Red Army Military Success 1917-1922. Source: Library of CongressThe fall of Imperial Russia completely shattered the country. Hard upon this descent came the Russian Civil War (1917 to 1922). The two rival factions, the Red Bolsheviks and the White Russians, stood at extreme political ends, as did their origins. The Reds emerged from the pre-war intelligentsia and revolutionary underground. The White Russians originated from monarchists, Cossacks, nationalists, and anti-Bolshevik socialists. Such disparate groups formed a coalition to fight the Reds. Despite appearing strong on paper, the Whites failed to rally around a single plan or vision.The Reasons for FailureSacrifice to the International White Russian Anti-Bolshevik poster, 1919. Source: WikimediaAt first glance, the Whites looked to have the upper hand. The advantages included Allied backing, experienced officers, and extensive territory. Initially, this worked well with solid victories. The White Russians coalition eventually worked against it. First, the leadership did not coordinate their actions; instead, they made competing decisions. With the Whites ideological differences, future Russia was never solidified.Despite claiming liberal ideas, the Whites never gave a solid alternative message that matched Bolshevik promises. Allied support, plus being seen as representing the old order, weakened popular support. In all these areas, the Red Bolsheviks dominated. They built a one-vision, disciplined political machine that motivated the population and the military. As the Civil War grounded on with Red victories, this approach succeeded.Internal politics aside, the White Russians never made it to Russias core. Because they were on the old Empires periphery, their battlefields were scattered. The Bolsheviks controlled industrial centers and the rail lines and had far fewer supply issues.A stylized graphic of Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin (center) during the October 1917 beginning of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. Source: Wellesley CollegeThe White military campaigns peaked by early 1920. The Bolshevik Reds were highly motivated, had better discipline, and eventually better leadership. The Red Armys counteroffensive repeatedly defeated the White armies.The final White Russian defeat occurred in November 1920 on the Crimean Peninsula. Bolshevik armies now controlled European Russia. White Russian army resistance in Siberia would linger until 1922, ending all hopes.The Great Diaspora That Still SucceededCountries in which White Russian exiles settled after 1920. Source: WikimediaAs with many groups before them, the Bolshevik victory in full sparked the White Russian diaspora. Anti-Bolshevik soldiers, officers, intellectuals, monarchists, Cossacks, and others fled. They settled in North America, China, and South America. Some 1.5 million fled Russia left, most never to return. Exile became permanent, whether due to the direct Bolshevik threat or to a refusal to compromise. But a diaspora didnt mean opposition ended.Although exiled, White Russian emigres still exerted indirect or intellectual influence. Major migr cities included Paris, Berlin, Shanghai, and Belgrade.Challenging the Red Status QuoSoviet Propaganda poster, 1931: Shock Brigade of the World Proletariat. Source: picryl.comThough the Bolsheviks won, the Whites stayed a thorn in their side. First, political activists and writers consistently produced anti-Red literature. Figures such as Mark Aldanov and Ivan Bunin wrote depictions and memoirs that circulated in Europe, Asia, and even the Soviet Union. And they worked. The White Russians effective criticism helped mold Western doubts regarding the USSR.On a practical level, foreign intelligence services sought ex-Imperial officers. With their deep knowledge of Russias peoples, political factions, and military, they became useful assets. Some emigrants also attempted to infiltrate the USSR. The Soviets actively watched these groups, even kidnapping one White Russian ex-general, Yevgeny Miller, in 1939. The NKVD later executed him.Post Russian Civil War, the White Russian exiles urged European and Asian governments not to recognize the Soviet Union. Their pressure delayed recognition by several countries.White Russians Evacuate. Source: WikipediaTheir input also influenced economic and refugee dialogues. Although this was only a minor delay, it was still inconvenient. The White Russians efforts kept the USSR isolated for an extended time.The White Russians lost the Russian Civil War by 1920. Yet their dogged resistance affected the Red Armys philosophy. The Red Army leadership revisited the White campaigns to improve its own tactics and strategy. Also, the USSR played up on the White threat to keep militarization ongoing, the use of political commissars, and combining Communist ideology into training.The White Russians greatest success, despite their failure, resulted from their cultural and ideological efforts. Exiled White communities preserved traditional Russian culture, including Orthodox traditions, classical ballet, and literature. This, and the White groups, displayed a rival version of Russia that rejected the USSRs existence.The USSR eventually attempted to refute the exiles propaganda. Musicians like Tchaikovsky were permitted again, for example. The Soviets saw the Whites as credible threats for decades. What appeared to be a defeated movement still compelled the USSR to invest years of effort in countering its influence. This is how the White Russians succeeded despite being defeated.

Italy is one of the most gastronomically passionate nations on Earth, where every bite of food feels like a religious experience. It is no surprise, given the countrys rich history, agricultural abundance, and unwavering dedication to perfecting simple recipes. In Italy, food is a daily cause for celebration.The most iconic Italian foods have gained global recognition. Each boasts centuries of tradition, local ingredients, and often humble origins. Heres the fascinating history behind some of Italys most celebrated culinary creations.1. Pizza MargheritaThe first pizzeria in the world, Antica Pizzeria PortAlba, opened in Naples in 1738, and it still serves pizza today, photo by Di Dale Cruse. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFew dishes are as universally loved as pizza, and Pizza Margherita is where the legend began. Legend has it that this most beloved creation originated in Naples in 1889 when Queen Margherita of Savoy visited the city. Weary of the ubiquitous and elaborate French fare served to the nobility at the time, the Queen requested local pizzaiolo Raffaele Esposito to prepare an assortment of pizzas for her to try. Esposito is said to have prepared a variety of pizzas yet there was one in particular, a unique creation using ingredients representing the Italian flag, that captured the Queens heart (and likely, taste buds). The Monarch declared it to be the winner, Esposito named the pizza after her, and the rest, as they say, is culinary history.Cute story, if only it were true. Well, at least part of it isnt. By now, historians agree: the tri-colored pizza was already a well-established staple in Naples and not tailor-made to order for Queen Margheritas visit. The most likely scenario, however, is that it was re-branded and renamed in her honor.At its heart, the pizza margherita has remained humble, yet the quality of its ingredients has drastically improved. Now, it is considered a masterpiece: a thin crust of dough blanketed with velvety crushed tomatoes (San Marzano, if possible), creamy white mozzarella, and fresh green basil. The lot is finished off with a generous drizzle of extra virgin olive oil. Quality over complexity, the ultimate axiom of authentic Italian foodOver the years, pizza has become a symbol of Italys culinary artistry, found with an array of toppings all over the world (p.s. pineapple is still not allowed).2. Lasagna (Bolognese)Lasagna Bolognese is thought to have been inspired by meat ragu from the region of Emilia-Romagna and is often served with a generous amount of bchamel sauce, photo by Max Griss. Source: UnsplashLasagna Bolognese is one of many gastronomic treasures from Emilia-Romagna. It consists of fresh pasta sheets, rich meat rag, creamy bchamel sauce, and Parmesan cheese fusing in perfect harmony. While the dishs origins date back to ancient Rome, the version we know today likely emerged in Bologna during the Renaissance.Bolognas hearty rag, a slow-simmered sauce of ground beef, pork, and tomatoes, is the shows real star. Traditionally, the pasta is made with spinach, giving it a subtle green tint that contrasts beautifully with the creamy layers.The origin of this Italian food staple is so old that even Marco Polo wrote of it in his journals. Many variations exist throughout Italy. In the south, where the bechamel is replaced by ricotta, and tiny meatballs and sliced boiled eggs are added, it is called lasagne. This is the more recognizable spelling to foreigners, likely due to the influx of southern Italian immigrants abroad, especially to North America.3. FocacciaFocaccia dough, in addition to being dimpled by hand, was historically rubbed with olive oil and herbs before baking, a method that continues today to create a rich and flavorful crust, photo by Jekaterine Marin. Source: UnsplashFocaccia, the beloved Italian flatbread, predates the Roman Empire. It originated in Liguria (of Cinque Terre fame), and is a simple yeast bread recipe with a much higher water-flour ratio than usual, making it soft and fluffy. Left to rise twice and lathered in abundant olive oil, the bread is baked to golden perfection. Traditionally topped with rosemary, sea salt, or olives, focaccias soft, airy texture makes it the perfect accompaniment to soups, salads, and cheeses.Historically, focaccia was a food of necessity, baked by sailors and farmers who needed a durable, portable meal. Because of its higher water content, focaccia lasts much longer than ordinary bread. Over time, this simple yet irresistible Italian food became an authentic symbol of Ligurian cuisine. Nowadays, the northwestern region boasts myriad variations, and in Genova, in particular, it is a traditional breakfast staple accompanied by a cappuccino. Yes, you can dip!4. Pesto GenoveseIn Liguria, Pesto Genovese is traditionally prepared using a mortar and pestle to release the flavor of the basil, which creates a much smoother and more fragrant sauce than modern blenders, photo by Caroline Attwood. Source: UnsplashThe famous green sauce from Liguria (of focaccia fame), is another testament to the delectable power of simple, fresh ingredients. Its origins date back to the ancient Romans, who routinely crushed herbs and garlic to preserve food. The modern recipe, featuring basil, garlic, pine nuts, Parmesan, and olive oil, emerged in Genova in the 1800s.The most staunch Ligurian purists still pound pesto into creation with a mortar and pestle. Try a homemade version of this Italian food treasure once, and you might never go back to a jar.Did you know? Just a few years back, Genovas airport was the first in the world to ease liquid restrictions on hand luggage, to appease passengers who wanted to take jars of the mouthwatering Italian food home.5. GelatoGelato is the Italian answer to ice cream. It has about half the fat of traditional ice cream because it uses more milk and less cream, giving it a smoother, denser, and much more flavorful taste, photo by Alessio Damato. Source: Wikimedia CommonsItalys most popular summer treat has a history that goes back thousands of years, although the version we enjoy today seems to have reached worldwide fame around the 18th century. Early versions of gelato can be traced to ancient China and Egypt, where crushed ice was mixed with fruit juice and honey. Yet in the 16th century, it was Florences Medici family who elevated the simple refreshment to an art form by hiring artisans like Bernardo Buontalenti, who perfected creamy, churned gelato using milk. If you wish to savor the original gelato, travel to southern Italy, where sorbetto, made of crushed ice, is the preferred way to refresh on a steamy summers day.6. Parmigiano ReggianoKnown as the King of Cheeses, Parmigiano Reggiano is so valuable that its sometimes still used as bank collateral, photo byZerohundd. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSpicy and delectable Parmigiano Reggiano has been crafted in the Reggio Emilia and Parma regions for more than eight centuries. It is traditionally made from raw cows milk and aged for at least twelve months. The long timeline helps develop the cheeses signature nutty flavor and granular texture, the same way it has for hundreds of years.In the Italian food scene, Parmigiano Reggiano is almost sacrosanct. Locals grate it over pasta and soups or eat chunks with fruit or dipped in balsamic vinegar. Production of the cheese is highly regulated, ensuring each wheel meets the strictest standards. In Italy, this means the origin of the milk, the aging of the cheese, and even the diet of the cattle are regulated. Only wheels with the embossed Parmigiano Reggiano emblem are guaranteed to be legitimate. All others (like Parmigiano in Italy or parmesan in English-speaking countries) are imitations.7. Spaghetti CarbonaraThe recipe for Carbonara is debated. One popular theory is that the dish was created in 1944 by American soldiers in Italy, who added bacon to pasta and eggs to make a hearty meal, photo by Popo le Chien. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSpaghetti Carbonara is the ultimate comfort food and undoubtedly one of the most exported Italian foods. Yet its origins are still fiercely debated in Italy. While local urban legends say the dish was definitely created by Italians many moons ago, the first time the recipe as we know it today appeared in a cookbook was in the 1960s in the United States so thats likely where the modern version was invented.This less romantic historical version, now widely thought to be credible, incenses many an Italian foodie. A similar recipe did exist in Italy before that, but it had ingredients no self-respecting Italian would ever include nowadays, such as bacon and cream. The horror!The modern Roman classic combines eggs, Pecorino Romano cheese, guanciale (cured pork jowl), and freshly cracked black pepper. Nothing else. The dish is incredibly simple, yet the magic lies in the technique: cooking the pasta to al dente perfection and blending it with the guanciale, cheese, and raw eggs creates a velvety emulsion that clings to every strand.8. Prosciutto (Crudo)The production of prosciutto crudo has remained unchanged for centuries. Each ham is aged for at least 12 months and sometimes as long as 36 months, photo by De Sun Taro. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThere are cured meats all over the world, and then theres prosciutto. Or, more correctly, prosciutto crudo. This dry-cured ham relies on just two key ingredients: high-quality pork and sea salt. The curing process is painfully slow, but this is what allows the ham to develop its delicate, buttery flavor without any cooking or smoking.Prosciutto dates back to Roman times and is one of the few Italian food gems still made using traditional methods passed down through generations.In Italy, the term prosciutto refers to ham in general but it is typically called prosciutto crudo for dry-cured, uncooked ham (like Prosciutto di Parma) and prosciutto cotto for cooked ham. Outside of Italy, particularly in English-speaking countries, prosciutto usually refers only to the dry-cured, uncooked variety, which can lead to confusion. To avoid misunderstandings if youre ever in Italy, know that locals call both types prosciutto, so you must clarify if you (or they) mean crudo (uncooked) or Cottoo (cooked).9. Risotto (alla Milanese)Traditional risotto alla Milanese was made with saffron imported from the Middle East, photo by Thomas Strosse. Source: FlickrGolden, delicious, and luxurious, risotto alla Milanese owes its signature color and flavor to saffron. Legend has it that this dish was born in 1574 when a glassmakers apprentice in Milan jokingly added saffron, used as a dye in stained glass at the time, to a pot of rice at a wedding feast. The experiment was a colossal hit, and the dish became a staple of Milanese cuisine. The real story, however, is traced back to a cookbook printed by famous Milanese chef Felice Luraschi in 1829, where the ritual of roasting rice grains in butter and slowly adding stock to it was first described.Rice porridge of all denominations had long since been cooked in Asia, yet the grain was introduced to Europe only 2,000 years ago. In Italy, it found its ideal fertile plains in the northern valleys of the Po River. Today, the Po Valley remains one of Europes top rice-producing regions, and the grain has become intrinsic in northern Italian cuisine.Made with Arborio rice, butter, onions, white wine, and abundant Parmesan cheese, this creamy dish is slow-cooked with saffron-infused broth. Risotto, in Milano, is typically paired with ossobuco.10. GnocchiIn Italy, eating gnocchi on the 29th of every month was traditionally considered lucky and a bearer of good luck. Although this old custom is no longer really followed in Italy, you will still find it practiced by Italian immigrants in countries like Argentina and Paraguay, photo by Luigi Anzivino. Source: Wikimedia CommonsItalys pillowy potato dumplings have a history as comforting as the dish itself. While earlier versions date back to Roman times and were made with flour and water, potatoes, introduced to Europe from the Americas in the 16th century, transformed the recipe into the gnocchi we know today. The recipe spread far and wide, and hybrid versions of related potato dumplings are found all over Europe and beyond.Every region of Italy adds its own flair. In Piedmont, gnocchi di patate reigns supreme, while Sardinia boasts gnocchetti, made with semolina flour. Traditionally boiled and served with sauces like pesto, butter, and sage, or tomato, gnocchis soft texture and versatility make it the most comforting Italian food of all.11. CannoliCannoli were originally made for Carnival, a festival in Sicily, where they were served as a decadent treat to mark the end of the period of Lent, photo by Stefano Mortellaro. Source: Wikimedia CommonsA mainstay of Hollywood mafia films of the 1970s and 80s, cannoli are undoubtedly the most famous pastry from Sicily. Traditionally a dessert for celebrations, cannoli feature crispy, fried shells filled with sweet ricotta cheese. The classic recipe often includes hints of orange zest, chocolate chips, or pistachios, although nowadays, youll find them in 101 variations.The creamy and crispy delight traces its origins to the Arab influence on the Italian island during the 9th century. Although, how they were created remains a mystery. It is often said that the concubines of Arab emirs in the region created these delightful pastries in the privacy of the harem, using ingredients like ricotta, honey, and almonds, which were staples of Arab cuisine. The cannolis cylindrical shape and indulgent filling were thought to symbolize ahem fertility, adding a layer of sensuality to their culinary creation. When Arab rule collapsed in Sicily, and pious monasteries replaced decadent harems, nuns reportedly adopted and preserved the recipe, turning a once-foreign treat into an absolute centerpiece of Sicilian dessert culture.12. TiramisuWhile tiramisus exact origin is a long-held Italian debate (whats new), one claim is that it was created in a restaurant called Le Beccherie in Treviso in the 1960s. But it probably wasnt, photo by Victoria Aleksandrova. Source: UnsplashTiramisu, arguably the most known and adapted Italian dessert, is not nearly as historic as the other dishes on this list or as many Italians believe. They will still argue over the correct recipe as if it is centuries old!The deserts name means pick me up, a nod to its energizing ingredients: espresso-soaked ladyfingers layered with mascarpone cheese, eggs, sugar, and a dusting of cocoa. Although its exact origin is contested, the highest probability is that it was first invented in the Veneto region, merely six decades back. One of the most tantalizing historical versions links tiramisu to a brothel, where it was routinely served to patrons and madams alike to energize them. This version, however, is likely to be more folklore than fact.

A 16th century marble sculpture of a head of woman known as the Head of Medusa that was stolen from a nymphaeum outside Florence more than a century ago and recently recovered by authorities will be restored by Florences prestigious conservation institution, the Opificio delle Pietre Dure.The head was originally part of Fonte della Fata Morgana, a garden structure on the grounds of the Villa Il Riposo in the municipality of Bagno a Ripoli four miles southeast of Florence. It was built by Bernardo Vecchietti, banker and advisor to dukes Cosimo I and Francesco I de Medici, in the 1570s as an arcadian retreat for the familys summer home. Dedicated to Morgan Le Fay (Fata Morgana in Italian), it was designed by Medici court sculptor Giambologna who lived with Vecchietti for several years.The Fonte was built on ancient spring and included a nymphaeum dug out a hill and a grotto enclosed in a building of pink plaster with white stone doorways and windows. Theres a black and white pebble mosaic floor inside that spells out Fata Morgana and an inscription on the wall that invites the reader to drink from the rejuvenating waters of the fountain. The fountain is still there, but the statue of Morgan Le Fay made by Giambologna personally was removed from the fountain by 1730. It was still in the villa until the 1760s when it was sold to an English art dealer in Florence. He sold it to an unknown private collector and it disappeared until 1989, when it emerged at an auction. Last year it was acquired by the Cleveland Museum of Art.The Head of Medusa, which was probably another depiction of Morgan Le Fay but her curls were misinterpreted as snakes, was one of the other decorative sculptures in the Fonte. It was illegally removed in the early 20th century and was lost for more than 100 years until it suddenly reappeared in an auction a few months ago. The Cultural Heritage Protection Unit of the Carabinieri returned it to the municipality which owns the Fonte and therefore all its contents.The town asked the Opificio to care for the Head after years of neglect with the goal of ensuring its long-term stability so it can go on public display. The Opificios stone experts will analyze it thoroughly using non-invasive methods to diagnose its condition and conservation needs.Once the Head of Medusa is restored, it will be exhibited at the Bargello National Museum pending a full restoration of the nymphaeum. Right now the Fonte is not in condition to house the original sculpture, but a copy will be installed in its place.

Historical Events1564 - Liege Prince-Bishop Robert van Bergen resigns1868 - The Shogunate is abolished in Japan1972 - Fantasy Records releases "Mardi Gras", the seventh and final studio album by American rock band Creedence Clearwater Revival1999 - Neil Jenkins converts a Scott Gibbs try to give Wales a famous, 32-31 win over England at Wembley Stadium; allows Scotland to win final Five Nations Rugby Championship; reverts to 6 teams in 20002019 - Israel's Beresheet spacecraft, the first privately-funded mission to the moon, crashes on the moonMore Historical Events Famous Birthdays1838 - Joseph Leopold Rckel, German-British composer, music publisher, and teacher, born in London, England (d. 1908)1920 - Emilio Colombo, Italian Prime Minister (1970-72), born in Potenza, Basilicata (d. 2013)1930 - Joseph Burnett-Stuart, British CEO (Robert Fleming Holdings), born in the UK (d. 2010)1951 - Franoise Hampson, British academic and human rights lawyer, born in Bolton, England (d. 2025)1955 - Michael Callen, American AIDS activist, singer-songwriter, and author, born in Rising Sun, Indiana (d. 1993)More Famous Birthdays Famous Deaths1839 - John Galt, Scottish novelist (Annals of the Parish), dies at 591961 - Francis de Bourguignon, Belgian pianist (accompanist to Nellie Melba), and contemporary classical composer, dies at 701985 - Enver Hoxha, Albanian post-war communist leader and dictator of Albania (1944-85), dies at 761991 - Tom Rosqui, American stage and screen character actor (The Godfather - "Rocco Lampone"), dies of cancer at 622016 - Emile Ford, Caribbean-born British singer and engineer (first black male singer to top UK charts), dies at 78More Famous Deaths

The Trustees of the Natural History MuseumThe seal tooth pendant was expertly made, suggesting that it was highly prized by its owner.In 1867, archaeologists in Devon, England unearthed a pendant inside a cave used by both Homo sapiens and Neanderthals thousands of years before. The pendant then went overlooked for almost two centuries after its discovery, but researchers have recently taken another look. They discovered that the pendant was made not from the tooth of a badger, wolf, or beaver, as previously thought, but instead from the tooth of a gray seal a whopping 15,000 years ago.During the Late Upper Paleolithic period, someone collected this tooth and expertly carved it so that it could be worn as a pendant. Then they or someone else wore it long enough for the tooth to become smooth over time before it was finally left behind inside the cave where it was finally found.The Prehistoric Seal Tooth Pendant Found In EnglandThe Trustees of the Natural History MuseumThe seal tooth pendant was made some 15,000 years ago.According to a new study on the seal tooth pendant published in Quaternary Science Reviews, this fascinating relic was discovered in 1867 during excavations at Kents Cavern, a site in southwestern England where Homo sapiens and Neanderthals lived for tens of thousands of years.Though the pendant then went overlooked for some 160 years, researchers recently discovered that it was made roughly 15,000 years ago. They also found that it came from the jaw of a gray seal, not a land animal, as previously assumed.Its unknown if the seal was killed or if it died of natural causes and washed ashore, but researchers do know what came next. A prehistoric human possibly using a heavy object as a tool extracted one of the seals teeth. Then, someone delicately scraped off the root, drilled the tooth with a piece of flint, and pushed a piece of cord through the hole.The Trustees of the Natural History MuseumNew analysis of the pendant, which was made from the tooth of a 12-year-old gray seal.At that point, someone wore the seal tooth as a pendant or bracelet. According to the researchers, its owner likely wore it for a long time.The pendant was probably worn for many years, because its become smooth through wear and repeated polishing, Silvia Bello, a co-author of the study and a human evolution expert at the Natural Museum London remarked in a museum statement. A long period of use would also explain why the neat circular hole became more oval shaped, as the cord gradually wore away at the tooths interior.Bello added: While its well-loved, the pendant is still in pretty good shape. This means it might have been accidentally lost by its owner when they came to the cave, rather than intentionally discarded.But while its impossible to know who owned this seal tooth pendant, or why they left or lost it in Kents Cavern, the object offers fascinating insights into the lives of prehistoric humans living in the British Isles.The Significance Of The Paleolithic Pendant Discovered Inside Kents CavernThe Trustees of the Natural History MuseumThe seal tooth pendant is still in good shape, suggesting it was lost, rather than intentionally discarded, by its owner.Today, the area where the seal tooth pendant was found is a tourist destination overlooking the English Channel. But 15,000 years ago, sea levels were different, and Kents Cavern was located roughly 80 miles from the shoreline.This suggests that the seal tooth pendant and its wearer had traveled a great distance long ago. It could have been traded from someone who lived near the sea to someone who lived further inland. But its also possible that prehistoric peoples in this area traveled long distances, perhaps to follow migrating animals that served as a food source.Whats more, the composition of the pendant suggests that it was made by someone with a high level of skill. It would have taken great dexterity and experienceto drill the hole into the tooth without breaking it.Given that only four such seal tooth pendants have ever been found before (none of them in the British Isles), researchers believe that this rare pendant would have been highly valued by its owner. It may have even symbolized something to them, though the pendants possible significance has since been lost to the ages.Its just speculation, but I think this seal tooth pendant might have had some formal purpose perhaps to show the social identity of the pendants owner, Bello remarked in the museum statement. It could be an indication that the person, or group they were part of, was familiar with the sea and maybe used to live near the coast. Well never know for sure, but it provides a fascinating glimpse into the past.After reading about the 15,000-year-old seal tooth pendant found in England, look through this collection of stunning reconstructed faces of ancient people. Then, see some of the most incredible ancient ruins around the world.The post New Analysis Just Determined That A Pendant Found In England In 1867 Was Made From A 15,000-Year-Old Seal Tooth appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Until the election of George W. Bush in 2000, John Quincy Adams (President, 1825-29) was the only child of a former US President to be elected to that office. John and John Quincy Adams (JQA) had much in common besides being elected to the highest office in the country. For starters, they were both Harvard graduates. Moreover, both Adams had extensive careers as diplomats representing the United States across Europe. Lets dive into common threads and significant differences in the careers of John and John Quincy Adams.Founding Father John AdamsPortrait of John Adams, by Benjamin Blyth, 1766. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Massachusetts Historical SocietyJohn Adams was involved in nearly every chapter of the United States founding story. He was not a radical firebrand like his cousin, Samuel Adams, during the 1760s, when resistance to British policies in Massachusetts mounted.Nevertheless, John Adams was a vocal opponent of Parliament during the turbulent years leading up to the American Revolution. He went on to play a prominent role in representing Massachusetts in the Continental Congress.A lawyer by training and farmer by choice, John Adams was born in Braintree (modern Quincy), Massachusetts, in 1735. His brilliant legal mind was in high demand as the path to the outbreak of the American Revolution unfolded.Although considered vain and abrasive, Adams was also regarded as an intelligent and honest man by many of his contemporaries. Despite his political sympathies, Adams successfully defended several British troops on trial in the aftermath of the so-called Boston Massacre of March 1770.With the outbreak of war in April 1775, Adams emerged as one of the leading figures in the nascent American government in Philadelphia. For example, Adams was the critical voice in securing George Washingtons appointment as the commander-in-chief of the new Continental Army in June 1775.The following year, Adams played a significant role in the drafting and signing of the Declaration of Independence. As we will see below, Adams went on to serve as a leading diplomat attempting to earn the young United States international recognition from anti-British European powers.John Adams: Second President of the United StatesProperty Protected la Franoise. British satire of Franco-American relations after the 1798 XYZ Affair, June 1, 1798. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Library of Congress, Washington DCAdams was elected to be the nations first vice president in George Washingtons inaugural administration. He then succeeded George Washington after winning the 1796 presidential election.His abrasive personality did not make Adams many allies, even among his fellow Federalists. The political opposition (known as Democratic-Republicans or Republicans) was even more hostile. Historian Nathaniel Philbrick notes that one opposition lawmaker referred to Adams as His Rotundity (2021, 64).Name-calling aside, the Adams administration encountered an increasingly volatile political climate. Battle lines were drawn over several issues, including the nature and power of the federal government and the future of slavery, among others.Historian Alan Taylor notes that North and South fractured over issues including slavery, which would not be resolved until the Civil War in the 1860s. Debates over the federal governments authority continue to be at the heart of political discourse in the United States (2016, 434).In addition to these domestic political battles, Adams faced the looming threat of war with Revolutionary France. News of a French demand for a bribe to resolve tensions (XYZ Affair) led to calls for war.Adams wisely exercised restraint and averted full-scale war. However, he exercised less restraint in backing the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798, a series of four laws that restricted the rights of foreign-born Americans and limited anti-government speech.Adams became the first president to live in the White House in the new capital of Washington DC. However, his time there would be brief as he lost the landmark 1800 election to his rival, Thomas Jefferson.Portrait of the First American Generation: John Quincy AdamsThe Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunkers Hill, June 17, 1775, by John Trumbull, 1786. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museum of Fine Arts BostonJohn Quincy Adams was born in 1767, the son of John and Abigail Adams. Historian Paul Nagel points out that in his youth, the younger Adams was known as Johnny. Then, in his college years, he typically signed his name as JQA to avoid confusion with his famous father (1999, 3).According to historian David Hackett Fischer, a company of militia traveling through Braintree on their way to confront the British at Lexington and Concord in April 1775 was amused when an eight-year-old child with a musket taller than himself performed a military drill in front of them. That child was John Quincy Adams (1994, 289).While too young to fight for American independence, John Quincy Adams experienced the war firsthand. In addition to encountering militia on the day of the battles of Lexington and Concord, Adams and his mother witnessed the June 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill.The Revolutionary War experience and nationalism inspired JQA and this first generation of Americans, who were too young to participate in the American Revolution, to serve the country in the first decades of the 19th century.The younger Adams was like his father, highly educated and intelligent. He was fluent or conversational in eight languages, including French, German, Italian, and Russian.While serving as a diplomat in London, Adams met and married Louisa Catherine Johnson, daughter of a prominent American merchant.JQA was also elected to the Massachusetts Senate and later the US Senate.John Quincy Adams PresidencyCopy of portrait daguerreotype of John Quincy Adams, 6th President of the United States, ca. 1843-48. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National ArchivesJohn Quincy Adams won a controversial election victory in 1824 to become the sixth US president. He was the first person elected to office who did not directly participate in the Revolutionary War or the efforts to draft and ratify the US Constitution.He was also the first president to wear trousers instead of knee britches. It was truly a new era.There was a strong hint of rehashing the past in the JQA administration, particularly when it came to avenging John Adams political defeat in 1800. In other words, JQA approached the presidency as an opportunity to help salvage his fathers reputation.However, JQA assumed the presidency with loftier goals than avenging his fathers political legacy. For starters, JQA encouraged westward expansion and exploration. He proposed a vast system of new canals and roads to bind the growing country together.He also envisioned revolutionizing public education. For example, he hoped to create a national university that would serve as a competitor to smaller private institutions, such as his alma mater, Harvard.Unfortunately for JQA, most of these projects would be realized after his presidency. He stood little chance of reelection in the face of Andrew Jacksons rising popularity. According to historian John Patrick Diggins, Adams was the last of a generation of gentry-class leaders who wouldnt stoop to cater to the masses in order to retain power. So he lost it (2004, 54).American Diplomats: John and John Quincy AdamsThe Signing of the Treaty of Ghent, Christmas Eve, 1814, 1914, by Amde Forestier. John Quincy Adams is the figure in the center. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington DCDuring the Revolutionary War, Congress turned to several prominent supporters of American independence to win foreign backing in the war against Britain and foster trade relations with various European states.Benjamin Franklin played a pivotal role in securing French support in 1778 for the American cause of independence from Britain. Before Franklin left for Paris, he served as an American peace commissioner alongside John Adams and Edward Rutledge.The congressional peace commissioners traveled to New York in September 1776 at the request of British commanders Sir William and Lord Richard Howe. According to Alan Taylor, however, the meeting with the Howe brothers went nowhere, and the war for American independence continued (2016, 164).John Adams received further diplomatic appointments beginning in 1778. Adams represented Congress in France, the Netherlands, and Britain. He also helped negotiate the peace treaty with Britain in 1782-1783.The younger Adams received his first diplomatic appointment at the age of 16. JQA served in diplomatic posts across Europe from Britain to Russia. He also led the negotiations with Britain to end the War of 1812 in Ghent, Belgium.John Quincy Adams served as Secretary of State, the nations top diplomat, during the administration of James Monroe. In particular, JQA was the architect of the Monroe Doctrine and negotiated a treaty with Spain in 1819 to secure American control of Florida.Controversial Elections I: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and the Landmark Election of 1800Official portrait of Thomas Jefferson, by Rembrandt Peale, 1800. Source: Wikimedia Commons/White HouseFederalists in Congress had little use for Adams. According to historian James Banner Jr., John Adams faced a popularity problem because he was not a war hero like George Washington (2004, 23).John Adams sought re-election against his rival, Vice President Thomas Jefferson, in the 1800 election. Jefferson and his allies targeted several unpopular Federalist policies in the run-up to the election. Historian Alan Taylor notes that Republicans capitalized on the unpopular Federalist taxation policies and Sedition Act prosecutions (2016, 424).In the fall of 1800, the Federalists lost both houses of Congress and the presidency. But this was not without controversy. As Taylor explains, since Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr were tied in the Electoral College votes, there was no conclusive winner of the presidency and vice presidency. The outcome would be decided in the House of Representatives, where the Federalists nearly caused a civil war by toying with the idea of denying Jefferson the presidency (2016, 425).Despite the tension, the first peaceful transition of power between rival political parties in the US took place with Jefferson assuming the presidency and Burr serving as his vice president.Controversial Elections II: John Quincy Adams vs. Andrew Jackson (1824 & 1828)Portrait of Henry Clay, by Matthew Harris Jouett, 1818. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Transylvania UniversityJohn Quincy Adams participated in two landmark presidential elections in 1824 and 1828. In 1824, JQA narrowly defeated frontier war hero and future President Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. This election marked the first time the popular vote had a significant influence on the outcome of the presidential race.However, the popular vote, as is true today, did not determine the victor. Yet, unusually, the Electoral College couldnt deliver an outright winner either. Thus, as historian John Patrick Diggins notes, the outcome came down to the vote of the House of Representatives (2004, 53).JQA received critical support from Speaker Henry Clay, securing the House vote to win the election. Jackson and his supporters felt cheated and called Clays decision a corrupt bargain. The bad feelings sank any chance of reconciliation between JQA and Jackson.As a result, the Democratic-Republicans split into two parties. JQA led the National Republicans while Jackson headed the Democrats.Despite this bitter political climate, John Patrick Diggins argues that JQA was perhaps the most apolitical president in the countrys history (2004, 50).Portrait of General Andrew Jackson, by John Wesley Jarvis, ca. 1819. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityNevertheless, the election of 1828 was equally vicious in terms of mudslinging between JQA and Jackson. Jackson ultimately carried the election by winning the South and West. Historian John Patrick Diggins Jacksons election was a class victory for democracy and a defeat of the intellectual in politics (2004, 54).Thus, although Adams might have been born into that first American generation, his personality did not align with the new populist era embodied by Andrew Jacksons rise to the presidency.Comparing the Adams PresidenciesPortrait of John Adams, by Gilbert Stuart, ca. 1800-1815. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Gallery of Art, Washington DCHistorians have recently supported a reconsideration of both Adams presidencies.The John Adams administration is primarily remembered for the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts. These correctly reveal Adams insecurity and haughtiness. But Adams also wisely exercised restraint when it came to tensions with France and in his dealings with political rivals. Despite an erratic and volatile personality, Adams met multiple crises with patience and tact.Despite JQAs relative unpopularity in office, historian Paul Nagel notes that he drew a massive crowd in New York City to hear his lecture on faith after his presidency (1999, x).The respective presidencies of John and John Quincy Adams share commonalities beyond their role in some of the countrys hotly contested presidential elections.For starters, both were one-term chief executives defeated in their reelection efforts. Neither had significant public support. The personalities of the father and son also did not endear them to potential allies in Congress.While John Adams enjoyed a lengthy post-presidency retirement from public office, John Quincy Adams returned to Congress through his election to the House of Representatives.To date, JQA is the only former president to be elected to Congress following their presidency. He died after collapsing on the House floor in 1848.John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were linked even in death. Both died on the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1826.LegaciesPhotograph of Charles Francis Adams Sr., by George Kendall Warren, 1861. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Library of Congress, Washington DCAccording to historian Alan Taylor, John Adams deserves to be remembered for preventing a civil war in response to the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798, issued in response to the Sedition Act (2016, 424). This is a lesser-known turning point in the countrys early history, alongside the peaceful transition of power from John Adams to his rival Thomas Jefferson after the heated 1800 election.Both John and John Quincy Adams are remembered more for their careers outside of the presidency. Indeed, John Adams is widely regarded as one of the leading architects of the United States. His son made significant contributions to the countrys expansion. JQA is also remembered for being a leading voice in Congress against slavery.JQAs finest hour came amid the Amistad Event of 1839. Historian Paul Nagel explains that a group of Africans revolted aboard a Spanish slave ship called the Amistad. In 1840, abolitionists called on JQA to defend the Amistad prisoners, which ultimately led to their freedom in trials that reached the Supreme Court (1999, 379-80).Their descendants continued to serve the United States, particularly during the Civil War (1861-1865). JQAs son, Charles Francis Adams Sr., played a crucial diplomatic role, helping to maintain Britains neutrality. As historian Stephen W. Sears notes, his son, Charles Francis Adams Jr., served as a Union cavalry officer during the Civil War (2004, 98).While the Adams political dynasty petered out in the 19th century, the family retains a prominent legacy in the countrys founding and growth.ReferencesBanner Jr., J.M. (2004). John Adams, in To the Best of My Ability: The American Presidents. Edited by J. M. McPherson. Pp. 22-28. DK Publishing Inc.Diggins, J.P. (2004). John Quincy Adams, in To the Best of My Ability: The American Presidents. Edited by J. M. McPherson. Pp.50-56. DK Publishing Inc.Fischer, D.H. (1994). Paul Reveres Ride. Oxford University Press.Nagel, P.C. (1999). John Quincy Adams: A Public Life, A Private Life. Harvard University Press.Philbrick, N. (2021). Travels with George: In Search of Washington and His Legacy. Penguin.Sears, S.W. (2004). Gettysburg. Mariner.Taylor, A. (2016). American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750-1804. Norton.

The Borgia family was a subject of great controversy during the Renaissance. At its head, Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia) was undeniably a family man. He elevated those related to him to great status and used them to consolidate his power. His family members, however, were ambitious in their own right and became known as being ruthless in pursuit of their goals.Crucial to this dynamic was Lucrezia Borgia, Rodrigos illegitimate daughter, who garnered a notorious reputation for her exploits. Whether she deserved such a reputation is a matter of much debate.Lucrezias Early LifeSubiaco, the town near Rome where Lucrezia Borgia was born, photograph by Mattis. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLucrezia Borgia entered the world on April 18, 1480, in the town of Subiaco in Lazio. Her father was the ambitious Cardinal Rodrigo de Borgia, and her mother was Rodrigos mistress, Giovanna Vannozza dei Cattanei. She had two older brothers from the same parents and several half-siblings from Rodrigos prior dalliances. Lucrezia would also have a younger brother born in the following year.Lucrezia received an excellent education. She was tutored by intellectuals and mastered Catalan, Spanish, Italian, and French. She also excelled in the arts and humanities. She showed a special aptitude for administration, a skill which would serve her well later in life.At the age of 10, her prospects for marriage were already being weighed. A contract was drawn up promising her to Don Cherubino Joan de Centelles, the lord of Val DAyora, in the Kingdom of Valencia in Spain, but this arrangement was scrapped just two months later in favor of an engagement to Count of Procida, Don Gaspare Aversa.Lucrezias father, however, became more powerful, and after becoming Pope Alexander VI, he sought more influential matches for his daughter. Lucrezias engagement was canceled, and she was instead betrothed to Giovanni Sforza, the cousin of Duke Ludovico Sforza of Milan. The two were married on June 12, 1493. Lucrezia was just 13 at the time, while Giovanni was one month short of 27.DivorceLucrezia Borgia, by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 1860 to 1861. Source: Tate Images/Tate, LondonSoon, however, the political dynamics shifted, and the Sforza alliance yielded little benefit to the Borgias. Once again, the pope sought a new match for Lucrezia, but this time, he would have to annul a marriage. The pretense for this was that, as was claimed, the marriage was never consummated.Whether this was true or not will never be truly known, but when divorce was finally granted on December 27, 1497, it was alleged that Lucrezia was six months pregnant. The mysterious child, Giovanni, commonly known as Infans Romanus (Roman Infant), was born in secret, and when he was publicly acknowledged three years later, rumors began to fly as gossips weighed in with their imaginative allegations.One story even alleged that the child was the result of an incestuous relationship between Lucrezia and her older brother, Cesare. Whatever the case, the childs paternity was never ascertained. Lucrezia was also said to have had a relationship with Pedro Calderon, the chamberlain in Alexanders service. Pedros body was later found in the Tiber River, along with that of a maid, Pantasilea.One of the major factors that contributed to the negative image of Lucrezia Borgia was the fact that she was the daughter of a man who was known to have been corrupt and nepotistic. Pope Alexander VI had many enemies, and the entire Borgia family was painted with the brush of low morals. In part, the negative attitudes were also because the Borgias were Spanish, and the fact that the pope was not Italian did not sit well with many in Italy.Slighted by the divorce, Giovanni Sforza also intimated that Lucrezias father had sexual designs on his daughter, an accusation that was not ignored by those wishing to see the downfall of the Borgias.Marriage to NaplesBust of Pope Alexander VI, end of 15th century, photograph by Yair Haklei. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Bode Museum, BerlinThe Sforzas, shamed by the pope, became enemies of the Borgia family. Meanwhile, Alexander looked for a more powerful alliance. In 1498, Lucrezia was married to the Duke of Bisceglie, 17-year-old Alfonso, the illegitimate son of King Alfonso II of Naples. In 1499, Lucrezia was named Governor of Spoleto, an unusual development in that the position was usually held by cardinals. As the political winds shifted once again, however, and the pope sought better relations with France, the alliance with Naples became a liability. France was an enemy of Naples and had designs for conquest.In 1499, Alfonso, sensing betrayal, fled Rome but returned at Lucrezias request. The following year, Alfonso was murdered, but not before Lucrezia bore a son, whom she named Rodrigo, after her father. Although nothing could be definitively proven, it is widely believed that Cesare was responsible for the murder as he, along with his father, had engineered an alliance with France in January 1499.With Alfonso removed from the picture, Lucrezia was once again free to marry, and her father sought a more useful alliance. In the meantime, however, she worked in the Vatican, putting her administrative skills to use, dealing with the popes mail, and answering in his stead when he was not available.Marriage to Alfonso dEstePortrait of Alfonso dEste. Copy after Titian. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkIn 1497, Anna Sforza, the wife of Alfonso dEste, the presumed heir to the Duchy of Ferrara, died in childbirth, thus ending the bond between the Sforza and Este families. In its place, a bond was suggested between the Estes and the Borgias. Understandably, Alfonsos father, Ercole dEste, the Duke of Ferrara, was hesitant, given the nature of Lucrezias previous marriages and the propaganda that surrounded the woman.Ercole hired spies to go to the Vatican and they returned information on Lucrezia that was wildly contrary to what was commonly believed. Lucrezia was described as being virtuous and graceful, with modesty and decency. After vigorous negotiations, a deal was agreed upon, and Lucrezia was set to be married for a third time.Alfonso was wedded to Lucrezia on December 30, 1501, although this wedding was by proxy in the Vatican. They were married in person in Ferrara on February 2 in a glamorous ceremony. Lucrezia was a vision of beauty, with slender features, turquoise-blue eyes, and delicate features. She arrived wearing a purple satin gown, a color associated with highborn nobility.Changing FortunesImage on an engraved silver plaque depicting 32-year-old Lucrezia Borgia presenting her son Ercole to San Maurelio, protector of Ferrara, by Giannantonio da Foligno, 1512. Source: Bradford, S. (2005). Lucrezia Borgia, Penguin Group via Wikimedia CommonsMuch of the power of the Borgia family was solidified by Alexanders position as pope. He had grand designs for his family, but they never came to fruition. He died of malaria in 1503, leaving his children to fend for themselves without the help of the papacy. His successor, Pius III, died after just 26 days in office. He was replaced by Giuliano della Rovere (Pope Julius II), a longtime enemy of the Borgias.Cesares fortunes nosedived and he was eventually killed in 1507. Lucrezias marriage to Alfonso, however, lasted, and Lucrezias reputation recovered. In 1505, Ercole dEste died, and Alfonso and Lucrezia became the Duke and Duchess of Ferrara. Lucrezia became a great patron of the arts and was well-equipped to handle her financial affairs.She was adept at managing business and financial affairs and used some of her wealth to build hospitals and churches, which no doubt earned her great respect. As such, she gained a reputation of piety and charity, a far cry from the scandalous figure presented by her earlier detractors.A portrait of Lucrezia Borgia in bronze. Source: Samuel H. Kress Collection/National Gallery of Art, Washington DCDuring her marriage to Alfonso, Lucrezia became pregnant eleven times. There were several miscarriages and children who did not survive infancy. Of those who survived childhood, Ercole, born in 1508, succeeded his father and became Duke of Ferrara. Ippolito, born in 1509, became an archbishop and later a cardinal. Leonora, born in 1515, became a nun and a composer. Francesco, born in 1516, became Marquess of Massalombarda.Later Life and DeathThe gravestone of Lucrezia Borgia in the Monastery of Corpus Christi, Ferrara, Italy. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1512, Rodrigo, her son by Alfonso of Aragon, died, and Lucrezia became withdrawn and melancholic. She displayed a significant increase in piety and spent more time in convents from that point on.On June 14, 1519, just ten days after giving birth to a stillborn daughter, Lucrezia died from a fever, possibly due to complications of childbirth. She was only 39 at the time of her passing.LegacyLucrezia Borgia as portrayed by Holliday Grainger in Showtimes The Borgias (2011). Source: Showtime via IMDbLucrezia Borgia was thrust into a difficult dynamic during her life, and she has been the subject of much historical discussion and debate. While the Borgias were vilified for their actions (and supposed actions), they were no worse than other powerful families during the time period.While some histories describe Lucrezia as being devious, debauched, and immoral, she is also seen as a victim of circumstance who was unfairly linked to the crimes of her family. Modern histories tend to exonerate Lucrezia and err on the side of her being an unfortunate pawn in her familys ambitions. While this latter argument holds water, it also dampens the fact that Lucrezia was influential, and had agency in her own destiny.Lucrezia Borgia has been the subject of many stage and screen portrayals throughout history. Her first screen portrayal came in 1922 in the German silent historical film Lucrezia Borgia, and she has made appearances in film and television ever since. She has even been referenced in songs such as Lucretia My Reflection by Sisters of Mercy (1988) and Lucretia by Megadeth (1990).Sha has also appeared in the video game Assassins Creed: Brotherhood (2010) by Ubisoft where she is depicted as being in an incestuous relationship with her brother, Cesare.Ultimately, Lucrezia represents a contradictory figure of Italian history, and her representation throughout the centuries is a testament to the different aspects of her character, both real and supposed.

The Ara Pacis Museum on the banks of the Tiber in Rome has opened a new immersive multimedia experience for visitors to the ancient altar of peace built by Emperor Augustus. Video mapping technology and 4K laser projection brings the altars original vivid polychrome back to life, accompanied by narration, music and sound effects.The digital projection technique allows for the profiles and colors to be modified and modulated in real time. The bas-reliefs light up at the visitors observation point, revealing details, colors, and scenes that restore the original richness of the work.The choice of individual colors for the Ara Pacis was based on laboratory analysis, comparisons with Roman paintings, especially those of Pompeii, and chromatic research on ancient Greco-Roman architecture and sculpture. The coloration of the plant elements was also possible based on a major study that in 2010 identified more than 50 plant species that actually exist in nature.A study group formed in recent years to explore the original color scheme of the Ara Pacis has been working on this hypothesis for the past few years, as part of the new Museums construction. Specifically, a three-dimensional model of the altar was created, which was then color-rendered according to philological and historical-stylistic criteria. From this model, the idea arose to project rays of colored light directly onto the altars marble surfaces to hypothetically recreate the overall, realistic appearance of the original polychrome.The narration takes visitors on a journey through time, starting with the commission of the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace) by the Senate to celebrate Augustus triumphant return to Rome in 13 B.C. It walks viewers through the imagery in the friezes, its emphasis on the Augustan Pax Romana ushering in a new era of prosperity deeply grounded in Romes ancient traditions. Augustus incarnates that link as a religious leader presiding over the annual sacrifices performed at the altar and as a member of the gens Julia, descendants of Aeneas and the founders of Rome.The audio guide also tells the story of how a massive altar was lost it was in the Tiber flood plain and was ultimately covered in layers of silt 13 feet deep and then rediscovered starting in the 16th century. It took centuries to find the surviving fragments of the reliefs and the reconstruction of the altar was only completed in 1938, 2001 years after the birth of Augustus.This video has none of the narration or sound effects of the in-person audio tour, but you can see the reliefs illuminated by the glorious technicolor of the projection system.

Historical Events1916 - The Professional Golfers Association of America (PGA) is founded in New York City1962 - Houston Colt .45s make their MLB debut with an 11-2 win over the Chicago Cubs at Colt Stadium; outfielder Romn Mejas hits a pair of 3-run homers1974 - Golda Meir resigns as Israel's Prime Minister2005 - At 16 years, 271 days James Vaughan scores for Everton in a 4-0 win against Crystal Palace at Goodison Park; becomes youngest goalscorer in EPL history2010 - Polish Air Force Tu-154M crashes near Smolensk, Russia, killing all 96 people on board including President Lech KaczyskiMore Historical Events Famous Birthdays1569 - Emilia van Nassau, daughter of William I of Orange and Anna of Saxony, born in Cologne, Germany (d. 1629)1704 - Benjamin Heath, English classical scholar, born in Exeter, Devon, England (d. 1766)1833 - James Edward Rains, American lawyer and Brigadier General (Confederate Army), born in Nashville, Tennessee (d. 1862)1970 - Enrico Ciccone, Canadian NHL defenseman (Chicago Blackhawks), born in Montreal, Quebec1987 - Hayley Westenra, New Zealand soprano and UNICEF ambassador, born in Christchurch, New ZealandMore Famous Birthdays Famous Deaths1956 - Clarence Beaumont, 1st batter in 1st World Series, dies at 751968 - Gustavs Celmins, Latvian politician, dies at 691989 - Joan Barry, dies at 851992 - Cecil "Cec" Linder, Polish-Canadian actor (Goldfinger, Quatermass and the Pit), dies at 712010 - Ryszard Kaczorowski, Polish statesman is killed in the crash of a Polish Air Force Tu-154 at 90More Famous Deaths

RWEA virtual recreation of the Roman villa found near Dereham.In 2021, archaeologists were brought in to assist with the installation of a cable route for a new wind farm in eastern England. Historical records didnt note anything significant in the area, so they didnt expect to find much but they were happily mistaken.After a magnetometry survey revealed an inconsistency beneath the soil, researchers excavated a small area and uncovered a collection of ancient roof tiles. They soon realized that theyd discovered a Roman villa dating back nearly 2,000 years, and with it a series of incredible artifacts that are providing new insights into life in Roman Britain.Uncovering An Ancient Roman Villa In NorfolkDenise BradleyWhile exploring the villas grounds, archaeologists found roof tiles, a bronze lions head, bones of cats and dogs believed to have been kept as pets, and a serpent artifact dubbed Norfolk Nessie in honor of the Loch Ness Monster.As part of the construction of a new wind farm off the coast of England, the energy company RWE planned to lay 40 miles of cables that would carry the electricity generated by the offshore turbines to the National Grid. They needed to dig an extensive network of trenches for the project, so archaeologists were hired to investigate the route and ensure that no historical artifacts were damaged by heavy machinery.The archaeologists studied maps and other records, but nothing indicated that there had ever been any major structures in the area. However, a magnetometry survey near the town of Dereham in Norfolk revealed signs of rubble beneath the grounds surface. To make sure it was nothing significant, archaeologists carried out a quick investigation and they discovered something incredible.There was obviously something important under there, because they kept finding lots of roof tiles, said Jessica Lowther of Headland Archaeology, as reported by the Eastern Daily Press. Using ground penetrating radar they found that this was actually the site of a Roman villa.Headland Archaeology/FacebookNorfolk Nessie, the bronze handle of an ancient vessel that was found at the Roman villa in Norfolk.The expansive home was seemingly built between the first and third centuries C.E., when the Roman Empire had control of Britain. In addition to the main dwelling, the estate included a bathhouse and several other accompanying buildings.Theres a lot of evidence for growing and processing food, Lowther said, so we think it was quite a large farming estate. There were bones of cats and dogs, which suggests they had those animals to help keep down pests.Archaeologists also uncovered a trove of ancient artifacts, from hairpins and a brooch to a silver ring, part of a military belt, and an ornate bronze chair leg in the shape of a lions head and paw.Perhaps the most fascinating discovery was the handle of a bronze vessel depicting a mysterious creature. Due to its serpentine shape and greenish coloring, researchers dubbed it Norfolk Nessie, in honor of the legendary Loch Ness Monster.But this historic villa wasnt the archaeologists only unexpected find.6,000 Years Of History Along A Cable Route In Eastern EnglandExcavations along other sections of the cable route revealed even more artifacts, some dating back long before the time of Roman rule.Archaeologists uncovered several prehistoric sites, from a Neolithic pit created between 4000 and 2500 B.C.E. to a barrow mound that once held the cremated remains of some of Britains Bronze Age residents. They also found stone tools, pottery, and a coin minted during the reign of Queen Boudica, the head of the Celtic Iceni tribe who led an uprising against the Romans in 60 C.E.RWEArchaeologists stand atop a prehistoric barrow mound, where Neolithic people once placed cremated remains.Discoveries from the medieval period include part of a jug and even two long-lost villages. Whimpwell and Stinton were both mentioned in the Domesday Book, an 11th-century list of English landholdings, but they were abandoned long ago, and their locations were largely lost to history.Many of these artifacts went on display during two public events in March 2026, where local residents could learn more about the long history of Norfolk and even take a virtual tour of the Roman villa.Jon Darling, a RWE project director, noted in a statement from the company, We are very excited to be able to share these discoveries with the local community. This archaeological campaign has revealed a remarkable story about how this landscape has changed over time, from prehistoric activity through a Roman villa estate and beyond.After carefully documenting the villa, archaeologists reburied the site to protect it for potential future research that may reveal even more about life in Norfolk during Britains Roman era.After reading about the Roman villa uncovered in England, learn about the ancient Celtic religious leaders known as the Druids. Then, go inside the fall of the Roman Empire in Britain and beyond.The post Wind Farm Construction In England Has Turned Up Ancient Ruins Including A Roman Villa And A Neolithic Burial Mound appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Public DomainPanicked investors gathered on Wall Street on Black Tuesday.On Oct. 29, 1929, the stock market dropped by nearly 12 percent. Panicked investors sold off more than 16 million shares, and countless Americans lost their life savings. The day infamously became known as Black Tuesday.The Wall Street crash followed several days of uncertainty in the market. The free fall had begun on Oct. 18, but major banks and big businesses were initially able to stave off the disaster by purchasing large amounts of stock. By Oct. 29, however, it was clear that a stock market collapse was inevitable.In the weeks that followed, rumors circulated that ruined investors were jumping from skyscrapers in Manhattan. While these stories were mostly exaggerated, the crash did wipe out $25 billion the equivalent of $500 billion today.Black Tuesday brought an abrupt end to the Roaring Twenties and ushered in the Great Depression, impacting the lives of millions of Americans for years to come.The Events Leading Up To The Economic DisasterBefore the Wall Street crash of 1929, it seemed as if the prosperity of the Roaring Twenties might last forever. Americas wealth more than doubled throughout the decade, fueled by industrial growth and the rise of a credit system that was accessible to the average person.Between 1921 and 1929, the stock market had grown by 600 percent, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average rising from 63 points to 381 points. This economic boom meant soaring automobile sales, affordable appliances, and a growing interest in purchasing stocks and bonds.Hulton Archive/Getty ImagesThe Roaring Twenties were marked by rapid economic growth, unprecedented consumer demand, and the rise of the Jazz Age and the flapper.Just two weeks before the crash, Yale economist Irving Fisher told members of the Purchasing Agents Association that stock prices had hit what looks like a permanently high plateau, as The New York Times reported on Oct. 16, 1929. He also predicted that the stock market would be a good deal higher than it is today, within a few months.But not all was well in the economy. Many people who were flush with cash were putting it into the market, and this exponential growth inspired others to take out loans or even mortgage their homes to get in on the payday. They purchased stocks on credit, intending to sell them for a higher price and still make a tidy profit after paying back their lenders. This further inflated the stock market but it also made the impending crash even more devastating.The Wall Street Crash Of 1929Not all experts agreed with Irving Fishers optimistic assessment of the market. In September 1929, according to The New York Times, statistician Roger Babson had spoken at the National Business Conference and warned attendees, More people are borrowing and speculating today than ever in our history. Sooner or later a crash is coming and it may be terrific.And come it did. The first signs of trouble appeared on Oct. 18, when the market began a free fall. Investors initially snatched up shares for low prices, intending to sit on them until they rebounded, but they never imagined what would happen next.U.S. Federal ReserveA graph of the Dow Jones Industrial Average from 1920 to 1955 clearly shows the moment when the stock market crashed in 1929.By Oct. 24, which became known as Black Thursday, people had started to panic. The market had continued to decline, and a record 12.9 million shares were traded that day as investors tried to recoup at least some of their money. Companies and banks attempted to prop up the market by buying large numbers of stocks, so the Dow closed just six points down, but these efforts soon proved futile.When the press questioned President Herbert Hoover about the issue on Oct. 25, he tried to calm the nations nerves, stating, The fundamental business of the country, that is the production and distribution of commodities, is on a sound and prosperous basis.But the presidents words and the banks attempts to hold off disaster couldnt staunch the bleeding. On Monday, Oct. 28, the stock market dropped 12.8 percent. And the following day, Black Tuesday, it plummeted a further 11.7 percent. Investors traded a record-breaking 16.4 million shares, going through 15,000 miles of ticker tape. Children in nearby slums later rolled the discarded strips of paper into balls that they played with in the streets.Public DomainA janitor sweeps crumpled paper and ticker tape from the floor of the New York Stock Exchange following the Wall Street crash.Its said that the opening bell wasnt heard on the morning of Oct. 29 because it was drowned out by shouts of Sell! Sell! Sell! Three million shares were sold within 30 minutes, and by the end of the day, the Dow Jones Industrial Average sat at 198, well below its high of 381. $25 billion had been lost, and many stockholders were left penniless and in debt, as theyd purchased their stock on credit.The Roaring Twenties had come to a screeching halt, and the next decade would be a far cry from the previous era of prosperity.The Devastating Impacts Of Black TuesdayAs the true extent of the Wall Street crash became obvious, rumors quickly spread that ruined investors and overburdened stockbrokers were flinging themselves from the upper floors of their office buildings. Following the events of Black Thursday, humorist Will Rogers wrote to the editor of The New York Times, When Wall Street took that tail spin, you had to stand in line to get a window to jump out of, and speculators were selling space for bodies in the East River.In reality, there were fewer suicides between mid-October and mid-November 1929 than during the same period the year prior, but several cases were verified. Hulda Borowski, a clerk at a brokerage firm on Wall Street, jumped from the roof of her office building and fell 40 stories to her death in early November. Her fellow employees told the police that she was exhausted from overwork. Ten days later, George Cutler, the head of a wholesale produce firm, leaped from a seven-story window after suffering heavy losses in the market.Public DomainStockbrokers working at the New York Stock Exchange on Oct. 25, 1929.And on Dec. 7, 1929, a man named Wellington Lytle died by suicide in a hotel room in Milwaukee. According to a TIME article published later that month, his final note read, [M]y body should go to science, my soul to Andrew W. Mellon [the Secretary of the Treasury at the time], and sympathy to my creditors.Even as the immediate aftermath of Black Tuesday waned, it became clear that its impacts would last far beyond the autumn of 1929. While the market briefly rebounded, the Dow had plunged to just 41.22 points by the summer of 1932, the lowest value of the 20th century. The Great Depression had officially begun.Public DomainDesperate Californians line up to wait for relief checks during the Great Depression. 1937.Consumers tightened their spending, leading to a drop in demand for goods and services. Production facilities had to lay off workers, and unemployment spiked, reaching nearly 25 percent in 1933, the highest level in U.S. history. Banks started to fail, and in a time before deposit insurance, that meant that account holders lost everything. Americans rushed to withdraw their money, causing even more banks to shut their doors.Shantytowns known as Hoovervilles spread across the country. Millions lined up at soup kitchens. Panic in the market transformed into panic over the countrys entire economy. This was only exacerbated by the Dust Bowl, a period of drought that devastated crops in the American West. The market wouldnt reach its previous highs again until 1954.Millions of citizens suffered throughout the 1930s, and Black Tuesday went down in infamy as the day that marked the beginning of this catastrophic new era. After reading about Black Tuesday, look through 55 harrowing photos of life in New York City during the Great Depression. Then, learn the devastating story behind Dorothea Langes famous Migrant Mother photograph.The post How Black Tuesday Ushered In The Most Devastating Economic Depression In American History appeared first on All That's Interesting.

The fall of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, marked a violent rupture between the France of the traditional Ancien Rgime and the nascent revolutionary forces. In the words of historian Frank Jacob, the event not only marked the point of no return within the French Revolutions process but swiftly turned into an almost mythical point of reference in the revolutionary tradition and Frances national history (2024, 217). In this article, well zoom in on the events of that fateful July day in 1789 and separate the expectations from reality.What Led to the Storming of the Bastille?Reveil du tiers etat, (The Awakening of the Third Estate), 1789. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The Library of Congress, Washington DCThe 1780s were a turbulent decade in France. According to historian Larrie Ferreiro, French intervention against the British in the American Revolutionary War beginning in 1778 marked a race against the clock to weaken Frances traditional rival before the onset of a massive economic crisis (2017).Unfortunately for King Louis XVI and his ministers, that race to stabilize the economy and address the countrys mounting debts soon blended with additional challenges to the absolutist Ancien Rgime.For starters, Enlightenment ideas challenged traditional government structures. They spread to many segments of French society, thanks in part to stories of those who fought for liberty in the American Revolution.However, widespread hunger brought on by increasingly poor harvests and bread shortages posed an even greater threat to the status quo in pre-1789 France.Growing discontent over bread prices, coupled with the emergence of a confident middle class prepared to challenge the privileged noble and clerical orders, gave rise to a new legislative body in June 1789: the National Assembly. According to historian William Doyle, the creation of the National Assembly was the founding act of the French Revolution (2001, 40).Despite this revolutionary act, the fact remained that King Louis XVI had a massive army poised to crush any opposition. At any given moment, troops could be unleashed on the new National Assembly. Parisians would thus be called upon to defend this revolutionary movement. However, they first needed weapons and ammunition.This is where the Bastille enters the story of the French Revolution.The Bastille: Why Was It a Symbol of Royal Tyranny and Despotism?Eastern facade of the Bastille, drawing c. 1790-1791. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Gallica Digital LibraryScholars Hans-Jrgen Lsebrink and Rolf Reichardt note that multiple bastilles existed across France at different moments in history. In fact, they point out that a bastille initially referred to defensive towers built during the Hundred Years War (1997, 6).Yet by 1789, the term Bastille was associated with the royal fortress in Paris. Lsebrink and Reichardt argue that the Parisian Bastille became an increasingly loathed and feared symbol of royal power and the Ancien Rgime in the decades leading up to the crises that culminated in the French Revolution of 1789 (1997, 7-8).Many believed that countless prisoners languished in the prison, including in secret dungeons. The truth, as we will see, was quite different. Indeed, in July 1789, there were only seven prisoners housed inside the fortress.The Bastilles governor in 1789 was Bernard-Ren Jourdan, Marquis de Launay. He was actually born inside the Bastille because his father, at the time, served as its governor. According to historian Simon Schama, de Launay was described by contemporaries as a considerate and patient official (1989, 399).In July 1789, the fortress contained far more stores of weapons and ammunition than prisoners of King Louis XVI. Indeed, as historian William Doyle notes, the Bastille and its 30 cannons commanded the entire east side of Paris (2001, 42).The Road to the Bastille: Paris in RevoltPortrait of Gilbert Motier, the Marquis De La Fayette as a Lieutenant General, 1791, by Joseph-Dsir Court, 1834. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Palace of Versailles, FranceWeapons, ammunition, and food were what hungry Parisians needed to resist any advances by the 20,000-strong Royal Army in the vicinity. By July 12, 1789, many believed a violent showdown was unavoidable. At this point, historian William Doyle explains, it appeared as though a conservative coup was prepared to crush the National Assembly and reassert absolutist rule (2001).Paris thus rose in revolt over the course of July 12-14, 1789. Revolutionary crowds were bolstered by the organization of a bourgeois militia from the various districts of Paris under the command of the Marquis de Lafayette on July 13. This militia soon became known as the National Guard.By the morning of Tuesday, July 14, Parisians were especially enraged to learn that the price of bread soared to new highs. Crowds formed and darted across the city in search of stores of weapons, ammunition, and flour. Historian Jeremy Popkin notes that they also destroyed the tax-collection barriers that formed a wall around Paris, which indicated that they demanded concrete changes to social conditions (2015, 27).The Htel des Invalides and its massive arsenal of weapons and ammunition became the primary target. According to historian Tim Blanning, the decision to move on the Invalides and Bastille demonstrated that the Parisian insurgents recognized the need to monopolize the use of force to give the uprising any chance of success (2008, 339).While the weapons remained and were duly seized by the insurgents, the gunpowder had previously been moved to the Bastille.Who Stormed the Bastille and Who Were Its Defenders?Portrait presumed to be the Marquis de Launay, by an unknown artist, undated. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Muse Carnavalet, ParisGeneral histories often mention the mob or Parisian insurgents storming the Bastille on July 14, 1789. However, we rarely learn more about the people who took to the streets of Paris and marched on the notorious Bastille prison on that day.Estimates suggest roughly 1,000 people participated in the attack on the Bastille. Historian Simon Schama points out that the official record lists 954 names. Participants came from various social backgrounds and occupations. However, most were local artisans, shopkeepers, army deserters, and even brewers and wine merchants (1989, 400).The Marquis de Launay commanded the defenders. Instead of active-duty Royal troops, Launay had only 82 invalids (veterans) who were unfit for regular military duties. Roughly 32 Swiss mercenary troops reinforced him. Launay also had 30 cannons stationed in the fortress.Attacking the BastilleThe Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, by Charles Thvenin, c. 1793. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Muse Carnavalet, ParisFollowing the raid on the Invalides, where they acquired a store of weapons, the revolutionary wave reached the Bastille by mid-morning. Initially, as William Doyle explains, the goal was not to destroy the Bastille, but rather to demand gunpowder and the withdrawal of the cannons (2001, 42).After lengthy but inconclusive negotiations, the restless crowd surged into the Bastilles inner courtyard. While troops initially urged those inside to leave, the noise and confusion soon gave way to gunfire.Despite being vastly outnumbered, the Bastilles defenders had the advantage of not only a strong defensive position but also the use of heavy artillery. Another of de Launays advantages, of commanding military professionals facing civilians, would be lost by that afternoon as deserters from the elite French Guards, the Parisian permanent garrison, joined the assault and brought several cannons to fire on the fortress.As the fighting raged for roughly four hours, the Royal Army stationed nearby did not intervene. Around 5:00 PM, de Launay ordered the defenders to cease firing. Within a half hour, the insurgents or vainqueurs (conquerors) seized control of the Bastille.The attackers lost 98 in taking the Bastille. De Launays defenders suffered around nine casualties, and the remaining troops were captured. De Launay and the Parisian equivalent of the mayor, Jacques de Flesselles, would become the next casualties in the immediate chaos and confusion of the moment.What Happened in the Aftermath?Photograph of the keys of the Bastille. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Muse Carnavalet, ParisDe Launay and de Flesselles were killed and beheaded at the Place de Grve outside the Htel de Ville. Historian Jeremy Popkin points out that the angry crowd also killed the remaining officers of the Bastille garrison (2015, 28).There was much confusion in the aftermath of the bloody confrontation at the Bastille and the subsequent killing of leading officials like the Marquis de Launay.However, it was clear that any conservative reaction against the National Assembly had been defeated with the fall of the Bastille. Indeed, King Louis XVI decided to withdraw troops from Paris after being advised that more soldiers might desert and join the uprising.People began to dismantle the Bastille immediately after its fall. However, historian P.M. Jones notes that Lafayette tasked the building contractor Pierre-Franois Palloy with overseeing the demolition. Palloys work was also meant to serve as revolutionary propaganda (2022, 32).Indeed, the myth of the Bastille as a notorious prison led to tours of its interior, where Jones notes that Palloy embellished the story by adding a dungeon and a skeleton (2022, 32). Visitors were charged an admission fee and urged to donate to the families of those lost during the attack.More importantly, pieces of the Bastille were distributed throughout France to serve as symbols of the revolutionary triumph. For example, Jones explains that the city of Lyons received more than 700 lbs (342 kgs) of relics, including a miniature Bastille made from parts of the actual fortress (2002, 32).Reactions and Early Reportage on the Storming of the BastilleOfficial Presidential Portrait of Thomas Jefferson, by Rembrandt Peale, 1800. Source: Wikimedia Commons/White House, Washington DCNews of the fall of the Bastille electrified observers across Europe and North America. Reactions were decidedly mixed. However, it was clear in the immediate aftermath of the Bastilles fall that people were discussing an event that would never be forgotten in France and indeed the world.Historian Jeremy Popkin notes that Europes leading paper at the time, the Dutch Gazette de Leyde, struck a cautious tone. It warned readers that the arbitrary power of the multitude was more dangerous than absolute monarchy (2015, 29).A confidential report from the British Ambassador, dated July 30, 1789, attempted to downplay the role of the Bastilles attackers. The ambassador was convinced either the misconduct or the pusillanimity of the Garrison (which indeed consisted of not more than eighty invalids) rendered the capture of the Bastille a work of no great difficulty nor of long duration.Thomas Jefferson, Americas Minister to the Court of Versailles, was an early prominent supporter of the French Revolution. In a series of letters that summer, Jefferson moved from caution to enthusiastic support for the Bastille attackers. We know from his Memorandum Book from 1789 that Jefferson also paid the admission fee to see the interior of the Bastille in the days after its fall, and donated towards relief efforts for the widows and families of those killed.References and Further ReadingBlanning, T.C.W. (2008). The Pursuit of Glory: Europe 1648-1815. Penguin.Doyle, W. (2001). The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.Ferreiro, L.D. (2017). Brothers at Arms: American Independence and the Men of France and Spain Who Saved It. Vintage.Jacob, F. (2024). Revolution and the Global Struggle for Modernity: Volume 1, The Atlantic Revolutions. Anthem.Jones, P.M. (2022). The French Revolution, 1787-1804. Fourth Edition. Routledge.Lsebrink, H-J & Reichardt, R. (1997). The Bastille: A History of a Symbol of Despotism and Freedom (N. Schrer Trans.). Duke University Press. (Original work published 1997).Popkin, J.D. (2015). A Short History of the French Revolution. Routledge.Schama, S. (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. Viking.