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It's not to be sneezed at.

Every culture across time has told stories of fantastical, mythical creatures. Some are described as wondrous and incredible, while others occupy a darker, more terrifying place in the imagination. The purpose of these darker mythical creatures is seemingly to wreak havoc and destruction, strike fear, torment their victims, and commit inhumane atrocities. These horror myths are strangely appealing, drawing on fears and insecurities inherent in human nature and sometimes acting as cautionary tales. Lets look at 16 of the most terrifying mythical creatures from around the world.1. Jorogumo: Terrifying Japanese Spider SeducerNight Procession of One Hundred Demons, by Toriyama Seikien, 1915. Source: British MuseumIn Japanese mythology, a Jorogumo was a deadly hybrid creature that could transform from a spider into a beautiful woman to seduce and kill its victims. The story goes that when a Jorogumo spider, a common species found in Japan, reached 400 years, it gained the power to shapeshift and developed an appetite for human flesh.Disguised as beautiful women, these creepy creatures were able to enchant and lure men into their web of lies. Their webs were constructed of silk threads so robust that, once trapped, no man could escape. According to Japanese folklore, the Jorogumo would then administer its lethal venom, gradually weakening its victim, to savor its prey as long as possible. A slow and painful demise for their sorry victim.2. Gashadokuro: Skeletal Giant of JapanMitsukuni defying the skeleton specter conjured up by Princess Takiyasha, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1797-1861. Source: SothebysGashadokuro are gigantic mythological creatures amalgamated from the bones of human skeletons in Japanese mythology. In situations of mass death, such as famines or wars, individuals could not receive proper funeral rites. That mean that they were unable to move on after death. As their bodies decayed, their souls became twisted with wrath and resentment towards the living. Their souls and bones merged into one enormous being called a Gashadokuro, translated as the starving skeleton.Terrifyingly silent, aside from the unnerving chattering of their teeth, these mythical creatures skulked around deep in the night, looking for prey. Finding their victim, they decapitated them and drank their blood. A Gashadokuro would continue terrorizing the night until the resentment of every soul residing within the creature had dwindled, no longer animating the skeletal monster.3. Penanggalan: Malay Disembodied VampirePenanggalan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPenanggalan are infamous mythological creatures known by different names throughout Southeast Asia. In Malay myth, a Penanggalan was once a mortal woman who performed witchcraft and black magic.A popular version of the myth states that one woman agreed to become a vegetarian for 40 days in exchange for youthful beauty. Ultimately, she broke her pact and was cursed to become a flesh-eating Penanggalan. During the day, she resembled an ordinary woman, but at night, her head would detach from her body, floating around with her trailing entrails. This disembodied figure flew around searching for sustenance in the form of pregnant women and infants, draining them of their blood. Those fed on by this vampiric creature ended up contracting a fatal disease. Returning to her abode, a Penanggalan would soak herself in vinegar to shrink her organs back into her body. A Penanggalan, therefore, could be recognized during the day by this tell-tale smell of vinegar.4. Lamashtu: Mesopotamian Mother of DemonsNeo-Assyrian Lamashtu Amulet, 800BC-550 BCE. Source: British MuseumThe demon goddess of Mesopotamian mythology, Lamashtu, was a hellish hybrid creature usually depicted as pregnant, covered with thick hair, and with two skulls over her breasts, a snakes tail, large wings, three eyes, and taloned feet. The head of this beast was said to be either a jackal, lioness, snake, or hawk, depending on the source.Lamashtu was known to enact destruction by polluting nature and water, spreading disease, causing nightmares, as well as drinking the blood and devouring human flesh. She is said to have especially terrorized pregnant women and children. The demoness would force miscarriages to occur and kidnap infants, feeding them with her own poisonous milk before chomping on their bones and satisfying her thirst with their blood. Lamashtu herself was considered the mother of many demonic creatures and monsters who carried out her malevolent bidding.5. Ammit: Egyptian Devourer of the DeadAmmit & Thoth Await the Judgement of a Soul, 1250 BCE. Source: British MuseumIn Ancient Egyptian mythology, Ammit was a beastly goddess with the head of a crocodile, the frontal body of a lion, and the rear of a hippopotamus. Known as the Devourer of the Dead, Ammit fulfilled a particularly gruesome role in the judgment of souls. In the underworld, Thoth would weigh the heart of an individual against the feather of Maat, the goddess of truth.The scales remained balanced if the individual was pure, but would be tipped if this was not the case. A heavy heart meant that the person was unworthy of eternal bliss. These hearts of the impure were thrown to Ammit. The beast, devouring their hearts, would ensure that these souls ceased to exist forever. This was the worst fate in a culture focused on life after death.6. Typhon: Greek Monster of MonstersAlabastron with Typhon, 600-575 BCE. Source: Yale University Art GalleryIn Greek mythology, Typhon was regarded as the fiercest, deadliest, and biggest of giants, monsters, and gods. He generally possessed the upper body of a man, while hundreds of snakes comprised his bottom half. His eyes gleamed red with fire, and wings sprouted from his back. Although descriptions of Typhon vary, it is generally understood that he was an immeasurably colossal being with numerous wings, heads, hands, and snakes.According to Hesiod, this monstrous creation of Gaia and Tartarus attempted to overthrow Zeus and rule over the heavens. Unsuccessful in this attempt, Zeus conquered Typhon with a hundred lightning bolts and imprisoned him within the pits of Tartarus. Indeed, Typhon is said to have been buried under Mount Etna, his constant rage resulting in any volcanic activity. The most terrifying monster in Greek mythology, Typhon was also said to father other infamous Greek monsters such as Cerberus, the Hydra, and the Chimera.7. Hydra: Serpentine Leviathan of GreeceHercules and the Lernaean Hydra, by Gustave Moreau, 1875-1876. Source: Art Institute of ChicagoThe Hydra was a gigantic serpent with numerous heads; the number varies according to different sources. It resided in Lernas lakes. The water-dwelling monster is said to have poisonous breath and blood.Several versions of the myth claim that the monster possessed a regenerative ability, for each head that was decapitated, two more grew in its place. The most infamous tale of the Hydra is the completion of Hercules Second Labor. The hero is sent to slay the monster. With the aid of his nephew, Iolaus, Hercules decapitated and, importantly, cauterized each head to hinder the Hydras regenerative power. Finally, Hercules beheaded the last immortal head of the serpent, dipped his arrows in its poisonous blood for future enemies, and buried its head, still alive, under a heavy rock.8. Mare: Norse Nightmare GiverThe Nightmare, by Henry Fuseli, 1781. Source: Detroit Institute of ArtsIn Norse mythology, a mare was a demonic spirit who could induce nightmares in sleeping people. During the night, this mythological creature would sneak into a persons home through their keyhole. Climbing upon the chest of the sleeping individual, they would provoke terrifying nightmares based upon the sleepers fears and anxieties. Their victim would experience a heavy weight on their chest, awareness of a dark presence, and find themselves unable to move or wake up. This was perhaps a Medieval explanation of what is now known as sleep paralysis.Unlike the abovepainting, a mare was considered a female demon, typically depicted as either a youthful, beautiful woman or an old, hideous hag.9. Draugr: Norse Undead RevenantInk drawing of a draugr, by Kim Diaz Holm, 2024. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe draugr, the resurrected corpses of Viking warriors, were terrifying, zombie-like mythical creatures that roamed the world searching for their victims. They could be clearly recognized by the stench of rotting flesh and their deathly black or blue skin. The draugr possessed staggering strength, could increase their body size as they wished, and haunted the dreams of the living.In some versions of the myth, these undead mythological creatures were also thought to have several magical powers, such as shapeshifting, premonitions, and weather control. The only motivation for these bloodthirsty, creepy creatures was to slaughter any living being, whether humans or livestock, to satiate their thirst for flesh and blood. The draugr condition appeared to be contagious, like modern ideas of zombies, as those killed by the draugr would resurrect themselves as these creatures. The draugr were pretty indestructible, and the only way to kill them was through decapitation, incineration of the body, and discarding of the ashes in the sea.10. Banshee: Terrifying Irish ScreacherThe Hateful Banshee, illustration from McAnallys Irish Wonders, 2006 edition. Source: British Library; with The Banshee, by Henry Meynell Rheam, 1897-1901. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the more infamous mythical creatures on this list is the banshee, a female spirit or fairy known in Irish folklore as the harbinger of death. Depending on the version of the myth, she is either described as a hauntingly striking beauty or an ancient crone. She is said to have long white hair, a grey cloak, and eyes permanently red from her tears.This mythological creature was known to be a foreteller of death to those who laid their eyes on her, killed by her piercing scream. Indeed, the most terrifying quality of the banshee was her painfully disturbing wail. Their scream was so bloodcurdling that it was said to affect a persons mind and could be heard from a great distance.11. Nuckelavee: Creature of the Orkney IslesThe Nuckelavee chasing an islander, painting by James Torrance, c. 18591916. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile the Loch Ness monster might be the most famous creature from Scottish folklore, the most terrifying is the Nuckelavee. Described as a horse-like demon with a human rider fused to its back, the Nuckelavee is said to emerge from the sea. Its skinless body reveals muscle and sinew. The mere sight of the Nuckelavee is enough to cause illness, and its breath is toxic. It brings disease and destruction wherever it roams.12. Wendigo: Native American CannibalArtsitic rediction of a Wendigo. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Wendigo comes from American Algonquian folklore. It is a malevolent spirit that can possess human beings and inflict them with an insatiable hunger that can only be satisfied by eating other humans. It is said to turn their heart to ice, resulting in the possessed person being cold to the touch. While the Wendigo can blend in early during possession, when the possessed person cannot satisfy their hunger, they become gaunt and desiccated.In modern psychiatry, Wendigo Psychosis is characterized by the desire to eat human flesh and engage in cannibalism.13. Skin Walkers: Native American ShapeshiftersA figure representing Zahadolzha, a Navajo god, published in Volume I of The North American Indian (1907) by Edward S. Curtis. Source: Universal History ArchiveA skin-walker is a shape-shifting witch from the Navajo tradition. They were once shamans but chose to use their gifts for evil purposes. They can assume the shape of any animal or human they choose to assume their identity, and are also sometimes described as possessing people. The Navajo name directly translates as by means of it, it goes on all fours due to its penchant for taking the form of an animal. Whatever shape it chooses, its purpose is always malevolent, and they are considered among the most dangerous Native American mythical creatures.14. Patasola: Hunting Vampires of Latin American FolklorePatasola, by Danny GonzalezThe Patasola comes from Colombian folklore and is a female monster that lives in the jungle. It approaches male hunters in the wilderness when they are thinking about women. She appears as a beautiful seductress or even like a loved one of her victims and lures the man deep into the jungle. There, she reveals her true nature as a hideous one-legged creature with an appetite for human flesh and blood. She sucks the blood of her victims dry and then devours their flesh, and they are never seen again.15. Jersey Devil: Mythical Creature of Modern AmericaThe Jersey Devil, an illustration in The Evening Bulletin Philadelphia in January 21, 1909. Source: Wikimedia CommonsUrban legends from Jersey and Philadelphia report a creature that inhabits the Pine Barrens in South Jersey. It is described in many different ways, but it walks on two legs and has the hooves of a horse, a goat-like head, leathery bat wings, horns, small arms with clawed hands, and a forked tail like the devil. The Jersey Devil can move quickly through the barrens and often lets out a high-pitched, blood-curdling scream. It was apparently the 13th child of a woman in the area who cursed the baby to be a devil during childbirth. There have been many sightings over the years, and in the 1960s, the Philadelphia Zoo offered a reward for the creature.16. Chupacabra: The Worlds Newest Monster?Illustration of a Chupacabra. Source: BBC<p>In 1975, a series of livestock killings in a small town in Puerto Rico was attributed to either a vampire or a satanic cult. But the livestock killings continued, with all the animals bled dry through a series of circular incisions, a new theory emerged. By 1995, these attacks were blamed on chupacabra, which means goat sucker, a legendary creature from folklore that drinks blood to sate its insatiable hunger. A reptile-like creature the size of a small bear, it has a row of spines reaching from the neck to the base of the tail. Eyewitnesses report they have seen the creature across Latin America, and a 2019 video may provide further evidence.

Richard I of England, also known as Richard the Lionheart, became one of the most famous royals to go on the crusades. His leadership in the Third Crusade against Saladin shaped not only the course of medieval warfare but shaped his image of royal piety and heroism that continues even today.The Crusades in SummaryA knight in a typical Norman hauberk and nasal helmet demonstrates deadly mounted force in this 19th-century depiction of Crusader Robert of Normandy. Robert de Normandie at the Siege of Antioch, by J. J. Dassy,1850. Source: BritannicaThe crusades were a series of wars that were centered primarily on religion, specifically the differences between European Christians and Muslims. They took place between the 11th and 13th centuries. At their heart lay the tension between the expansion of Muslim territories. The subsequent spread of Islam was worrisome to the church. In order to retake the area and conquer pagan areas they created what would become a series of wars in order to reclaim or secure what they viewed as sacred land, particularly Jerusalem. What was seen as a simple expedition turned into hundreds of years of warfare.Pope Urban II Preaching the Crusades in the Square of Clermont, by Francesco Hayez, 1835. Source: ArtgateThe First Crusade was called by Pope Urban II, in order to take control of Jerusalem in 1095. The city had religious historical importance to the church. The Popes speech at Clermont was both spiritual and political, an appeal to unity in often warring kingdoms under a shared Christian cause. It was believed that participation in these wars meant the forgiveness of sins and eternal reward.By the time Richard the Lionheart joined the cause, the crusades had evolved from spontaneous holy wars into highly organized campaigns that involved massive wealth and armies of kings. The wars shaped European religious identities and deepened divisions between Christianity and Islam.Richard the Lionheart Before the CrusadesRichard I and Philip II receiving the keys of Acre, from Grandes Chroniques de France, 1375-80. Source: BnFBefore he would become a traditional crusading king, Richard I was already a soldier created in a court full of intrigue and rebellion. He was exposed to warfare and military tactics and had experience in leadership that he would later carry with him to the Third Crusade.Richard I was born in 1157 into the Angevin Empire, the son of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was the third son. Much of his formative life was spent with his mother in Aquitaine. By his late teens, he was already a strong commander, leading campaigns and suppressing revolts. After his father died, he was crowned king. During his ten-year reign as the King of England, he only spent about half a year in total in England. His reputation, however, was made by his actions as a crusader.Richard I and the Third CrusadeThe Crusaders Cross the Bosphorus, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTheatrics and religious differences played a large part in rallying support for the crusades. When Jerusalem fell to Saladin in 1187, Europe felt it as a collective blow. When the papacy called for a new crusade, Richard saw an opportunity to prove himself as king. Chroniclers described how he prepared by gathering fleets, raising taxes, and having oaths sworn throughout his lands. Unlike his father, who focused on diplomacy, Richard was determined to go to war in the East. Richards reasons for joining the crusade were both religious and practical. By taking the cross, he showed his faith and also took on a leadership role that could help bring together his divided lands.How Richards Leadership Transformed the Third CrusadeDepiction of Richard (L) and Saladin , c. 1250-1260, on tiles from the Chertsey Abbey in Surrey, now at the British Museum. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRichard Is work in the Third Crusade was important for minor victories. He not only knew what it took to rule, but he had a knack for tactics and the charisma to rally troops. One of his first major victories when he went there was the capture of Acre in 1191. At the time Saladin had controlled much of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which also included the city of Acre. He won the fortress city after heavy losses by the crusaders, including the Battle of Hattin. When it was won back by Richard I and the other Crusaders it became a headquarters of military and diplomacy.Richards Use of DiplomacyA statue of Saladin in Al-Karak, Jordan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile Richard I was known for his military skill, his diplomatic abilities were important to his victories. Battles and negotiation were important in warfare during the Medieval time period, and Richard I knew that victory could be formed from both the sword as well as the written and spoken word. His relationship with Saladin, the Muslim leader and Sultan of Egypt, was part of this.After years of battles without any real victory, both sides recognized a stalemate. The crusaders were unable to take back Jerusalem. The fight so far from home also was a huge drain on resources for both sides. Richard I was vital in negotiating the Treaty of Ramla in 1192. The Treaty of Ramla was signed by Saladin and Richard I. It allowed the city of Jerusalem to be under Muslim control and for Christians to visit safely on pilgrimages.How Richards Legacy Shaped the Crusading KingshipThe Cathedral of Saint Anne in Jerusalem, built by crusaders in the 1130s to replace a Byzantine church. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRichard I was far from the only king to go on a crusade. Philip II of France, Frederick Babarossa of Germany and Louis IX of France also led military campaigns. Still, Richard Is reign redefined what being a crusading king actually meant. While historically kings took place in wars and battles, the interest in keeping the lineage safe and the line unbroken meant it was safer and more important for them to do this from home base.In contrast, Richard embodied the knightly ideal that we hold from tales like King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. He was a warrior-king who led his armies and lived by the chivalry code. His courage and leadership during battle in the Crusade became a model for other kings. His death only made his legend grow exponentially. Chroniclers and poets turned him into a symbol of Christianity, the righteousness of the Crusades, and he has since been woven into rich and lavish forms of art and literature.

Hidden away among the many King Louis is one of French historys most interesting characters: King Philip IV. Known as Philip the Fair, he ruled from 1285 to 1314, an incredible period in French history. He was also known as the Iron King, which was a testament to the way that he ruled. One of the most interesting aspects of Philips reign was that he fathered three kings of France, and one Queen of Englandsomething that other monarchs have seldom achieved. Read on to find out about the incredible life and reign of this brilliant medieval French king.Philips Early LifePhilip IV the Fair, from Recueil des rois de France, by Jean du Tillet, 1550. Source: BnFPhilip was born into the House of Capet in the spring of 1268 in the Palace of Fontainebleau, France. His father was King Philip III of France (r. 1270-85) and his mother was Isabella of Aragon.Philips early life was fairly tumultuous. In 1270, his grandfather, King Louis IX, died while on crusade, and his father became king. In January 1271, when Philip was not quite three years old, his mother died while horseriding, and she was pregnant with her fifth child.Just a few months later, one of Philips younger brothers, Robert, died. On August 15 of the same year, Philips father was formally crowned King Philip III of France at Rheims, and he married six days later.In May 1276, Philips older brother, Louis, the heir apparent, died. This then made Philip the heir to the French throne. A rumor circulated that Philip and Louiss stepmother, Marie, had poisoned Louis as she had recently given birth to her own son, who could be in contention to become king. However, this is unlikely, as Philip lived to become king, and his younger biological brother Charles also lived well into adulthood.Little else is known about Philips early years, save that he received a good education under the guidance of his fathers almoner, Guillaume dErcuis.On August 16, 1284, aged 16, Philip married Joan I of Navarre, a marriage which would last until her death in 1305. The couple were known to be genuinely devoted to each other, with Philip refusing to marry after her death, even for lucrative political and financial rewards.Philip IVs Early ReignCoin of Philip IV of France, 1285-1314. Source: The British MuseumPhilip III died of dysentery while on the Aragonese Crusade aged 40 on October 5, 1285, leaving the throne to his 17-year-old son, who was officially crowned as King Philip IV of France at Reims on January 6, 1286.Philip was determined to strengthen the monarchy throughout his reign at the expense of reducing the wealth and power of the clergy and nobility. Despite this, Philip was known to be pious and donated a lot of money to the Church throughout his reign.Philips desire to strengthen the monarchy ultimately led to the transformation of France from a feudal state into a centralized early modern state, and he became one of the most highly-revered European monarchs of the 13th and 14th centuries.Because of his ambitious nature, he was very well respected around Europe, and, similarly to many of his contemporaries, he sought to place as many of his relatives on various European thrones as possible.Troubles With EnglandEdward I paying homage to Philip IV, by Jean Fouquet, 1455. Source: BnFAs Duke of Aquitaine, King Edward I of England was supposed to pay Philip homage, but after the Crusaders lost Acre in 1291, the two kings began to show animosity toward each other.In 1293, La Rochelle, a coastal town in France, was sacked by English sailors, and Philip summoned Edward to France to offer an explanation. Philip only addressed Edward as a vassal and a duke, yet despite this insult, Edward wanted to avert war at all costs.An agreement was made between the two monarchs that Edward would temporarily relinquish Gascony to Philip, and that Edward was to marry Philips sister, Margaret.On May 19, 1294, Edward (after refusing to attend Philips court earlier in the year) was relieved of Aquitaine, Gascony, and other Plantagenet territories in France. In response, Edward renounced his homage to Philip and began to prepare for war. This conflict would rage on until 1303 and became known as the Gascon War.The Gascon War (1294-1303)Depiction of a conflict during the Gascon War, c. 1350. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrance initially turned to Scotland for support in the war, renewing the Auld Alliance, as Edward had been busy fighting the Scots in the First Scottish Wars of Independence at the same time, and now had war on both fronts of his kingdom to deal with.However, France was not just fighting one battle; Edward assisted the Kingdom of Flanders in their war against the French, so France ended up fighting wars on two fronts.The Gascon War was arguably Philips biggest humiliation as king of France. Not only did the war cost thousands of lives, and was incredibly expensive, but Philip ended up coming out of it worse off than Edward.The French defeat at the Battle of the Golden Spurs on July 11, 1302 was the final nail in the coffin which forced Philip to give Aquitaine back to Edward.To seal the deal at the end of the war, Philips daughter Isabella was betrothed to Edwards son, Edward, who would go on to rule as King Edward II of England. This marriage produced an heir (the unborn but future King Edward III of England), who would therefore have a rightful claim to the French throne through his mother. Who knew at the time, then, that this decision of betrothal would eventually lead to one of the bloodiest conflicts in European history: the Hundred Years War?The Beginning of the Avignon PapacyPope Clement V, by Andrea di Bonaaiuto, c. 1365-67. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs mentioned above, Philip was an incredibly strong leader. Sometimes, he was too strong for his own good.He attempted to impose state control over the Catholic Church in France, which led to conflict with Pope Boniface VIII.This conflict turned violent, and the popes residence at Anagni, just south of Rome, was attacked in September 1303 by French forces supported by the Colonna family.This put the pope in great danger, and he was even captured before being released a few days later.Naturally, he had to move. The move eventually became known as the Avignon Papacy (1309-76), as seven successive popes resided in Avignon, rather than Rome. At the time Avignon was in the Holy Roman Empire, but it is now in modern-day France.Relations With the MongolsKhan ljait accepts Yuan ambassadors, from the Compendium of Chronicles, 1438. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnother key aspect of Philips reign was the correspondence between himself and the greatest force from the East that Europe had ever seen: the Mongols.In April 1305, the Mongol leader, ljait sent letters to Philip as well as to Edward I and Pope Clement V, offering a collaboration between the European Christian nations and the Mongols against the Mamluk Turks.While this is a mere footnote in Philip IVs reign, it nevertheless shows how powerful he was as a monarch, that a Mongol leader reached out to him for assistance. While a crusade was planned but never materialized, Philip (against the will of his advisers) took the cross, pledging himself to go on a crusade should the opportunity arise.The End of the Knights TemplarTemplars being Burned at the stake, 1270-1380. Source: British LibraryOne of the major stains on King Philip IVs reign was how he brutally ended the Knights Templar.The Knights Templar were formed in 1118 as a monastic military order, designed to protect Christian soldiers while on Crusade in the Latin East.However, through his various military campaigns and the devaluation of the French currency, Philip was in a lot of debt, much of which he had borrowed from the Knights Templar.Many of the services that the Knights Templar had originally offered had largely been replaced by banking, and crusading fever was not as strong as it had been in the 11th and 12th centuries. Philip used this decline in their services as an excuse to have them eradicated as an order.On Friday the 13th of October 1307, at dawn, under instruction from Philip IV, hundreds of Templars in France were simultaneously arrested. They would then be tortured into confessing their alleged heresy.Pope Clement V was a weak pope, and Philip frequently saw him as a puppet. Clement wanted the Knights Templar to have fair trials (as they were originally only answerable to the Pope), but Philip reminded him how many of them had admitted their heresy (with the aid of torture). Many of the Knights were burned at the stake due to their confessions before proper trials could be held.Jacques de Molay, and Geoffroi de Charnay, the last leaders of the Templar, were formally burned at the stake in March 1314, bringing an end to one of the greatest Crusading organizations of the Middle Ages.The Tour de Nesle AffairRelatives console Philip IV, c. 13th century. Source: BnFIn 1314, two of Philips daughters-in-law (Margaret of Burgundy, married to Prince Louis and Blanche of Burgundy married to Prince Charles) were accused of adultery. Their alleged lovers were first tortured, before being flayed and then executed, as a way of sending a message to anyone who would be unfaithful to a member of the French royal family.Later on, Philips other daughter-in-law, Joan II, Countess of Burgundy (wife of Prince Philip) was accused of knowing about the affairs and doing nothing about them.Philip IVs Death and LegacyModern portrait, Philip IV of France. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLater in the same year, Philip had a stroke while out hunting in the Forest of Halatte. The stroke severely inhibited him, and he ended up only surviving for a few weeks. He died, aged 46, in Fontainebleau. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis, who would go on to be crowned King Louis X of France.The legacy that Philip IV left behind cannot be understated. He was a strong monarch, who helped to transform the country through his leadership.While there were some dark moments, such as the Gascon War and the Knights Templar affair, he nevertheless left France a stronger country than the one he had inherited from his father.He also went on to father three future kings of France: Louis X (r. 1314-16), Philip V (r. 1316-22), and Charles IV (r. 1322-28). On top of this, the diplomatic relations that he formed with his daughters showed France as a medieval European powerhouse.While some of these relations unfortunately led to the Hundred Years War and some bad years for France, Philip IVs legacy is that, without question, he was one of the most influential monarchs in French

When it comes to underrated and underappreciated monarchs, King Henry III of England tops the list. All that is typically mentioned when glossing over Henrys reign is that he had some troubles with the De Montfort family, the fact that he had an exceptionally long reign for a medieval monarch, and that he was a son of one of Englands lowest-regarded monarchs (King John) and a father of one of the most highly-regarded monarchs (Edward I). However, as we shall see, there was far more to Henry IIIs reign than this.Henrys Early LifeHenry III, c. 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHenry was born on October 1, 1207, in Winchester Castle, in Hampshire, England. He was the eldest son of King John of England, and his mother was Johns second wife, Isabella of Angoulme.Unfortunately, very little is known of Henrys early life as he was thrown into kingship aged just nine years old. However, it is known that he was raised in and around the Hampshire area in the south of the country, away from King Johns court. As a result, he likely had a much closer relationship with his mother than with his father.In 1212, Henrys education was entrusted to the Bishop of Winchester, a man called Peter des Roches. As part of this education, Henry was given military training and also taught how to ride a horse.Henrys Early RuleKing John on a stag hunt, c. 14th century. Source: British LibraryHenrys father, King John, died on October 19, 1216, aged just 49, which left the nine-year-old Henry as King of England. Henry was staying in Corfe Castle with his mother when he heard the news. On his deathbed, John had requested that Henry be placed under the guardianship of William Marshal, one of the greatest knights of the Middle Ages. This was one of the most important moves that John had made in his tenure as king.Leading loyalists to Johns cause immediately crowned Henry as king, and he became King Henry III of England. Marshal knighted young Henry, and his official coronation took place at Gloucester Cathedral on October 28, 1216. Few knew then that the young boy sitting on the throne would go on to rule for another 56 years, making it the longest reign of any English monarch in the Medieval Period.Because Henry was not yet a man, he was placed under a minority rule, meaning that others ruled in his name for him because he was unable to do so. Naturally, William Marshal was one of the men chosen to lead young Henrys government. When he was appointed to do so, he chose to lead the kings military efforts, while transferring guardianship of the king to Peter des Roches.Henrys Early BattlesThe Battle of Lincoln, by Matthew Paris, c. 1250. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe fact that the aging William Marshal had placed himself at the head of Henrys military command was an incredibly astute diplomatic move. Less than a year into Henrys reign, trouble began brewing, largely thanks to the issues left behind by the Magna Carta. The Magna Carta had been reissued in early 1217, giving birth to the idea of Parliament: that the king was the highest member of the council through which England should be governed.William Marshal saw victory later in the year as he led a Royalist force at the Battle of Lincoln on May 20, 1217, against Prince Louis of Frances forces, who were still trying to force his claim to the English throne as he had done during King Johns reign.Hubert de Burgh, the Justiciar of England, also saw off a Capetian force at the Battle of Sandwich, off the Dover coast on August 24, 1217.Despite the initial successes listed above thanks to Henrys governors working together, their relations with one another soon soured. The two who came to loggerheads most often were Hubert de Burgh and Peter des Roches, and by 1223, des Roches had attempted to persuade Pope Honorius III to get rid of Henrys governors.Ultimately, this plan backfired, and de Burgh was the one who eventually ousted des Roches from his seat of power. However, Henry had finally turned 16 and was fit to rule. What many historians regard as King Henry IIIs true reign was about to begin.The French ProblemLouis IX, from the Bible of St Louis, c. 1230. Source: The Morgan LibraryBy January 1227, Henry had full control of his government. What Henry did excellently was that despite his minority coming to an end, he still listened to his advisers, which most likely contributed to him becoming such a successful monarch.Like many medieval English kings, France was a contentious issue. After his father had just about lost the entire Plantagenet Empire on the continent, Henry had to, as he put it, reclaim [his] inheritance.In 1226, King Louis VIII of France died, leaving his nine-year-old son Louis IX as heir apparent. The young King Louis was in a dangerous position, and a weak position, to defend his realm. In 1228, Peter I, Duke of Brittany openly paid homage to Henry III, and Henry saw this as the time to strike.However, Henry took too long in his preparations, and by the time he did invade France in May 1230, the campaign achieved nothing. He ended up simply signing a treaty with Louis IX until 1234. In other words, it was a huge waste of resources.Political Strife at HomeSimon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, c. 1250. Source: Gallica Digital LibraryNot all was well at home, either. Henrys chief minister, Hubert de Burgh fell from power in 1232; a year prior, his old enemy, Peter des Roches, had returned to England from the Crusades with several supporters for his cause.Hubert decided to seek sanctuary in Merton Priory, but Henry had him imprisoned in the Tower of London instead. Des Roches then took over Henrys government, but it was not long before he was on a power trip.Many barons and earls who had supported de Burgh found their lands and titles being stripped by des Roches, and many (including Richard Marshal, son of William Marshal) complained personally to the king that he was not doing enough to protect their rights. This turned into a full-scale civil war between Des Rochess followers and Marshals followers.However, it was thanks to the intervention of Edmund of Abingdon, the Archbishop of Canterbury, that the conflict came to an end after he held a series of councils in 1234. Henry dismissed des Roches, and for the rest of his reign, he ruled the kingdom personally, rather than through senior ministers.Henrys Marriage and FamilyEdward I, artist unknown, c. 1272-1307. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHenry married Eleanor of Provence in 1236, a political marriage that would gain the English king credibility with noble families in south and eastern France. Eleanor would go on to become one of the most formidable medieval queens, with some historians claiming she was more hard-headed and determined than her husband.Together, Henry and Eleanor had five childrenthe eldest of whom, Edward, would go on to reign as King Edward I of England.Edward was an unusual name for an English monarch to give to their children in the mid-13th century (the Anglicized Edmund was often preferred), but Henry IIIs interest, and borderline obsession, with Edward the Confessor (r. 1042-66) led to Edward becoming the joint-most popular name for English/British monarchs alongside Henry and a name that we often associate with the Middle Ages, thanks to the three Edwardian Kings (r. 12721377), who ruled for just over 100 years consecutively.Henrys children went on to form excellent diplomatic relations. As well as fathering a king of England, his eldest daughter Margaret went on to marry Alexander III of Scotland, his son Edmund was the founder of the House of Lancaster, while his daughter Beatrice went on to marry John II, Duke of Brittany. His youngest daughter, Katherine, sadly died as a child.The Turbulent 1240sHenrys Elephant, by Matthew Paris, 1259. Source: British LibraryWhile the 1230s had generally been an era of peace for Henry (they included the establishment of Londons first menagerie in the Tower of London), the 1240s were an entirely different story.One major event came in 1245, which was when Henry began the construction of Westminster Abbey, which almost bankrupted the Crown. It would take another 25 years for the abbey to be completed. Following the Magna Carta, the barons had much more of a say in the Crowns finances and how money was spent, and this took a turn for the worse when, in 1247, the barons invited Henrys half-siblings over from France.The Lusignans (his mothers children from a previous marriage), assumed high political positions, which aggravated the barons. They felt that foreigners could not naturally assume high positions in a different country than their own. The leader of the barons was one of the most famous names in medieval English history: Simon de Montfort.This is perhaps the most ironic thingde Montfort was French, yet was leading a nationalistic English cause. Having been made Earl of Leicester in 1231, de Montfort went on to marry Henrys younger sister, Eleanor. Henry then made him Governor of Gascony but sacked him from this position when he lost the territory in 1252.De Montfort then became the ideal leading figure for the barons cause.Baronial TroublesThe Battle of Evesham, c. 13th century. Source: British LibraryThings finally came to a head in 1258, when the barons essentially took control out of Henrys hands and into their own.The Provisions of Oxford in October of the same year asserted the barons authority and representation in Henrys government, as well as their ability to press concerns in opposition to those of the sitting monarch.A year later, these were followed by the Provisions of Westminster, which further enforced the Oxford Provisions as well as enforcing taxation reforms. Henry was outraged that power had been taken out of his hands and this again led to another minor civil war, which came to be known as the Second Barons War (1264-67).The baronial leader, Simon de Montfort, led the rebels against Henry. De Montfort was not just experienced politically, but militarily toohe had been on crusade and knew how to fight. At the Battle of Lewes (May 14, 1264), de Montforts forces were victorious against the Royalists, which included Prince Edward, who was captured.Edward escaped from captivity and managed to raise another army in a year. The opposing sides met again at the Battle of Evesham on August 4, 1265, which was one of the turning points in Henrys reign. Not only had Prince Edward shown his prowess on the battlefield by winning the skirmish, but de Montfort was killed and dismembered on the battlefield.It was not until 1267 that the war finally ended with the Statute of Marlborough (similar to how the Magna Carta had ended the First Barons War half a century earlier).Henrys Death and LegacyCeiling of Westminster Abbey, photo by Chris Dreyer. Source: UnsplashThe king was aging by this point, but he did live to see his beloved Westminster Abbey completed in 1269, which was arguably the grandest church in Europe at the time.Henry eventually died aged 65 on November 16, 1272.But what legacy did Henry III leave behind? Most historians gloss over his reign as it is generally seen as long but uneventful. However, this is not the case at all. Henry had the misfortune of being situated between two kings at opposite ends of the scalethe terrible King John at one end and the glorious Edward I at the other.However, Henrys reign should not go unnoticed. While he had problems such as the way he treated the Jewish community (advocating for them to wear badges, much like a particular German leader did almost 700 years later), and issues with the barons, overall, Henry was a good king.He founded Westminster Abbey, dealt with rebellion very calmly, listened to his advisers after his minority ended, and established diplomatic relations throughout Europe among his children. And, if youve ever enjoyed a visit to a zoo in the UK, remember that King Henry III founded the very first one in the 1250s!