Spanning a whopping 43,000 square feet, roughly the size of eight basketball courts, this massive villa stood in what was then the city of Autisiodorum between approximately the first and fourth centuries C.E.The post Archaeologists In France Just Found A Massive, Luxurious Roman Villa Complete With Thermal Baths And Heated Floors appeared first on All That's Interesting.

The medieval period in the UK, spanning roughly 1066 to 1500, was marked by conquest, rebellion, feudalism, and architectural innovation. Following the Norman Conquest, stone castles sprang up across England, Wales, and Scotland, not just as military strongholds, but as symbols of royal power and local authority. From the Iron Ring fortresses of Edward I to keeps that withstood civil wars and royal intrigues, these structures shaped the course of British history. Today, they offer glimpses into medieval life, warfare, and kingship. Here are ten must-see medieval castles across the UK, each steeped in drama, legend, and centuries of stone-bound resilience.1. Windsor Castle, Berkshire, EnglandWindsor Castle, Berkshire, England. Source: FlickrFounded around 1070 by WilliamtheConqueror, Windsor Castle began as a timber motteandbailey fortress guarding the western approach to London. In the late 12th century, HenryII replaced wooden defenses with the iconic stone Round Tower and curtain walls. EdwardIII transformed it into a lavish Gothic palace during the 1350s1370s under WilliamofWykeham, spending a record 50,000.Today, the castle remains the worlds oldest and largest inhabited castle, continuously home to 39 monarchs. Visitors can tour the grand State Apartments, home to the Crimson Drawing Room, Grand Reception Room, and Waterloo Chamber, adorned with triumphal paintings commemorating Napoleons defeat.StGeorges Chapel, built in latemedieval Perpendicular Gothic style, houses royal tombs, including HenryVIII, JaneSeymour, and ElizabethII, and is the spiritual home of the Order of the Garter. Dont miss QueenMarys Dolls House, a 1920s miniature marvel.A devastating fire in November1992 gutted key rooms, but a 36.5million restoration preserved the castles historic grandeur.2. Caernarfon Castle, Gwynedd, WalesAn aerial photograph of Caernarfon Castle, a medieval fortress in Caernarfon, Gwynedd, north-west Wales. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCaernarfon Castle, located in Gwynedd, Wales, was built by Edward I in 1283 as part of his campaign to conquer and control Wales. Unlike many other medieval castles, Caernarfon was designed to be both a military stronghold and a political statement. Its striking polygonal towers and banded masonry were inspired by Roman imperial architecture, signaling English dominance.The castle was constructed by James of St George, a master mason from Savoy, and features extensive defenses including gatehouses, curtain walls, and towers. One of its most famous moments came in 1284, when Edward II was born there, later made Prince of Wales, beginning a tradition that continues to this day.Today, Caernarfon Castle is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Visitors can explore its towers, walk along the battlements, and learn about Welsh and British history at the Royal Welch Fusiliers Museum inside. Its one of the best-preserved and most impressive medieval castles in the UK, both architecturally and historically.3. Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh, ScotlandEdinburgh Castle, Scotland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEdinburgh Castle, towering over the Scottish capital from Castle Rock, has been a site of human occupation since the Iron Age and a royal stronghold since the 12th century. Built atop an extinct volcano, it served as a royal residence until 1633 and has played a central role in Scotlands military and political history. The castle is known as the most besieged place in Britain, having endured at least 23 sieges.Among its key features are St Margarets Chapel, the oldest surviving building in Edinburgh, dating back to around 1130. Visitors can also explore the Great Hall, completed in 1511, and the Royal Palace, where James VI was born in 1566. The Honours of Scotland, the Scottish crown jewels, are housed here, alongside the famous Mons Meg cannon and the Stone of Destiny.Now a major tourist attraction, the castle draws millions each year and hosts events like the Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo. It remains a powerful symbol of Scotlands past and national pride.4. Bamburgh Castle, Northumberland, EnglandBamburgh Castle in Northumberland, England. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBamburgh Castle, perched on a basalt crag above sweeping sandy shores, has been a coastal guardian for over 1,400 years. Originating as the Celtic fort DinGuarie and later the Kingdom of Bernicias royal seat around AD420547, it eventually fell to the Anglo-Saxons under KingIda.The Normans rebuilt in stone, completing the central keep in 1164 under HenryIIs reign. Declining in the 17th century, the castle found new life when Lord Crewe restored parts of it in the 1700s. In 1894, industrialist William Armstrong purchased and revitalized the fortress, adding lavish interiors and preserving its medieval grandeur.Today, visitors explore more than just monumental walls: the medieval kitchens and keep speak to everyday castle life, the grand Victorian-era Kings Hall impresses, and the Armstrong & Aviation Artefacts Museum in the former laundry reveals feats of industrial ingenuity. Outside, battles of sand and sea host rare plants and wildlife along the SSSI-protected dunes at the castles foot.Films like The Last Kingdom and Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny have captured its rugged beauty. Whether soaking in panoramic North Sea views, tracing the steps of Northumbrian kings, or marvelling at Norse swords and 19th-century engines, Bamburgh Castle offers a sweeping journey through nearly fifteen centuries of northern English history.5. Conwy Castle, Conwy, WalesConwy Castle, Conwy, Wales. Source: Wikimedia CommonsConwy Castle in north Wales, perched on a rocky ridge overlooking the Conwy Estuary, was built by King EdwardI between 1283 and 1289 as part of his strategic iron ring of fortresses during the conquest of Wales. Designed by master mason James of StGeorge, it once cost around 15,000, an astonishing sum at the time.A rectangular fortress featuring eight massive towers, twin barbicans, and solid curtain walls as much as 15ft thick, it was intended to project both military strength and administrative authority. Inside, well-preserved royal apartments showcase medieval comfort and privacy, complete with a private garden and chapel.Visitors today can climb spiral staircases in the great towers, walk completely around the battlements, and enjoy sweeping views of Snowdonia to the west and the towns medieval walls below. Conwy Castle endured sieges during Welsh revolts, sheltered RichardII, and was damaged during the Civil War before becoming a romantic ruin in the 19th century.Now protected by Cadw and designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it remains one of Europes finest late13thcentury military fortresses.6. Dover Castle, Kent, EnglandDover Castle, Kent, England. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDover Castle, perched atop the White Cliffs of Kent, has guarded Englands shores since Roman times. Its origins trace back to an Iron Age hill fort, followed by a Roman lighthouse around AD50, the oldest standing Roman structure in Britain.After 1066, William the Conqueror recognized its strategic importance and reinforced it. Most of the existing keep and concentric walls date to HenryIIs reign in the late 12th century, making it one of Europes earliest examples of concentric castle design.Inside, the Great Tower recreates royal court life circa 1180s. Nearby, the Saxon church of StMary in Castro stands next to the ancient Roman Pharos lighthouse. Below the cliffs lies a labyrinth of tunnels from the Napoleonic era and World WarII, where Admiral Ramsay coordinated the Dunkirk evacuation in 1940.Visitors today can explore the Secret Wartime Tunnels, scale the medieval battlements for sweeping Channel views, and experience family-friendly exhibitions like Dover Castle Under Siege. As Englands Key, it blends two millennia of history, military, royal, and civic, within one commanding fortress.7. Warwick Castle, Warwickshire, EnglandWarwick Castle, Warwickshire, England. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWarwick Castle stands stoic on a sandstone bluff beside the River Avon, a medieval fortress born of Norman ambition in 1068 when William the Conqueror built a motte-and-bailey stronghold. Over the next century, its wooden walls were replaced by stone, and between 13301360 enhancements like Caesars Tower and Guys Tower transformed it into a formidable symbol of feudal might.This castle isnt stuck in the past. It pulses with life. Inside, the Great Hall and State Rooms showcase royal grandeur, while guided tours reveal stories of the Kingmaker, Richard Neville, who held Edward IV prisoner within its walls. In summer, the courtyard erupts into action with jousting, the thunderous Legend of the Trebuchet siege re-enactment, and The Falconers Quest bird-of-prey show.Families adore Zog Live and the Horrible Histories maze, while thrill-seekers can brave the ramparts and Princess Tower. After dark, the castle hosts eerie Ghost Tower evenings in the Watergate Tower, where FulkeGrevilles ghost is said to wander.8. Chepstow Castle, Monmouthshire, WalesChepstow Castle, Monmouthshire, Wales. Source: Wikimedia CommonsChepstow Castle, perched dramatically on a limestone cliff above the River Wye in Monmouthshire, Wales, is often hailed as Britains oldest surviving postRoman stone fortress. Commissioned in 1067 by WilliamfitzOsbern, a trusted ally of William the Conqueror, it guarded a vital river crossing into Wales.As successive magnates took control: William Marshal, Roger Bigod, and Charles Somerset, the castle evolved over centuries. Marshal added the iconic twintowered gatehouse and divided the site into three baileys; Bigod later introduced lavish domestic quarters and the curved Martens Tower, complete with its own chapel.Visitors today wander through layered history: mighty curtain walls, the Great Tower, and Tudor-era rooms that echo both martial purpose and noble residence. Remarkably, the castle still houses Europes oldest medieval doors, dated to before 1190 and preserved inside. Sites like Martens Tower, named after HenryMarten, a regicide held there, remind us of the Civil Wars turbulent echoes.Managed by Cadw, Chepstow hosts reenactments, falconry displays, and seasonal events that bring its rock-hewn chambers to life. Whether tracing Norman ambition, gazing across the Wye, or imagining medieval feasts in its halls, Chepstow Castle offers a captivating slice of Welsh and Marcherlord history.9. Alnwick Castle, Northumberland, EnglandAlnwick Castle, Northumberland, England. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlnwick Castle in Northumberland has stood sentinel since the late 11th century, with records dating back to 1138 describing it as most heavily fortified. It has been home to the Percy family, now the Dukes of Northumberland, for over 700 years, making it the second-largest inhabited castle in England.Originally built post-Norman Conquest, the castle was modernized over centuries, notably after 1309 when Henry Percy fortified it against Scottish raids. Today, it showcases both medieval military architecture and lavish Georgian and Italianate interiors crafted by architects like Robert Adam in the 18th century.Visitors can tour its grand State Rooms, stroll the ramparts, and explore the Abbots Tower, which houses the Fusiliers Museum. Its also famed as a filming location, for Harry Potter, Downton Abbey, and more.Adjacent to Alnwick Castle are the award-winning Alnwick Gardens, featuring the iconic Poison Garden and a spectacular Japanese cherry orchard that sees over 350,000 visitors each spring.10. Rochester Castle, Kent, EnglandRochester Castle, Kent, England. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRochester Castle, standing tall above the River Medway in Kent, is a formidable Norman stronghold built of Kentish ragstone. Commissioned by Bishop Gundulf between 1087 and 1089 for King William II, it stands on the site of a Roman fort and commands the ancient crossing to London.The imposing 113foot keep, one of Englands tallest, was added in 1127 by Archbishop William deCorbeil under HenryIs watch.In 1215, the castle faced one of Englands fiercest sieges as King John attacked rebel barons. They resorted to mining with burning pig fat, toppling one corner of the keep, yet the defenders held out for two brutal months before starvation forced surrender.Visitors today can climb the ruins of the keeps interior, view the scarred walls, and enjoy riverside gardens on the former bailey. A sensory Smell Trail adds engaging scents, from medieval chapel incense to fish-filled storerooms, to bring history alive.The castle park also hosts seasonal events and openair theatre. A short stroll brings you to Rochester Cathedral and Dickensian charm that inspired one of Britains great novelists.

For medieval women, carving out a place of power was exceedingly difficult. For hundreds of years, medieval women and their stories were overlooked and forgotten. However, a select few managed to gain power for themselves in the form of influence or money. These extraordinary women have something to teach us about medieval society and how it was possible for women to gain such power and agency that we would read about them hundreds of years after their deaths.Support the PopeSculpture of Matilda of Tuscany, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMany of the most powerful medieval women gained their power through their families. However, having ties to royalty or other notable family members did not guarantee a womans influence. To truly find her own power this way, a woman must have both intelligence and the ability to build strong personal relationships.Matilda of Tuscany lost her father at a young age. Her mother Beatrice inherited his power and took care of Matilda. She and her mother became very close and even co-ruled for a time. Matilda was married twice but neither marriage was long lived. After her marriage to Godfrey the Bearded began to sour, she left him and repudiated him to enhance her own power. This was rare for women but since her wealth and power came from her parentage, she did not need his support. After both her husbands and her mother died within months of each other, Matilda found herself in a position of great power.Matilda was the inheritor of much of her wealth and power, however, Matilda was also very intelligent and powerful in her own right, speaking multiple languages and understanding military strategies. She was a devout supporter of the church and was able to lend her military support to the pope, granting her favor with him.Matilda defended Pope Gregory VII against Henry IV of Germany who was in a struggle for power with the church. In fact, it was at Matildas castle that Henry IV came to submit to Gregory in an act of humiliation and to ask for his forgiveness. To receive his forgiveness, Henry was said to crawl on his knees until the pope granted him penance for acting out against the church. Having a woman at the center of such a politically significant event was a testament to her power and influence.Ruling in Their Own RightQueen Eleanor, by Frederick Sandys, 1858. Source: Art UKEleanor of Aquitaine became one of the most powerful women in Europe when her father died in 1137 CE. He left her Aquitaine as well as an additional seven counties. She was now in control of his holdings, which at that time were greater in size, strength, and influence than France.From birth, she held an advantageous position. She was the Duchess of Aquitaine and received a thorough education. When she married Louis VII of France, she united the two kingdoms under her. Aquitaine and the well-educated Eleanor were not satisfied with letting her husband rule without her input since she brought much more power and wealth to their marriage.Although the marriage between Eleanor and Louis was not harmonious, she wanted to join the king on his crusade to Jerusalem. While on their voyage back, it was Eleanors army, not the Kings, that was better trained and better managed. Louiss army was disordered and was eventually attacked. However, since Eleanors army was well trained, they had journeyed ahead, leaving Louiss army trapped and without aid. This led to further division in their already cold marriage and eventually, they divorced. In a true showing of her power, Elenor chose her second husband herself.Becoming a Religious and Cultural IconJoan of Arc at the Coronation of Charles VII, by J. Ingres Pit, 1854. Source: The Louvre, ParisIt was not only noble women or well-educated women who were able to gain some influence in medieval times. Joan of Arc is considered one of the greatest heroines of all time, yet it is believed she could not read or write. Joan of Arc gained influence over the people of France through her visions and devotion to God. Joan often had visions from God and the people of France found inspiration in her words and actions.When Joan was just 17 years old, Charles VII granted an audience with her. At this conference, she promised him he would be crowned king of France. Although he had doubts about her legitimacy, Charles allowed her to accompany the French army and allowed her to wear armor. Her fellow soldiers respected her as a woman of God and with her as their muse, they won a victory over the English in 1429. She also obtained wounds in battle, once getting shot with an arrow between her neck and collarbone. She is reported to have pulled out the arrow and kept on fighting. Although her exact role in combat is still debated today, this image of her assured her status as a folk Catholic icon.Unfortunately, Joans positive influence on the people of France was short-lived. She was captured in battle against the Burgundians. The English then took Joan to Rouen where she was put on trial. Joan was accused of many things including witchcraft and wearing mens clothing and held in prison. In 1431 when Joan was just 19 years old, she was burned at the stake for her alleged crimes.Ruling by ProxyMargaret of Anjou, engraved by J.W. Cook, 1714. Source: Queens College CambridgeAt the age of 15, Margaret of Anjou (1430-1482) married Henry VI of England. Margaret was placed in the unique position to represent her French family and felt pressured to advocate for them in England regarding the Maine region, which the French wanted returned from England. Ultimately, Margaret was successful in obtaining Maine for France. Although the amount of influence she truly had over Henry is contested, it seems that Margaret did have at least some say in the decisions Henry made.Henry was not a strong ruler and lacked knowledge of military strategy. The people around him often tried to manipulate him. Margaret, however, managed to stay on friendly terms with the powerful nobles.Margaret also seems to have intervened in other matters. When rebels began fighting on London Bridge, they were later offered pardons which they credited partially to Margarets request.Margaret of Anjou marries Henry VI, 1484. Source: BnFHenrys family had a long history of mental illness and soon Henry would succumb to what some have called depression. In 1453, Henrys army was defeated at Castillon which rendered him catatonic for 18 months. He needed assistance to eat and walk and did not respond to those around him. This was so severe he did not react to the birth of his first-born child. In his stead, Margaret put herself forward as a regent but the role went to the Duke of York. Margaret worried for her son and future king of England because the duke had his own claim to the throne.Once recovered, Henry resumed his throne, however, the Duke of York retained some power from his Yorkist loyalists. Unfortunately for Margaret, she became the envoy in this power struggle as her husband was still too weak. Margaret was willing to take care of the affairs of the state on behalf of her husband and son. She often led her family through political crises and was credited for her diplomacy in such matters.Devoting Themselves to Religion and StudyHildegarde receives a divine vision, illumination from the Scivias, by Hildegarde of Bingen, 1151. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHildegarde of Bingen held significant power in the Catholic Church. In a time when women rarely enjoyed influence over the Church, Hildegarde of Bingen found fame and influence with her religious visions and music. Pope Eugenius III, busy fighting the Cathars, allowed Hildegarde to teach and speak publicly. It was very unusual for a woman, but the Pope saw her as an ally for those who would reject the Catholic Church for other forms of Christianity. Hildegarde was concerned about heretics and used her platform to call for reform.Although the Catholic Church had at times been at odds with Hildegarde, she was well regarded by many of her male colleagues in the church as someone who could provide guidance. Monks, bishops, and other clergymen often wrote to her seeking advice, and she often supplied both spiritual and practical wisdom.In addition to her role in the Church, Hildegarde composed a large body of music, much of which survives today. In retrospect, Hildegard held great influence over the religious community, far more than any other woman at the time.However, Hildegarde also received letters from people from all walks of life and she did not discriminate nor assign special privilege. From giving kind advice to commoners to admonishing kings, Hildegarde felt secure enough in her position to express herself fully. She may have been allowed to do this because her advice letters provided donations to the church by those who she had helped and others who believed in her cause.Book of Divine Works, by Hildegarde von Bingen, 1210. Source: Library of CongressEven though the motivation for the Church giving her such a secure position may have been financial, Hildegarde was a force for good. She was a respected individual and person in her own right and not just a woman. For the time being, this was an astonishing accomplishment.In addition to her influence over the Church and religious matters, Hildegarde even opened her own monastery in 1150 where young girls were often sent with a deep sense of security and safety. This, of course, caused some shock among monks but nonetheless, Hildegarde opened a second monastery in 1165. Much of Hildegardes letters, writing, and compositions survive today.

Athena is one of the most famous deities from Greek antiquity. Born in full armor, springing forth from the head of her father Zeus, the virgin goddess was her fathers favorite daughter. She was also a favorite among the Greek people as the patron of not just Athens but also Pergamon and Sparta, among others. But what did the ancient Greeks believe Athena was the goddess of? Why was she so popular?WisdomPallas Athene, attributed to Rembrandt, c. 1657. Source: Calouste Gulbenkian MuseumOne of the principal domains associated with Athena was wisdom. Born out of the mind of Zeus, the association existed from the moment of her divine creation. From her wisdom grew many characteristics that came to define perceptions of the goddess in Greek culture.She was viewed as having unmatched cunning, and was known for her calculated reasoning and pragmatism. As such, she was a major figure in military conflict, representing the strategic aspect. This intellect was also found outside the battlefield. Her wisdom was sought by those looking for insight and those who required good counsel.Probably representing Athena in her guise as the goddess of wisdom, she was, and still is, associated with the owl. While academics have many theories on why the owl was represented in depictions of Athena, the owl is still considered a symbol of wisdom today, largely thanks to Athena.WarStatuette of Athena with an owl, Greek, c. 460 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe Greek world was not constrained by having one deity to represent a single concept. Gods were multifaceted with many associations, and there was often significant crossover between the domains of different gods.Athena and Ares were the two Greek gods most closely associated with war. This led to a rivalry between the two beings, who, through the epic stories, came into conflict on more than one occasion.However, while Ares represented the fury and bloody nature of battle, Athena represented the strategic side of military conflict. Athena also had influence over other aspects of war.She counseled Zeus in his war against the Titans, and it was Athena who gave Zeus the potion that he used on Kronos, causing the Titan to regurgitate all of Zeus siblings. Thus Athena was instrumental in Zeus victory. As such, Athena was the goddess of victory.Detail from a vase depicting combat between hoplites on the Chigi Vase, Greek, c. 7th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAthena was also a commanding figure in the realm of personal skill in martial prowess. She was often depicted wearing the armor of a warrior or a soldier. The most striking symbols of her role as a warrior were her helm, shield, and spear. Most depictions of Athena include these three objects.WeavingAthena Changing Arachne into a Spider, by Antonio Tempesta, 1606. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of ArtAthena wasnt only tied to the serious business of war and outsmarting her enemies. She was also associated with handicrafts. She was most closely associated with the art of weaving, and she was seen as a protector of those whose livelihood revolved around the loom. By extension, Athena came to symbolize patronage of all handicrafts.According to the mythological tales, a mortal, and pupil of Athena, Arachne, challenged Athena to a weaving contest. Such was Athenas ire upon seeing the quality of her opponents work that she chastised her pupil, tearing her work to shreds. Arachne was so dismayed she hanged herself, after which Athena took pity on her and turned her into a spider.Such was Athenas importance to the weaving industry that every four years, a new peplos (robe worn by women in ancient Greece) was woven for the statue of Athena on the Acropolis. This was a major undertaking, as the statue was 38 feet (12 meters) tall!Athena embodied the spirit of much that the Greek world held dear, and reverence for her was widespread. From the realm of war to far more peaceful pursuits, she was a beloved part of the Greek pantheon.

Historical Events1727 - Wreck of Dutch ship Zeewijk on the Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia, with the loss of 72 lives, 82 survivors eventually build a boat and sail to Batavia (Jakarta)1958 - HM Queen Elizabeth II officially opens London Gatwick Airport, (LGW), Crawley, West Sussex, United Kingdom.1970 - Harry Blackmun sworn in as US Supreme Court Justice1985 - NBA Championship, Boston Garden: Los Angeles Lakers beat Boston Celtics, 111-100 for a 4 games to 2 series victory; Finals MVP: Kareem Abdul-Jabbar1993 - Tickets for Indians 1st season in Jacobs Field go on saleMore Historical Events Famous Birthdays1810 - Carl Otto Ehrenfried Nicolai, German composer, one of the founders of the Vienna Philharmonic, born in Knigsberg, Prussia (d. 1849)1943 - Charles Saatchi, Iraqi English magnate and art collector (founded advertising company Saatchi and Saatchi), born in Baghdad, Iraq1956 - Patricia Cornwell, American author (Kay Scarpetta crime novels), born in Miami, Florida1961 - Aaron Sorkin, American screenwriter and playwright (A Few Good Men; The West Wing), born in New York City1975 - Paul Agostino, Australian soccer forward (18 caps; 1860 Munich 248 games), born in Adelaide, AustraliaMore Famous Birthdays Famous Deaths1901 - Walter Besant, English writer and philanthropist (Rebel Queen), dies at 641921 - Luis Mara Drago, Argentine statesman and author of Drago Doctrine, dies at 621967 - Stefan Boleslaw Poradowski, Polish composer, dies at 641994 - Angela Lakeberg, American siamese twin, dies at 11 months2002 - Hans Janmaat, Dutch politician and party leader (CP, CD), dies of heart failure at 67More Famous Deaths

An archaeological excavation at the Iron Age Drumanagh fort in north Dublin has unearthed the first intact Roman pot ever discovered in Ireland. A team of dozens of volunteers led by professional county archaeologists investigated an area of the fort site with unusual features seen in a previous geophysical survey. They found fragments of Roman amphorae right under the surface, and in one trench, the team found the intact upside-down pot next to a large fragment (neck and rim) of an amphora.The Drumanagh promontory fort was perched on a headland and the Roman Empire had a trading post there. There is no evidence of a Roman settlement, but the number and variety of finds attest to significant commercial contact between ancient Ireland and the Roman Empire.Excavations have been ongoing there every summer for five years, revealing import goods like spelt bread, olive oil, glass vessels, ceramic cups, jewelry, glass beads and in 2024, a 2,000-year-old fig. It too was also first of its kind ever discovered in Ireland, surviving only because it was charred. This years excavation also discovered eight bone combs, four dice made of antler, glass beads and peg gaming pieces.The Roman pot is now at the National Museum of Ireland where it will be cleaned, conserved and analyzed. The soil attached to the pot will also be analyzed for any organic trace remains.

The discovery provides information about how Ancient Egyptians may have dealt with pregnancy and maternal mortality. The post Scientists Discover The Remains Of A 3,700-Year-Old Egyptian Woman And Her Fetus Who Died In Childbirth appeared first on All That's Interesting.

After metal detectorists found brooches on Senja Island, a team of archaeologists conducted a full excavation and discovered the Viking woman and dog burial.The post Archaeologists In Norway Uncover An 1,100-Year-Old Boat Grave Of A Viking Woman And Her Dog appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Carlee Russell came up with an elaborate kidnapping hoax in July 2023, triggering a nationwide search before reappearing and admitting that it was all a ruse she'd devised after a fight with her then-boyfriend.The post The Strange Story Of Carlee Russell, The Alabama Nurse Who Faked Her Kidnapping appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Belisarius was a renowned military commander with impressive battlefield achievements. Hampered by limited resources in both men and money, he spearheaded Emperor Justinians attempt to reconquer the key territories of the former Western Roman Empire: Africa, Hispania, Italy, and Gaul. Yet, no victory would be complete without Rome. King Theodoric the Great had been an effective ruler of the Gothic kingdom of Italy. When he died, Justinian saw an opportunity to reclaim Rome for the Byzantine Empire.Theodoric and the Kingdom of ItalyCoin depicting Flavius Theodoricus (Theodoric the Great), Roman Vassal and King of the Ostrogoths. Source: Collection of Italian numismatic Francesco GnecchiWhile many people characterize barbarians as pillaging hordes bent on destruction and death, the barbarian was simply a term that the ancient Romans and Greeks used to describe ethnic groups that did not observe the same laws or culture or speak the same language as they did.The Germanic Kingdoms and the Eastern Roman Empire in 526. Map from Shepherd, W. R. (1911) The Historical Atlas. Source: The University of Texas at AustinTheodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, was an intelligent, cultured ruler who not only expanded his kingdom of Italy but also produced great works of art and architecture that built on the legacy of the Western Roman Empire.By Roman standards, Theodoric was a civilized barbarian of the former Western Roman Empire. Despite being an Arian Christian, he did not try to convert or subvert Italys ingrained orthodox Roman populace. Later generations added Great to his name in honor of the prosperity of his kingdom. The Ostrogoths changed little of the Roman administration and demonstrated respect and esteem for the Roman way of life and civilization (Hughes, pg. 73).Theodorics tomb in Ravenna by Robert von Spalart, 1804-1811. Source: The Wellcome Collection, LondonThe death of Theodoric in 526 and the elevation of his ten-year-old grandson, Athalaric, set the stage for the Gothic War between Theodorics successors and Emperor Justinian. The appointment of Athalarics mother, Amalasuntha, as regent increased tensions. She was well-educated and spoke Latin, Greek, and Gothic. The Ostrogoth nobles not only objected to a woman having such power over their king but also opposed her pro-Byzantine policies. They insisted that Athalaric should be brought up as a proper Goth instead. The young man started drinking heavily, and it soon became evident that he would not match his grandfathers longevity.Queen Amalasuntha of the Ostrogoths, 1500-1850. Source: The Austrian National Library, ViennaAfter Athalarics death, Amalasuntha married her cousin Theodahad, and they became co-monarchs of the Ostrogoth Kingdom. Amalasuntha considered him easily controllable since he was more interested in academic pursuits than political affairs. However, Theodahad was a more dangerous adversary than she anticipated. He deposed Amalasuntha and exiled her to Martana, an island in Lake Vulsina. Knowing that his actions would attract a response from Justinian, Theodahad arranged Amalasunthas murder to prevent her raising a resistance against him.The Invasion of Italy Begins in EarnestEmperor Justinian and Members of His Court. Reproduction of 6th century CE mosaic. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkAt first, it seemed that all of Italy would fall into the hands of Justinian with no need for further bloodshed, but the Roman General Mundus, entrusted with the conquest of Salona on the Adriatic coast (present-day Solin, Croatia), came to a grisly end in the Balkans. During an encounter with the Goths, Mundus fell, leaving his army leaderless and depriving Justinian of a trusted and able general. The Roman army in Dalmatia was forced to retreat. Theodahad displayed an unexpected spark of courage. He withdrew his offer to surrender Italy for extensive estates and an annual income of just under 90,000 solidi.The military situation was going much better for Belisarius. Having conquered North Africa, he landed in Sicily in 535 and quickly secured the surrender of Theodahads son-in-law and his men on the island as well as the Goths who were supposed to be guarding the straits separating Sicily from the Italian peninsula. The Romans then slowly but surely moved up the boot of Italy to the fortified city of Neapolis (present-day Naples), and encountered their first serious resistance in Italy. Naples was the center of Gothic power in southern Italy and was defended by a strong garrison.Belisarius could not risk bypassing Neapolis. Therefore, he initiated a blockade of the citys walls from land and sea but realized he could not afford to besiege the city indefinitely and give the Goths time to raise reinforcements to destroy the Romans. Thankfully for Belisarius, Theodahad was indecisive and made no attempt to reinforce Neapolis. The fortifications would still be an immense challenge, making it nearly impossible to bring ships close enough to attack the city.Aqueduct Tunnels Beneath Naples. Source: The Hydria Virtual MuseumTwenty days passed, and several attempts were made to take the city by assaulting its walls. With no success and only further losses that the Romans could not sustain for long, in true Belisarius fashion, a brilliant stroke of luck would soon manifest in one of the Roman foederati (allies): an Isaurian who had climbed up a broken part of an aqueduct leading into Neapolis. Belisarius tried to get the garrison to surrender one last time, but they refused.After some initial difficulties, the troops exited the aqueduct tunnel. They ran to the northern walls, killing the sentinels in the two main towers and taking the Goths entirely by surprise (Jacobsen, p. 91). The defenders were shocked but managed to hold for a more extended period on the South Wall, but once the Romans attacked in the rear, they finally fled, and at last, the road to Rome lay open.Restoration of RomeThe Walls and Gates of Rome in the early 6th century. Source: 1919 Edition of Procopius History of the Wars translated by H. B. DewingBy 536 CE, Theodahad began contemplating his next move against Belisarius. He established a Goth garrison in Rome, but placing Gothic troops in the city set off rioting. When protests escalated, the nobles who had once supported Theodahad lost confidence in him. Citing his ineffective leadership and failure to protect major cities such as Neapolis, they removed him from power. In his place, they selected the warlord Vitigis, an experienced soldier, to be the new king. (Parnell, pg. 93). Theodahad soon fled for his life, but Vitigis and the nobles hunted him down and killed him near Ravenna.Vitigis returned to Rome and demanded that Pope Silverius swear an oath of loyalty to the Gothic cause. He demanded the same vow from the Senate and other leading citizens. Vitigis even held several senators hostage as a reminder of the consequences for betrayal. Despite his bravado, he avoided immediate confrontation with Belisarius. Instead, he placed 4,000 men in the garrison before departing for Ravenna to counter a Frankish threat to the Gothic heartlands in northern Italy. He was confident that the garrison could provide adequate protection until he returned with reinforcements.In Vitigis absence, Pope Silverius sent an envoy to Belisarius, urging him to march with all haste to Rome to take possession of the city. As the Roman expeditionary force advanced along the Via Appia, the Gothic garrison prudently chose to retreat. Belisarius led his men into the city via the Porta Asinaria without serious opposition. He sent the one remaining Gothic commander to Emperor Justinian with the keys to the city (Sarris, p. 227).The Gothic CounterattackKing Vitigis of the Ostrogoths, 17th century. Source: The Austrian National Library, ViennaBelisarius knew that the Goths would direct their vengeance against him sooner or later. Belisarius ordered a moat to be dug around the city walls of Rome, and for the areas of the walls that had deteriorated due to neglect to be repaired (Hughes, p. 133). Using Rome as his principal base, Belisarius also dispatched troops to take control of the surrounding countryside.Alongside the repairs to the walls, he stockpiled provisions for a siege, even though the citizens informed him that attempts to defend all of Romes walls were not possible. All able-bodied Roman males were signed up to protect the walls and free up Belisarius men for field duty in case they had to fight beyond the city walls of Rome. Belisarius reputation as a skilled military leader encouraged neighboring Gothic commanders to join his forces despite Vitigis foot soldiers and cavalry outnumbering the Roman army.Even with their significant numerical advantage, Vitigis could still not surround the citys complete circuit defenses when the Goths finally arrived. The King of the Goths also did not fully feel comfortable trying to take Rome by storm, which would inevitably bring significant casualties and could easily lead to a complete collapse in morale (Sarris, p. 228).As the siege tightened, Belisarius sent Justinian a letter imploring the emperor to provide reinforcements. Justinian ordered more men from Greece to Italy, but this proved painfully slow. Vitigis looked for any tactics to break the Romans determination. He ordered his troops to block the aqueducts leading into the city. He wanted Romes citizens to suffer for choosing the wrong master.Belisarius thwarted Vitigis vengeance with a clever solution. He showed the citizens that the Tiber River could provide both a natural defense and hydraulic power for the mills that made the citys flour. With this strategy, Belisarius prevented riots and increased support. He planned food rationing and organized shelters in the citys buildings.The Siege of Rome BeginsWalls of Rome: The Aurelian Wall. With the Pyramid of Cestius. Painting by Isaac Weld, 1818. Source: The Yale Center for British Art, ConnecticutDespite the initial indecisiveness about a direct assault on Rome, the Goths realized they could not afford an indefinite siege. Vitigis ordered the construction of great siege towers to breach the massive Aurelian Walls. The fighting was incredibly desperate as the Romans had to fight against two simultaneous attacks on the walls. Time after time, the enemy came within mere inches of overwhelming Belisarius men.Belisarius seemed to be everywhere at once, firing arrows and aiding his men in hacking away at the scaling ladders. Soon, 30,000 Goths lay dead or dying on the battlefield, and Vittigis was left with seemingly nothing but the ashes of the smoldering remains of his siege towers (Brownsworth, p. 94).Despite these early victories, Belisarius knew the siege would test the limits of his soldiers capabilities. Fortunately, he had capable officers and seasoned veterans at his disposal. Belisarius could trust his subordinates to execute orders and adapt to the changing conditions of the battlefield. Still, he understood that his mission required further reinforcements, so he asked Justinian for additional troops. The Emperor ignored Belisarius requests. If his most skilled general could deliver Africa with a mere handful of men, why should Italy be any different?Just as the Romans manpower was at a breaking point, Justinian relented and sent reinforcements. Within the Gothic camp, Vitigis forces grew impatient and weary. They were exposed to the elements, running short of food and trying to avoid sickness in unsanitary conditions. Vitigis knew he was fighting a losing battle. Even the land itself around Rome seemed utterly exhausted (Brownsworth, pg. 95).The Light of Rome Is Not Yet ExtinguishedMap of Europe in around 565 CE after Justianians reconquests. From A History of medieval and modern Europe from secondary schools by W. S. Davis and N. S. McKendrick, published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920. Source: The Library of Congress, Washington DCOnce Vittigis figured out that a Roman advance force had managed to slip out of Rome and capture the town of Rimini, only 33 miles from Ravenna, he realized there was no glory to be gained and cursed the winds that brought these Romans to his shores.He ordered his army to withdraw from Rome, and Belisarius ensured that the Goths would pay for their arrogance by inflicting a humiliating rout on them.With only a few thousand men, the Roman general had taken on the mighty Ostrogothic Kingdom and managed to cripple its fighting abilities within only two years (Brownsworth, p. 96). Having fallen to barbarians on several occasions over the previous centuries, the Eternal City of Rome now seemed secure under the firm protection of the empire, but would it stay that way?BibliographyBrownworth, L. (2009). Lost to the west. The forgotten Byzantine Empire that rescued Western Civilization. Three Rivers Press.Hughes, I. (2009). Belisarius: The Last Roman General. Westholme Publishing, LLC.Jacobsen, T. C. (2012). The Gothic War: Justinians Campaign to Reclaim Italy. Westholme Publishing, LLC.Parnell, D. (2023). Belisarius & Antonia: Love and War in the Age of Justinian. Oxford University Press.Sarris, P. (2023). Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. Basic Books.

By the 1260s, the Mongols controlled most of China, except for the Song Dynasty in southern China. Korea (Goryeo) remained independent but as a vassal state. Now Kublai Khan looked to Imperial Japan which lay not far. Kublai sent six diplomatic missions between 1268 and 1273, demanding a relationship but threatening war. The Kamakura shogunate rebuffed each effort, even beheading several Mongols.This continual refusal to acknowledge Kublais authority attacked his prestige, a major insult for the worlds top power. Economically known for its gold and silver, Japan would benefit Kublais growing empire. Plus, Kublai sought to add Japan as a vassal state, viewing the island nation as a tributary state from the Chinese perspective.Angered by Japans non-responses to his overtures, Kublai Khan in 1273 decided to subjugate Japan. Yet preparations would be needed. Though masters of mobile warfare, the Mongols required ships and expertise that only the Khans vassals, China and Goryeo could provide.The Role of Korea and China in the Mongol InvasionsPortrait of Kublai Khan by court artist Araniko in the Album of Yuan Emperor Portraits, c. 1294. Source: Wikimedia Commons (National Palace Museum, Taipei)As subjugated nations, China and Korea had no options. Both supplied men, supplies, and ships for the invasion. Records indicate that many invading soldiers were conscripted soldiers, many reluctant. The Mongols chose Korea as the site for their initial invasion; only 124 miles of ocean separated the two nations. By late 1274, they had completed all preparations.Mongols First LandingMongols pursuing Seljuk troops at the Battle of Kse Da, from Fleur des histories dorient, by Hayton of Corycus, ca.1350. Source: National Library of FranceIn November 1274, the Mongols fleet appeared off Hakata, Japan. The Mongols first crushed samurai garrisons on the islands of Tsushima and Iki. Next, the 900 ships and 40,000 soldiers sailed for the mainland. The Kamakura Shoguns, anticipating the invasion at Hakata on Kyushu, added defenses. Samurai warriors also reinforced the local noble clans, adding thousands.Establishing a foothold, the Mongols overpowered the samurai with superior tactics and weaponry. The samurai counterattacked fiercely, but individually, not having yet mastered mass combat. Additionally, the Mongols employed exploding shells, poisoned arrows, and more effective tactics. Unable to push the Mongols and their vassals back into the sea, the samurai still inflicted heavy casualties.The samurai retreated, but the Mongol army halted, offering no pursuit. Reasons vary from a lack of arrows, combat losses, or the invasion being a test. The Mongols returned to their ships. That night, a typhoon struck, wiping out one-third of the fleet.Khans Reaction to the DefeatMongol horseman with bow and arrow. Source: Ars TechnicaDespite this setback, Kublai Khan remained determined to conquer Imperial Japan. He refused all advice regarding future invasions, remaining undaunted. Khan did dispatch more emissaries, seeking to bring Japan into the fold. As before, the Japanese executed or dismissed the envoys.Both sides knew a sequel was inevitable. By 1279, the Khans forces routed the Song Dynasty of Southern China. An anxious Japanese Shogunate built better defenses on Kyushu, close to the first attempt. The defenses included the Genko Borui, a 6-foot-high, thick wall running 12 miles.The Second Mongol InvasionMounted Japanese Samurai. Source: British MuseumIn June 1281, the Mongols launched a two-pronged attack. Hakata Bay bore the brunt of this attack for a second time. This armada dwarfed the first invasion, involving some 3,500 vessels and 140,000 troops. Sources on actual numbers vary wildly, however. Despite fierce fighting at Hakata, the Japanese halted the Mongols Eastern army. The stout Genko Borui blocked them. The Mongols withdrew to wait for the Southern Route army.Why Did Only One Mongol Army Attack?Chinese Junk Used by Mongols. Source: NPRThe landings at Hakata Bay came from the Eastern Route arm commanders impatience. Reinforced by the massive Southern Route force sailing from China, the Mongols struck again in July. Landing on Shikanoshima Island, the Mongols made no headway. Using night raids and guerrilla tactics, the samurai continually harassed the invaders.Despite a numerical advantage, the Mongols couldnt get a decisive win. The samurai refused open battle when possible. Hit-and-run attacks (on land and sea), defensive fortifications, and their superior hand-to-hand fighting abilities contributed to the stalemate. The fighting dragged on into August 1281.Why Did the Fighting End?Mongols at the walls of Vladimir 1238, the Mongol army besieges the city of Vladimir by Vassily Maximov, c. 1900. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Mongol invasion came to a sudden end on August 15, 1281. Again, Japans fate was determined by a chance typhoon. Anchored in Hakata Bay, this massive storm struck, wrecking the fleet and drowning thousands, upwards of half of all the invaders. Only a remnant of the Khans fleet returned to port. The samurai ruthlessly hunted down and exterminated the survivors. The surprised Japanese called these winds kamikaze or divine winds. Luckily for Japan, Kublai Khan turned his attentions elsewhere, ignoring Japan.

Athena, a goddess of wisdom and warfare and the patron goddess of Athens, was one of the most popular deities in the Greek pantheon. The Olympian goddess was frequently represented and associated with symbols drawn from her complex mythology. From the wise little owl to the terrifying Gorgoneion head of Medusa, Athenas symbols reveal much about her mythology and her importance in Greek religion.Symbols of Athena: The OwlStatue showing detail of owls on Athenas Corinthian helmet, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerhaps one of the most enduring symbols associated with Athena is the owl. It is unclear exactly where this connection originated, but a popular theory is that Athena has her origins in Minoan culture. In the early 20th century, Martin Persson Nilsson and David Kinsley suggested that Athenas roots go back to a Minoan palace goddess associated with birds. Meanwhile, Lithuanian archaeologist Marija Gimbutas suggested that Athena is descended from a European bird and snake goddess.It is also suggested that Athena may have actually been an owl, or just a bird in general, before shedding her avian form. In classical artwork, she was sometimes depicted with feathery wings.Silver coin featuring the owl of Athena, Athens, c. 6th/5th century BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of ArtWhile Athena is also associated with snakes, her association specifically with owls has generated other theories. Professor William Geoffrey Arnott suggested that the link was due to the high number of owls in Attica where Athens is situated.Whatever the reason for the association, Athena was and has always been associated with the little owl (Athene noctua), a small species of owl common to the temperate zones of Europe and Asia from Portugal to the Korean Peninsula.The little owl (Athene noctua). Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe little owl was adopted as the symbol of Athens to show the citys loyalty to its patron goddess. They often included owl imagery on coins, works of art, banners, and shields.As it does now, the owl is believed to have symbolized knowledge, wisdom, shrewdness, and insight, common motifs throughout Athenian society, and the perception the Athenians wanted to present.Athena and Her Symbols of WarAthena attacks the giant Enceladus, reproductive print, c. 1844-1861. Source: New York Public Library.As both a warrior goddess and a goddess of wisdom, Athena became associated with strategic warfare rather than the brute-force side of war represented by the god Ares. She was often depicted with a shield, a spear, and wearing a helm. Athena was thought of as a warrior goddess who accompanied soldiers and heroes in their combative pursuits.According to Greek mythology, Athena was born in full armor, ready for battle. She was the daughter of Zeus and Metis, an Oceanid, one of the 3,000 sea nymphs born to the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. Associated with wisdom and skill, Metis was an advisor and the first wife of Zeus.Zeus, fearful that his children born of Metis would become more powerful than their father, turned Metis into a fly and swallowed her whole while she was pregnant. Metis and her unborn daughter lived in Zeus mind, and gave him such a terrible headache that he asked Hermes for aid. Hermes instructed Hephaestus to split Zeus skull open to ease the pain. When Hephaestus struck, Athena sprang from Zeus skull, fully grown, wearing armor, and wielding a spear. Thus depicted, Athena was symbolically linked to resistance and victory, and not just physically. Born out of the mind of her father, her warrior element was linked to intellect.The symbolic effect of war and the philosophy behind it were part of ancient and classical Greek culture. While Ares symbolized brute force and bloodlust, Athena was symbolically linked to the intellectual and civilized aspects of war. Restraint, pragmatism, and good counsel were considered hallmarks of this aspect.Whatever aspect of war and combat she represented, however, Athena was often depicted with the gear of a soldier or a warrior, guiding combatants to victory, and providing protective aid.The Olive TreeThe sacred olive tree beside the temple of Erechtheion (Temple of Athena) atop the Acropolis of Athens. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn Greek mythology, when Athens was founded, Poseidon and Athena disputed who would be the citys patron god. They decided that whoever could provide the most useful gift would have the honor. Poseidon struck the ground of the acropolis with his trident, and a spring burst forth from the ground. The people of Athens were elated until they tasted the water. It was as salty as the ocean and completely useless.Athena then pierced a boulder with her spear, splitting it in two. From the rock sprouted a beautiful tree with silvery leaves. This was the first olive tree, and the Athenians found many uses for it. The olives were consumed, along with olive oil, which was also used for illumination and perfume amongst many other things. The wood was carved into votive statues.To add insult to Poseidons injury, the olive tree proved to be hardy and resistant to brackish water. Thus, Athena became the patron goddess of Athens and has been associated with the olive tree ever since.Today, there is an olive tree atop the Acropolis that is associated with the Athenian myth. It is said that this tree stands in roughly the same spot where the first olive tree, revered by the Athenians thousands of years ago, stood.The Head of MedusaModern statue of Athena with a shield featuring the head of Medusa at the Museumsberg, Flensburg. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the many symbols associated with Athena is the head of the gorgon, Medusa. The hero Perseus, in his quest to kill Medusa, turned to his half-sister, Athena, for aid. The goddess gave Perseus a finely polished shield that became instrumental in Medusas defeat. The gorgons powerful attribute was that she could turn anyone who looked upon her to stone. Athenas shield gave Perseus the opportunity to fight Medusa by looking at her reflection in the polished metal.Victorious, Perseus presented Medusas severed head to Athena, who attached it to her aegis. It is unclear what exactly an aegis is. It has been variously described as a breastplate, a cloak, or a shield. A shield is considered the most likely suggestion. Regardless, the aegis is a symbol of defense, and upon Athenas aegis is a symbol of Athenas power of victory and the destruction of her enemies.SnakesA statue of Athena with a snake, by Alessandro Algardi, c. 17th century. Source: Boncompagni Ludovisi CollectionMany depictions of Athena also include her accompanied by a snake, and her association with the serpent can be interpreted in many ways. One of the most common interpretations is that snakes symbolize rejuvenation and rebirth because they shed their skin and are symbolically reborn.The snake is a versatile symbol that can represent many things associated with Athena. Snakes were symbolic of cunning, an attribute represented in Athena. They also represented fertility in the earth, and because of their fangs and venom, were representative of danger, and were powerful symbols of protection.Other SymbolsMyrtle flowers. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMany other minor symbols have often appeared in depictions of Athena. Roosters, doves, and eagles have been associated with the goddess, but none of these birds are as ubiquitous as the little owl. Athena is also associated with the flute. In myth, it is said that she invented the flute but cast it aside because when played, it made her face look ugly.In addition to being the goddess of war and wisdom, Athena was also seen as a fierce protector of the earth and nature. As such, plants aside from the olive tree were associated with her. The acanthus, with its bristle-like blooms, was often seen as a symbol of protection, and thus, it became associated with Athena. Another plant is myrtle, which, above all things, is symbolic of love.Despite the association of Athena with martial prowess, and military matters, Athena was also the goddess of handicrafts, especially associated with weaving. In Greek mythology, according to the Roman poet Ovid, a woman named Arachne boasted that her weaving skill surpassed that of the goddess. Athena responded by challenging her to a weaving contest. When Athena could not find any fault with her opponents finished product, she became enraged and beat Arachne with a shuttle. Arachne hanged herself out of shame, but Athena took pity on her and transformed her into a spider so she could weave webs for all time.Colors of AthenaDetail from a statue of Athena in a Corinthian helmet, Greek, c. 180-190 CE. Source: Liebieghaus, FrankfurtApart from symbols that are depicted as tangible objects, there were also colors associated with Athena. She was often represented with yellow and gold, a common motif among the Greek gods. For the ancient Greeks, these colors symbolized the divine and the powerful brightness of the sun. Athena was also depicted with the color blue, which was associated with wisdom, purity, and divinity.Athena is one of the pre-eminent deities in Greek antiquity. Her symbolic significance and the objects associated with her were powerful symbols that formed part of her character and had a huge impact on the beliefs of the Greeks millennia ago.These symbols have not been forgotten. Just as she was in ancient times, Athena is a popular subject for artists, who use the same symbols and motifs to express the goddesss character and nature.