Africa as a result of the land mass splitting from the mainland of Africa (which was part of Gondwanaland) around 160 million years ago.There are many unique animals on the island such as lemurs and fossas, as well as the unusual baobab trees that form a stereotypical image of the Madagascan landscape. The island was also home to the elephant bird, the largest species of bird to ever exist, which was hunted to extinction around 1,000 years ago.Sunset near Morondava, Madagascar. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe island also has a unique ethnic history that is quite different from the rest of Africa. Evidence shows its first inhabitants are thought to have been people who traveled from Southeast Asia as far back as 11,000 years ago. It is unknown whether Madagascar represented a permanent or temporary home for these people, but the island was certainly inhabited on a more permanent basis from around 2,000 to 2,500 years ago.Research has shown that the Malagasy people were originally of Austronesian origin, with later migrations from other parts of the world adding to the ethnic and genetic diversity. The Malagasy people today are a vibrant mix of different cultures that are split into many ethnic groups.Today, Madagascar is home to 32 million people, and struggles with issues of poverty and income disparity. Of great importance is the ecotourism industry, which not only supports the national economy, but is crucial for maintenance of Madagascars unique and beautiful biodiversity.5. Baffin Island, a Harsh Place to LiveLocation of Baffin Island between Canada and Greenland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the many islands in the icy waters north of Canada, Baffin Island represents the worlds fifth-largest island. It is an inhospitable place offering very few opportunities for humans to survive.Baffin Island covers an area of 507,451 km2 (195,928 sq mi), roughly the same size as Spain, and is located north of Hudson Bay between Canada and Greenland. Despite its harsh wilderness, Baffin Island has been inhabited for more than 3,000 years. The first inhabitants were the Paleo-Eskimo, Pre-Dorset and Dorset people, followed by the Thule people who were the ancestors of the modern Inuit people who live on Baffin Island today.The first Europeans to arrive on Baffin Island were Norsemen. Around 985 to 986 CE Bjarni Herjlfsson and his crew were sailing from Iceland to Greenland when they lost their way and ended up on the shores of Baffin Island. What happened next is a subject of great debate. There is evidence to suggest that the Norse established a trading post on the island, but the evidence is far from conclusive, and LAnse aux Meadows in Newfoundland remains the only truly confirmed site so far of Norse inhabitation on the North American continent (excluding Greenland).Even when not covered in snow, Baffin Island is a foreboding place. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSubsequent European exploration occurred in the 16th century when Englishman Martin Frobisher made landfall. The Island, however, ended up being named after another Englishman, William Baffin, who encountered the island while searching for the Northwest Passage.Today, Baffin Island forms part of the vast Canadian territory of Nunavut and is sparsely populated, except for a few small settlements along the fjord-laden coastline. The biggest of these settlements is Iqaluit, which is home to around 7,500 people and is the capital of the entire Nunavut Territory.The island of Honshu is the biggest of the Japanese islands and the seventh-largest island in the world. Image: Wikimedia CommonsThere are many other islands that stand out when one looks at a world map. Sumatra, directly to the west of Borneo, is the sixth-largest island in the world, and Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands, is the seventh. Behind them is Victoria Island to the north of Canada, and then Great Britain, which includes England, Scotland, and Wales.

The samurai of feudal Japan are well known in popular culture, yet the popular image of a samurai is merely a snapshot of centuries of evolution for this mighty warrior class. Here we will explore how the samurai developed from the beginning of their rule in the Kamakura Period.Beginning and EndA colorized photograph from 1860 of three samurai equipped with a variety of armor and weapons. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPicture two men, one from the mid-to-late 12th century, the other from the late 17th to 18th century. Both men are samurai, but aside from that, they appear very different. The first man, for instance, would consider the name samurai an insult. He, in ornate o-yoroi armor and open-faced helmet, would call himself a Bushi, or warrior. He is a mounted archer using a yumi bow with a great sword, a tachi, strapped to his back, but he is also familiar with other weapons such as the naginata polearm.The second man may appear a closer fit to the popular image of a samurai. He also uses the term Bushi but considers samurai an appropriate rank for his social class and standing. His armor is less ornate but better designed for hand-to-hand melees and more powerful weapons. Though also familiar with the same weaponry as the first man, he may also use a tanegashima musket, and instead of a tachi on his back, he carries two swords at his waist. These, usually a katana and the smaller wakizashi, are symbols of his status and rank to be worn at all times, as is his right.The fascinating differences between these two men are not just about appearance either. Their identities, customs, legal status, and privileges dramatically shifted as the samurais domination of Japan developed and solidified over the centuries. Yet fascinatingly, while history changed so much between both mens lifetimes, one thing that remained almost identical was their principles of honor and devotion to their way of life.Political Origins: The Kamakura and Ashikaga ShogunatesA depiction of the Kamakura and early Ashikaga shogunate samurai, both nobles on horseback in o-yoroi style armor and their naginata armed attendants, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNow that we have the before and after fully in mind, we can explore the samurais evolution, beginning with their political and societal development. The samurai emerged during the 8th to 9th centuries when the imperial court in Kyoto appointed several noble families to govern the provinces and conquer the Emishi people of northern Japan.With the emperor also abolishing the expensive armies of militia conscripts, the new provincial nobility raised their own private armies of skilled warriors and retainers. Both the retainers and nobles were part of what we now know as the samurai. However, both called themselves Bushi, as the word samurai came from a term for a domestic servant that later became used as a reference to the new warrior retainers.Over the years, the provincial families sought to assert themselves in the face of the increasingly insular imperial court nobility. In 1180, the Genpei War erupted between the Minamoto Clan and the Taira Clan over control of the imperial court, with the Minamoto eventually emerging victorious in 1185. The family head, Minamoto Yoritomo, took the title of Shogun (an archaic term meaning general in charge of defeating foreigners), and founded a new government in his hometown of Kamakura.Though the emperor remained in Kyoto as a figurehead, the Kamakura Shogunate truly ruled Japan and appointed samurai to run the imperial administration of the provinces.Scene from the Genpei war, screen. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHowever, by the 14th century, internal intrigue and the costly defense of Japan against two Mongol invasions caused the Kamakura Shogunate to collapse. In 1336, the enterprising samurai Ashikaga Takauji founded a new Shogunate in Kyoto itself.The Ashikaga Shogunate stabilized its power by decentralizing the state and abolishing the old imperial provincial land administration in favor of the provincial samurai owning the land outright. The noble families had branched out into many new samurai clans who owned and governed their provinces as their personal fiefdoms. Minor samurai owned or managed provincial estates on behalf of their province-owning great lords known as the Daimyo, who, in theory, served the Shogun.The Sengoku Jidai and the Edo PeriodA Sengoku period battle between Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin, two of the most notorious rival Daimyo of the time. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1467, a dispute over the Shoguns succession led to the devastating decade-long nin War, which destroyed the Shogunates authority. For the next century after the war ended, Japan was embroiled in the Sengoku Jidai, literally the time of warring states.Notorious Daimyo such as Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin paid lip service to the Shogun while squabbling among themselves for land and power. Meanwhile, in some regions, peasant farmers and Jizamurai (independent landholding samurai) formed self-governing confederations called Ikki, while similar uprisings of militant Buddhist congregations, Ikk-Ikki, established fortified temples across Japan.After more than a century of constant conflict, one Daimyo, Oda Nobunaga, finally seized Kyoto, deposed the Shogun, and began pacifying the other Daimyo and Ikki confederations. The reunification was completed by his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, in 1590.Hideyoshi tried to direct the energy of the war-hungry samurai outside of Japan by organizing an invasion of Korea. However, the invasion failed in 1598 with Hideyoshi dying shortly after, threatening a return to civil chaos. However, another of Nobunagas followers and the third of Japans great unifiers, Tokugawa Ieyasu, took power for himself in 1615 and founded a new Shogunate based in Edo, modern-day Tokyo.So began the Edo Period, when the Tokugawa Shoguns reorganized Japanese society and closed Japan off to any foreigners. Their peaceful regime made samurai become more bureaucrats than warriors, though they still trained with arms and maintained their cultural notions of martial valor. In this way, the samurai went from provincial military retainers to feudal warlords to a stratified caste of warrior bureaucrats.The Tokugawa would reign for many more years, with the clans who had supported Tokugawa remaining in their favor, while their opponents, although not fully destroyed, remained greatly diminished over the centuries.WarfareA samurai pursuing fleeing Mongol infantry during the battle of Bunei during the first Mongol invasion in 1274. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThough they had many roles in society, the samurai are naturally most famous for their warrior prowess. The original samurai based their style of warfare on the Emishi, who fought as mounted archers in defense of their northern homes. The well-trained and skilled samurai nobles and retainers in time proved more cost-effective and militarily successful against the Emishi than the old imperial army of militia infantry conscripts.This was still true at the time of the Kamakura Shogunate. High-ranking samurai fought as mounted archers with the lower ranks supporting on foot, similar in some ways to a knight of Europe being supported by his armed attendants.In the ideal battle, the mounted archers would demonstrate their skill and courage by charging through the enemy arrows to return fire and issue challenges of single combat. These duels would break out across the lines and eventually turn from ranged to melee combat, with riders using the tachi or smaller knives depending on circumstances.The footmen would also engage in archery duels or take part in the melee armed with the naginata to take down a horse and rider and gain glory and rewards. While this was the romantic ideal of combat, the Kamakura samurai also conducted raids, urban fighting, and ambushes when required.The Mongol Invasion, Silk Tapestry, by Kawashima Jimbei II, 1904. Source: The Japanese Consulate NYThis type of small-scale, individualized fighting suited the structure of the samurai during the Kamakura Period, when there were relatively few major conflicts to be fought. During the Mongol invasions, Japanese sources noted the samurais bemusement at the Mongol use of Korean and Chinese conscripted infantry, rather than having elite warriors display their martial skill and challenge the defenders.Perhaps the Mongol generals, observing behind the front lines and descended from the great horse archers of Genghis Khan, saw some kinship with the samurais style of warfare. No doubt the samurai considered the Mongol generals cowardly and unsporting for not fighting on the front line.The Sengoku Jidai dramatically changed samurai warfare. The civil turmoil made the stylized traditional combat of the samurai impractical. Meanwhile, Ikki confederations deployed massed numbers of monks, peasants, and independent lesser samurai to defend their independent domains. These armies of massed levies, known as Ashigaru, were swiftly adopted by enterprising Daimyo.Oda Nobunaga was a keen proponent of the Ashigaru, which was a large part of his success. While samurai still served as the elite fighters and commanders of Sengoku armies, they replaced their horse archery warrior duels in favor of fighting in larger, more cohesive formations as heavy cavalry or infantry.WeaponsA scene from a sixfold screen depicting Oda and Tokugawa samurai and ashigaru armed with tanegashima muskets firing on the Takeda cavalry during the battle of Nagashino in 1575, Edo Period. Source: Google Arts & CultureAt this time, armor moved away from the more ornate original designs to more flexible and easier-to-produce designs. Later armor even used European-style iron plates inspired by Portuguese traders. Practicality also impacted weaponry.The naginata was superseded by the longer yari spear, which required less training and worked both as a lance or pike. The mighty tachi was still a fearsome weapon on horseback, but most samurai and Ashigaru adopted the smaller but less cumbersome katana as their sword of choice.While bows were still widely used, the new realities of warfare made melee combat more common, leading to the sword becoming the samurais most commonly associated weapon. However, a new ranged weapon, also a key part of Nobunagas success, soon made an even greater impact on samurai warfare.By the mid-1500s, Japan began mass-producing matchlock muskets, known as tanegashima after the island where they were first introduced by the Portuguese. They proved their battlefield worth quickly, with Takeda Shingen famously ordering his generals to decrease the number of spears per unit and have your most capable men carry guns. His son and heir, Takeda Katsuyori, tragically failed to heed this advice when his elite cavalry was wiped out by Nobunagas gunmen at the battle of Nagashino in 1575.The Japanese innovations in musketry proved devastatingly effective in Hideyoshis invasion of Korea. However, the somewhat land-focused samurai had made few innovations in naval warfare or cannons. Eventually, the Korean admiral Yi Sun-sin quite literally scuppered the invasion by destroying the Japanese navy with his more advanced navy and cannon, forcing the samurai to abandon the invasion.Katana, Edo Period. Source: The British MuseumHowever, the rise of the Tokugawa Shogunate drastically reduced the scale or frequency of conflicts. Hideyoshi and the Tokugawa Shoguns forbade the conscription of more ashigaru. Furthermore, to prevent a return to the chaos of the Sengoku Period, weapons became strictly controlled, and non-samurai were banned from carrying swords. In the new social order, the carrying of swords at the waist, known as daisho, was a status symbol exclusive to the samurai.Similar to the earlier Kamakura Period, violence, when it did occur, was small-scale between samurai entourages, but any major conflict was kept in check by the new regime. In practice, the samurai continued to train for war as they had fought in previous years, but they rarely used their skills outside of the occasional clash between bickering samurai. Bows and guns were used mostly for sport, and armor was kept mostly for parades or formal events.Society and SamuraiA contemporary portrait of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a former ashigaru promoted to the samurai by his master Oda Nobunaga. Source: Osaka City Museum of Fine ArtsJust like the evolution of the samurais political status and methods of warfare, the samurai as a social order evolved greatly from the Kamakura to the Edo Period.From their inception as provincial warriors, there was always a distinct idea of a samurai warrior, but who and how one became a samurai was not set in stone. During the Genpei War, the legendary general Minamoto Yoshitsune, according to the literary epic Heike Monogatari, summarily made a huntsmans son a samurai for guiding him and his men down a rocky ravine before the Battle of Ichi-No-Tani. The promotion came complete with a top-knot haircut and a new name to denote his new status. This demonstrates how initially, samurai were a distinct class, but one that commoners or non-samurai could obtain.This was still true during the Sengoku Jidai. Hideyoshi was originally an ashigaru from a peasant background who was Nobunagas sandal bearer. However, his promise and brilliance saw him be promoted by his master into a samurai.On a broader scale, the period also saw clans of lesser samurai rise to distinction, sometimes at the expense of more venerable families. The Mori clan, for example, rose from humble origins as a family of Jizamurai to become one of the most powerful Daimyo in Japan. At this time, the women of samurai families were also trained with arms, largely for self-defense purposes, though there are many examples of women who served as samurai. These Onna-bugeisha, as they were known, were often popularly remembered for their extreme loyalty and capability in the service of their lords.The female warrior samurai Hangaku Gozen, by Yoshitoshi, 1839-1892. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOnce again, however, the Edo Period changed things. The Tokugawa Shoguns implemented an extremely rigid social structure throughout Japan, and gone were the days when a commoner could be promoted into the samurai. Even the samurai themselves were placed into a tiered hierarchy and forbidden from owning land independently. The samurai class was now explicitly designated as the retainers and servants of their lords. However, despite this codified bondage, the samurai were very much at the top of the Japanese social structure and enjoyed many legal rights and privileges. Female samurai were discouraged as the new samurai society pushed women to focus on domestic duties.The period also led to a rise in the number of ronin, masterless samurai, who were too proud, or legally barred, from renouncing their samurai heritage and becoming commoners. Instead, they became wandering vagrants selling their martial skills to the highest bidder. Effectively, the samurais position in society remained unchanged as Japanese society itself was almost frozen into place. The samurai were now locked into being almost a feudal civil service for provincial lords and the Shogun. However, their position came with rights, status, and legal privileges that set them above and apart from the rest of Japanese society.Samurai CultureA painting of the Sengoku era samurai general Akashi Gidayu composing his death poem as part of the ritual of seppuku, 19th century. Source: Tokyo Metro LibraryOf course, what it meant to be a samurai was also a cultural as well as a social question. In many ways, the core principles of samurai cultural identity remained fascinatingly consistent. The core concept of samurai culture was bushido, a code of principles that samurai were expected to follow on and off the battlefield. However, the term only arose during the 17th century, when various authors identified and codified the core principles that samurai supposedly embodied. Yet the principles of bushido itself predated the Edo Period, both in terms of a warrior code that the samurai followed, and in terms of the principles Bushido contains.During the Kamakura Period, there were several named codes, often referring to the practices of a warrior at arms, that the samurai were expected to abide by. These were often unwritten, and the details could change through the years and from province to province. However, their core tenets all seemed to stress that samurai should conduct themselves with honor, morality, and valor. These same principles would later be codified and written down into the concept of Bushido.Another notable and enduring aspect of samurai culture was their somewhat stoic attitude to death. While a samurai would not necessarily seek out death, dying in the service of a lord was seen as honorable, and death before capture was one of the most consistent philosophies of the samurai.War Helmet with Third Day Moon, by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, 1886, via Ukiyo-e.orgThis was, of course, seen in one of their most notorious practices: seppuku, a form of ritualistic suicide performed by dishonored or defeated samurai through self-disembowelment. Once again, Seppuku was recorded even before the Kamakura Period, but over the years, the practice evolved into a ritual which included the writing of a poem before the act. Both Minamoto Yoshitsune, at the beginning of the Kamakura Period, and Oda Nobunaga, at the end of the Sengoku Period, ended their lives via seppuku.By taking ones own life, a disgraced samurai restored their honor and denied their enemy the glory of making the kill. While other warrior cultures sought to capture their enemies for ransom and glory, samurai instead sought the same rewards by the taking of their enemies heads. This practice appears as old as the samurai themselves, but over time became a post-combat ritual, with the heads cleaned and carefully presented to a victorious general who would reward the respective head-takers.As the rituals of head taking and seppuku show, individual honor and the honor of ones lineage were core tenets of the samurais cultural identity. Additionally, samurai of all periods were also expected to be intellectually refined and culturally sophisticated, able to lead or take part in important social ceremonies and to be well-versed in literature, hence the tradition of composing poems before committing seppuku. Essentially, the cultural evolution of the samurai is remarkable in its consistency. While many other aspects of samurai life changed over the years, the principles and ideals they practiced and upheld, or at least claimed to, remained the same.End of the SamuraiA painting of the battle of Shiroyama, the final stand of the Satsuma rebellion, and often considered the final battle of the samurai, 1877. Source: Wikimedia CommonsReturning to the two samurai from our beginning, we can now see how the samurai evolved, but, in many ways, stayed the same. The samurai carved out a new political reality for themselves, but in all that time, the Emperor remained Japans true figurehead. They adapted to new ways of warfare and weapons, but their principles of honor and virtue remained almost unchanged.Ironically enough, the end of the samurai contained many parallels to their rise and rule. In 1854, after more than two and a half centuries, Japan was forced to reopen its borders to outsiders by the US Navy, and initially, the samurai adapted as they always had, taking on modern styles of warfare, uniforms, and weapons. Meanwhile, in the 1868 Boshin War, anti-Tokugawa samurai overthrew the Shogun (who had, after all, failed his job description of defeating the foreigners) and restored the Emperor to full power.Yet the new regime moved away from the old, rigid social system, which meant abolishing the samurai as a distinct social body. The new government even refounded the old imperial army of militia conscripts, just like the one the samurai had replaced in the 8th century, though now with guns and cannons. Most samurai bowed to the winds of change and took up new places in the imperial administration, but others would not let their way of life die without a fight. The story of the samurai ended in 1877 when Saigo Takamori, once a loyal general for the emperor, began an uprising of samurai in his home province of Satsuma.Drawing of Saig Takamori, printed in Kinsei Meishi Shashin vol. 1, 1934-35, via the National Diet LibraryThe rebelling samurai were determined to demonstrate their military superiority even in the new ways of war, but they failed to build momentum. Eventually, with their ammunition depleted, the last samurai (save for the many thousands in the imperial army and government) were trapped by the imperial army at the battle of Shiroyama. There, a wounded Takamori would follow Yoshitsune and Nobunaga in committing seppuku, while his followers either joined him or charged the imperial lines with swords in hand. In this last act of defiance, the samurai period ended, as their philosophy had always demanded, with death rather than the disgrace of defeat.The Jetavana temple bell ringsThe passing of all things.

Three bags elaborately decorated with dog teeth have been discovered in the graves of Neolithic women near the village of Krauschwitz in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. The women belonged to the Corded Ware Culture (ca. 28002200 B.C.), and are believed to have been part of the social elite who regularly wore these bags adorned with pierced dog teeth.The organic material of the bags leather or fabric is long gone, but the pierced animal teeth that were sewn on have survived to this day. The upper and lower canine teeth and incisors of dogs were embroidered on the front of the bags, staggered like roof tiles. The bottom of the bag was usually about 30 centimeters long and at least 20 centimeters high. For fully embroidered bags, almost 350 teeth were required. The dogs were a medium-sized breed, similar to todays Small Mnsterlnder, and were probably bred specifically for the production of the elaborate bags and killed at a young age. Only in exceptional cases was a fox tooth or an imitation carved from bone used for repairs to the bags. The pouch-shaped bags were carried on a wide strap, to which wolf teeth were often sewn.Based on their location in the grave, the bags appear to have been carried in front of the body during life. As the occasional infant bones preserved within indicate, they could represent a type of baby carrier. The legs, arms, and head protruded and were further protected with a fine cloth; the 20-centimeter-wide scarf was embroidered with sequins and lined with dog molars. Since a bag was also placed in the grave of young women who died during pregnancy, it can be assumed that these bags were personal, non-inheritable belongings. Ownership of these labor- and cost-intensive, richly decorated bags was certainly reserved for a narrowly defined, elite social class, to which the Krauschwitz community belonged. Such a baby carrier was found in 20 percent of womens burials. In Nessa, just 1.7 kilometers away, the remains of a woman of upper social class were recovered during the near-completion of excavations within the construction site of the high-voltage transmission line. Her burial goods also included a similar bag containing the remains of a fetus or newborn.The State Office for Monument Preservation and Archaeology (LDA) of Saxony-Anhalt has been excavating various sites along the 105-mile planned route of the SuedOstLink high-voltage powerline. The route passes through areas that have been inhabited for thousands of years, and the surveys have so far uncovered numerous prehistoric burials.The findings in the Krauschwitz area have been particularly significant. In addition to the dog tooth bags, the survey uncovered five 6,000-year-old burial mounds of the Middle Neolithic Baalberg culture. The deceased were buried in grave pits that were then covered with wooden huts and then covered with earth to create mounds that stood out on the landscape. The mounds are no longer visible today, but the excavation revealed the foundation ditches of the wooden huts and the burials underneath them. A total of 15 Baalberg culture burial mounds were found on the new power line route.The Baalberg mounds were still impressive a thousand years later when the Corded Ware culture inhabited the area. They followed in their predecessors footprints, building their own settlement on the same hill near Krauschwitz that the Baalberg had settled. They also buried their own dead among the ancient burial mounds. The Corded Ware burials are mostly individuals, although there are occasional double burials. They were laid to rest facing south, males on their right sides, women on their left.The burials with the remains of the bags will be removed in soil blocks and thoroughly analyzed in the workshops of the State Office for Monument Preservation and Archaeology of Saxony-Anhalt. The field excavations will continue through July.

Historical Events1927 - Yankees slugger Babe Ruth, half way to his MLB record of 60 home runs, smacks #30 off Joe Shautes in 9th inning in New York's 7-0 win over Cleveland Indians at Dunn Field in Cleveland1943 - National Committee Freies Deutschland forms1951 - NY Yankees pitcher Allie Reynolds throws no-hitter in Cleveland against the Indians, his former team, in a 1-0 win1975 - Sao Tom e Prncipe gains independence from Portugal (National Day)1996 - Start of 1st "Super 8's" tournament in Kuala LumpurMore Historical Events Famous Birthdays1852 - Hiplito Yrigoyen, President of Argentina (1916-22, 1928-30), born in Buenos Aires, Argentina (d. 1933)1870 - Louis II [Louis Honor Charles Antoine Grimaldi], Prince of Monaco, born in Baden-Baden, Germany (d. 1949)1912 - Will Bradley [Wilbur Schwichtenberg], American session, jazz, and boogie-woogie trombonist and bandleader ("Beat Me Daddy, Eight to the Bar"), born in Newton, New Jersey (d. 1989)1935 - Hans Tilkowski, German soccer goalkeeper (39 caps, West Germany; Westfalia Herne, Borussia Dortmund, Eintracht Frankfurt), born in Husen, Germany (d. 2020)1946 - Sian Barbara Allen, American actress (Scream Pretty Peggy), born in Reading, Pennsylvania (d. 2025)More Famous Birthdays Famous Deaths1934 - Ole Evinrude, Norwegian-American industrialist and inventor (outboard marine engine), dies at 571990 - Richard R Briggs, dies after short illness at 711995 - Ernie Furtado, American jazz double-bassist, dies at 721996 - John Boon, English publisher (MiIls and Boon), dies at 792004 - Betty Oliphant, co-founder of National Ballet of Canada (b. 1918)More Famous Deaths

On October 15, 2009, the parents of Falcon Heene claimed that he was trapped in a makeshift weather balloon floating thousands of feet above Colorado, but he was later found safe in his attic and it may have all been a hoax for publicity.The post Inside The True Story Of Balloon Boy, The 6-Year-Old Who Was Reported To Be Lost In A Rogue Balloon appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Scientists aren't able to determine which species of dinosaur the 67-million-year-old vertebra belonged to, but it was likely a small herbivore.The post A Denver Museum Known For Its Fossil Exhibits Just Accidentally Found A Dinosaur Bone Right Beneath Its Parking Lot appeared first on All That's Interesting.