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Members of the Ottoman royal family were expected to be on their best behavior. This included acting piously, honorably, and justly. Yet not all Ottoman sultans and princes cared to live up to this image. Some shirked their responsibilities due to drug and alcohol addictions. Others abused the harem system and spent most of their time with concubines.Ottoman Sultans and AlcoholIntoxicated man drinking wine, miniature by Levni, ca. 1732. Source: LiteraTurk CatalogueAmongst the Ottoman rulers, there were both those who shunned alcohol and those who drank it to excess. Islamic law, one of many types of Ottoman law, banned alcohol consumption. While this was enforced on Muslims, non-Muslim populations were free to consume the substance. These laws did not prevent ordinary people, least of all the Ottoman ruling class, from enjoying a sneaky glass of wine. Bayezid I (d. 1402) enjoyed having poetry gatherings where wine was drunk. Mehmet II (d. 1476), known as the conqueror of Constantinople, was also said to have enjoyed the drink.Some princes, like the sons of Bayezid II, went to extremes that worried their parents. Bayezid received word of his sons alcohol and opium addiction which, according to his mother, was the outcome of corrupted courtiers and advisors. This could cause serious damage to not only a princes reputation but also that of the Sultan, who was supposed to have provided him with discipline and training.Perhaps the most famous of the alcohol-drinking sultans was Selim II (d. 1574), also known as Selim the Sot due to his love of drink. Although Selims father, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, had outlawed alcohol and placed hefty fines on those who broke the law, his son was a heavy drinker. Selim allowed taverns to sell alcohol, contrary to previous laws. He died in 1574 afterin a drunken stateslipping on wet marble in the bathroom and hitting his head.DrugsImaginary depiction of an Ottoman opium seller, by Francis William Topham, ca. 1850. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSince time immemorial, human beings have consumed substances that alter brain chemistry. The Ottomans were no exception to this rule. Afyon, or opium, was the most accessible drug in medieval Turkey, although hashish, a powdered form of Cannabis, was also used. These drugs were written about in different kinds of literary works, including Sufi poetry, biographies, and medical treatises.The poppy flowers that produced opium were grown primarily in the Western Anatolian city of Afyon, which translates to opium. They were used in salves, balms, and other medicines for pain relief, especially before the development of morphine in the 19th century. However, many, including Prince Bayezid II, enjoyed the substance for recreational purposes. Bayezids addiction to the substance was the source of hostility between the prince and his stricter father, Mehmed II.The use of drugs carried a negative image that the sultans often wanted to shed after they came to power. Murad IV (d. 1640), for instance, took a hardline stance against opium use later in his life, although some sources say that he used it as a prince. It was also said that upon finding out that his chief physician Emir Celebi used the substance, Sultan Murad forced the latter to ingest all the opium he carried on him. Emir Celebi went into a coma and died later that night.Women and WomanizingMiniature of an erotic scene between a man and woman, painted by Abdullah Bukhari, ca. 1740. Source: Fine Art AmericaThe harem was an institution harkening back to both Islamic and Byzantine royal palaces. It was in essence the womens quarters of the palace, a place where queens, daughters, concubines, and other female servants lived and/or worked. The Ottoman harem emerged around the 15th century, a time when decreased visibility in the public sphere began to be equated with high status.Enslaved girls who were brought to the Ottoman court were generally taught in the palace school. They continued their servant duties unless they were particularly beautiful and caught the eye of the sultan. She would then become his concubine or even his wife. Concubines were subject to the whims of the sultan, who could ignore, banish or even sentence them to death at his will. However, some concubines rose to become the most powerful women in the empire.A life-size portrait of Sultan Murad III (1574-1595), attributed to a Spanish artist, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMany sultans abused the harem system. Murad III (d. 1595) purportedly had 100 children. He initially took Safiye Sultan (who would become the powerful queen mother) as his only concubine. Over a decade later, his mother and sister attempted to decrease Safiyes influence by gifting him other concubines. On his death, Murad left seven pregnant concubines. Although concubines were a normal part of the royal court, the sheer number of Murads women raised eyebrows.Likewise, Ibrahim the Mad (d. 1648) spent many hours in the imperial harem. He was particularly fond of obese women. He was said to have searched for the most overweight woman in all of Istanbul. Things took a turn for the worse when Ibrahim desired Perihan Hanim, wife of Grand Vizier Ipsir Mustafa Pasa. Ibrahim ordered a statesman, named Varvari Ali Pasa, to bring the viziers wife to the capital city. Naturally, Varvar Ali Pasa was outraged and began a rebellion. He was ultimately killed for his rebellion, although (luckily) Perihan Hanim was safe from the mad sultan.Unruly and Rebellious Ottoman PrincesSehzade, or heir to the throne, ca. 1809. Source: Victoria and Albert MuseumThe Ottoman political system was in many ways influenced by its Turkic heritage. One example is through the rules of succession. Unlike in contemporary European courts, every male member of the Ottoman royal family had a right to the throne, similar to the medieval Mongol system. Primogeniture, or the transferral of power from father to eldest son, was unheard of in medieval Turkey. Instead, the most charismatic, skillful candidate gained the backing of powerful viziers and soldiers and was expected to win power against his rivals, be they his brothers or uncles.Princes, who were often given administrative and military duties around the empire, often clashed with their fathers. In the 1370s, Sultan Murads son Savci Bey rebelled against his fathers rule. The Byzantine prince Andronikos and Savci planned to oust their own fathers from the throne and vowed to support each other in this endeavor. Unluckily for the princes, their fathers caught wind of the plan and horrifically punished their sons. Both princes were blinded and thus lost all support for their kingship. Murad eventually had Savci executed for his rebellion.Another unruly prince was Selim the Grim who consistently disobeyed his father Sultan Bayezids orders. Selim, who believed his father was too lenient towards their Safavid Persian foes, marched with his army and decimated Persian troops in eastern Turkey. By securing the border, he won the support of the janissaries, the elite soldiers loyal only to the sultan. Due to this, Selim was able to remove his father from power and declare himself sultan in 1512.

Since the 2019 fire, people across the spectrum of religious practices as well as influential faith organizations, have come to the forefront to talk about the need to conserve Notre-Dame de Paris. How many know that the site that holds the legendary crown of thorns the Bible claims was placed on the head of Christianitys dying savior and was also a holy place for pagans of old? There is something about Notre-Dame, something perhaps in the French land that lies beneath it, that has drawn people to worship there since before the advent of Christianity.Druids and the Early Spiritual LandscapeAn Old Druid, from Observations upon Caesars Commentaries, by Samuel Clarke, 1712. Source: The British MuseumBefore the Roman invasion, France was known as Gaul and primarily populated by families of subsistence farmers. There were some quasi-urban centers where the population gathered, as people had long sensed that there is strength in numbers. These places were led, both administratively and spiritually, by druids. And, in places like the site of Notre-Dame Cathedral, druids led the people to worship the deities that would make fields fallow and rains plentiful for life-sustaining seedlings. These Gaulish priests and their followers participated in rituals that frequently focused on natural elements like springs and groves.Then, the Romans invaded, despite the violent pushback of the less militarily organized Gaulish people. The conquerors named the city they built here Lutetia, referencing the swampy quality of the land. These Roman forces not only established cities with temples for the gods they brought with them from home but also introduced a number of deities who meshed into an amalgamation of Roman/Gaulish figures unique to the area. A famous column from Lutetia, now Paris, shows both Roman and Celtic gods, illustrating the blend of religious practices during this era.From Pagan Worship to Roman Temples: The Early History of Notre-DameBust of Jupiter, 1st century BCE to 1st century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtAs the Roman Empire expanded, so did its influence on the spiritual and cultural landscape of the conquered people it meant to integrate. Beneath what is now Notre-Dame, the foundations of a Roman temple to Jupiter still bolster the more modern structure. It is believed that this temple of the Roman patriarchal deity was the center of religious life in Lutetia.However, the Roman provinces were also where Christianity began to spread. The descendants of people who followed the ways of the land-loving druids and perhaps visited columned Roman temples were now converting to Christianity. In those early years, Christians who came to proselytize in Gaul were often martyred. Their deaths led to eventual sainthood. With the conversion of the entire empire under the reformed Constantine, many temples were refashioned into churches.As this happened Lutetia morphed more and more into urban Paris. The local martyr, St. Denis, played a significant if somewhat mythical role in this transformation. According to the Parisian locals, after being beheaded on Montmartre, St. Denis carried his severed head for a miraculous stretch before collapsing at the site that would later become a basilica in his honor. This story, still repeated to this day, underscores the burgeoning Christian presence and the blending of Roman and early Christian spiritual practices.First a Woman, Then AnotherBlack Madonna of Czstochowa, 1382. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne example of the magnificent blend of the early modern era and prehistory is the veneration of both St. Brigid and the Black Madonnas. They both serve as examples of the intersection between pagan and Christian traditions. Originally a pagan fire goddess, Brigid was associated with healing, poetry, and smithcraft. As Christianity spread, she, much like the gradual morphing of Notre-Dames site itself, transformed into a Christian icon. The once solidly pagan figure of female strength then became a powerful symbol of the blending of pagan and Christian beliefs by converts unwilling to forsake all of their closely held mythos. Saint Brigids Day, celebrated on February 1st, marks this transition and continues to be a significant cultural event, particularly in Ireland and France, specifically in Paris.The veneration of Black Madonnas further illustrates the persistence of pagan rituals within Christian contexts. These statues, often found in places once sacred to ancient goddess worship, represent a blend of pre-Christian and Christian beliefs.One such Dark Madonna, also known as Our Lady of Good Deliverance, has been celebrated for centuries and is believed to offer protection and resilience to those who call out to her, particularly to those standing up to abusers. It is thought that she once adorned The Basilica and Cathedral of Saint-tienne, the church that predated the building of Notre-Dame de Paris by approximately six centuries.This early basilica and home to Our Lady of Good Deliverance was torn down around the mid-1100s when construction began on the cathedrals foundations. The original was lost, but a replica of Our Lady was created in the 14th century and can still be visited today at a fellow Parisian church, the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Thomas of Villeneuve. Our Lady came to be in this place after being taken from her pedestal and hidden away in a private home during La Terreur.The Dark Madonna of Toulouse, photo by Didier Descouens. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe symbolism of the fiery goddess as a protectress is deeply rooted in these traditions. Saint Brigid, for example, was revered for her ability to provide solace and empowerment. Similarly, praying to the Black Madonna was believed to help people confront and overcome their challenges. This protective aspect of pagan goddesses carried over into Christian venerationdespite a lack of females depicted in positions of authoritydemonstrating how these ancient beliefs were adapted and preserved within a new religious framework.In England and France, the continued veneration of Black Madonnas and the incorporation of pagan elements into church services and religious festivals highlight the enduring influence of these ancient traditions. As in the case of Our Lady of Good Deliverance, to whom many prisoners of the revolutionary mobs prayed, beliefs may shift but often find a new home with the faithful.Overall, the transition from paganism to Christianity in Western Europe was not a simple replacement of one set of beliefs with another. This would have been too sudden and nearly impossible to enforce. Instead, it was a complex process of adaptation and integration, where ancient practices and symbols were reinterpreted by both those in power and the believers themselves. The enduring presence of figures like Saint Brigid and the Black Madonnas in religious life today serves as a reminder of the deep and lasting connections between these two spiritual traditions. So many participating may not even know that theyre one in a line stretching back to prehistory, of people praying to a woman for just outcomes and safeguarding.Eugne Viollet-Le-Duc: The Architect Who Reshaped Notre-Dame de ParisEugne Viollet-Le-Duc, 1879. Source: PicrylThis wasnt to be the last of Frances transitions of belief. The cathedral itself had a before and after a period that was distinctly separated by the ravages of the Reign of Terror. Prior to this event, the cathedral library boasted between 10,000 and 12,000 volumes, evidence of its importance and the dedication of those who contributed to its growth. Although approximately 300 manuscripts were sold to the king by the mid-18th century, the librarys remaining volumes included illuminated missals made for notable bishops like Pierre dOrgemont and Grard de Montaigu, several liturgical manuscripts from earlier eras, the only known copy of the first edition of the Shepherds Calendar, and works by Charles Perrault.The French Revolution didnt just spell an end to the monarchy. By the mid-19th century, Notre-Dame de Paris was left in a state of disrepair entirely intentionally. The ravages of social upheaval had left scars: statues of the kings of Israel had been beheaded much like St. Denis. The cathedrals bells that once called people to service had been melted into cannons. Acid rain had eroded the artistry of the stonework. Gargoyles and other imposing statuary that once adorned the church had diminished to rather sorry blobs of masonry.Eugne Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, a young man in his 30s, was chosen in 1844 to manage the restoration project. Eugne believed he could not only restore the cathedral but improve upon it. His vision and dedication breathed new life into the crumbling structure. He achieved this despite peers calling him bourgeois and arrogant. Viollet-le-Duc did restore Notre-Dames Gothic grandeur but allowed his dreams of modernization to inform some of the details. He accomplished his goal of being both innovative and committed to historical accuracy.Notre-Dame: A Symbol of Resilience and FaithNotre Dame de Paris, by Raluca Dumitrache. Source: UnsplashAs of today, Notre-Dame stands as a symbol of resilience. Until the fire in the cathedrals roof, it was the home of one of Christianitys most revered relicsthe crown of thorns said to have been worn by Jesus during the Crucifixion. This priceless relic was saved from the flames and now awaits Notre-Dames restoration in the Louvre. This cathedral, with its gothic arches and smoke-stained but majestic presence, has witnessed centuries of change, turmoil, and renewal.The 2019 fire that ravaged the ancient site caused an outpouring of support. Calls for its restoration came from all corners of the globe, highlighting the reverence for this iconic spiritual home of both people alive today and those who came long before. Notre-Dame, a sanctuary for druids, Romans, and Parisians alike continues on as a testament to human history and cultural heritage.And, best and perhaps most macabre of all, many of those who came before us are still there. After the devastating fire, preventive archaeology led to the discovery of two lead sarcophagi buried where the cathedrals transept intersects its nave. One set of remains was determined to be a high-ranking priest. The other is believed to belong to a knight from the 15th century, nicknamed Le Cavalier by researchers since his bones show he probably lived much of his life astride a horse.Gallery of Kings, Notre-Dame de Paris. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe sarcophagi were carefully opened and analyzed at the Toulouse University Hospital, revealing fascinating details about their occupants. The knights skull, elongated due to a headband worn since infancy, was buried in a flower crown. The presence of embalming plants indicated a high-status individual but one who suffered from a chronic illness and oral disease. These findings provide a glimpse into the lives and deaths of the individuals who were part of Notre-Dames long and storied history.

William Marshal is renowned in history as the greatest knight of all time. But what makes him deserving of this title? Are his accomplishments truly as legendary and heroic as they seem? Read on and decide for yourself if William Marshal was truly the greatest knight ever.Early LifeMatilda of England, from the Gospels of Henry the Lion, 1188. Source: Helmarshausen Benedictine monasteryWilliam Marshal was born in 1146 or 1147, sources are unsure which date is correct. His name is synonymous with words such as bravery, chivalry, and honesty and he became the ideal model of a knight in Medieval England.Williams life spanned the reign of six kings of England, and he personally served five of them. The primary source for information on William Marshal comes from LHistoire de Guillaume le Marechal, a contemporary source by an unknown author penned shortly after Marshal died in 1219.William was the younger son of John Marshal, a loyal defender of Matilda, the previous king, Henry Is only legitimate child. As such, she was the rightful heir to the English Crown. William Marshal was born in a time of great turmoil for England; a civil war had been raging for 20 years between Matilda and her cousin, Stephen, who had taken the crown of England from her. It was known as the Anarchy and left England in a state of duress.King Stephen, who stole the English crown from his cousin, Matilda, 1597-1618. Source: The National Portrait Gallery, LondonHow the author of Marshals tale starts the knights story indicates how the rest of Marshals life would go. The author brings us to the middle of a siege where Marshals father, John, is defending a castle in the name of Matilda while King Stephen, her treacherous cousin, is attacking.During the castles siege, young William escaped and found himself captured by King Stephens men. Hoping to use the young child as leverage, King Stephen threatened to catapult young William into the air and at the castle walls if John did not surrender. To this, Williams father responded coldly, I have anvil and hammers enough to make more and better sons! Wow thanks, Dad! Lucky for William, King Stephen liked the young boys enthusiastic curiosity and decided to spare him. William remained a prisoner of King Stephen for months until the Treaty of Wallingford was signed, effectively ending the Anarchy and allowing young William to return home.Young Adulthood and TrainingChateau de Tancarville, Seine-Maritime, France. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWilliam was the youngest of four sons and faced an uncertain future, as he would not inherit any land or titles from his father. After King Stephens imprisonment, William began living with William de Tancarville, a powerful knight from Normandy. Under Tancarvilles patronage, William learned the ways of a knight and participated in numerous tournaments across Europe and England, continually improving his skills.Tournaments, which were mock battles organized by noblemen, provided young knights with valuable training and also served as social events where they could form alliances and seek patronage. These gatherings featured feasts, pageantry, and an emphasis on promoting chivalry, making them much more than mere battles.In 1166, Marshal was knighted, and in 1170, he began serving in the court of Henry II. Soon, he was appointed a tutor to Henry the Young King, Henry IIs son and heir. This began a friendship between the two young men, characterized by mutual respect, admiration, and loyalty. Their bond was further strengthened through tournaments where they fought together, with Marshal consistently proving his absolute loyalty in protecting his friend. Both men gained reputations as fierce warriors, but it was Marshal who stood out among the young kings squad.Jousting Knights, 12-1500. Source: The British LibraryMarshals loyalty would often be proven throughout his friendship with Henry. The author of Marshals biography tells of a story involving a few jealous knights in the Young Kings service. This story threatened to destroy the friendship between the Young King and Marshal and ruin Marshals reputation for life. The jealous knights told Henry that Marshal had an affair with his wife, Margaret. At first, Henry did not believe the slanderous accusations, but if you hear something enough timesyoull start to believe it.Instead of hopelessly defending himself, Marshal left the young kings service for a time, knowing that hed be unable to prove his innocence as the jealous knights were persistent in their attempt at ruining Marshals reputation.Thankfully, in due time, the Young King came to his senses and called back his friend and mentor to his side. Their friendship lasted for the next few years, with Marshals loyalty being tested as the Young King went to war against his father. Marshal used his diplomatic nuance to navigate between supporting the Young King and not directly opposing King Henry II. Talk about walking a tightrope!Henry II, 1597-1618. Source: The National Portrait Gallery, LondonUnfortunately, the friendship between Marshal and Henry was not meant to last. The Young King died of dysentery in 1183, at the age of 20. Marshal was at the Young Kings deathbed, holding onto his hand and listening to his dear friends last words and wishes.If there is a quality that stood out about William Marshal, it was his unwavering loyalty to the English crown and the Plantagenets that ruled the realm. This was again proven when Marshal promised the Young King Henry on his deathbed that he, Marshal, would take up the cross on his behalf and head to the Holy Land to protect it against the infidels.This was not something to be taken lightly. Taking the cross for the Holy Land was a serious commitment. Many people perished just on the journey to Jerusalem, not to mention the casualties upon arriving. William Marshals decision to take Henry the Young Kings cross speaks volumes about Marshals character and determination. It further enhanced his reputation for chivalry and loyalty.The Next Three KingsHenry II with his sons, 1301-40. Source: The British LibraryKing Henry II died in 1189, and his son, Richard, became the next king of England. When Henry II was slowly dying, William Marshal was still in his service, fighting against Henrys son, Richard. The story goes that, during the late 1180s, while Richard was rebelling against his father, Marshal came across Richard and Phillip II of France attempting to besiege Henry IIs castle of Chinon.Once Marshal recognized Richard on horseback attempting to charge toward him, Marshal also charged with his lance and pointed directly at Richard at top speed. Marshal galloped toward Richard and, instead of striking Richard straight on, purposely lowered his lance so as to not give Richard a fatal blow. Once the two knights came face-to-face, Richard said, I thought you were about to kill me! To which Marshal replied, Sire, if I wanted to kill you, I would have. Marshal demonstrated remarkable restraint and respect for Richard as a prince and possible future king of England.Despite this episode, Marshal served a vital role throughout Richards reign as king. While Richard was away fighting the Third Crusade, Marshal was entrusted with the governance of England along with a council of regents. Marshal provided stability to the country during unrest while the king was away. This was particularly true when Richards younger brother, John, attempted to grab power. Once Richard returned, Marshal assisted him in regaining power from his brother and the other rebellious nobles. Marshals actions during this period only contributed to his already impressive legacy as a knight and statesman.Richard Lionheart, by Mary Joseph Blondel, 1841. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen Henry IIs youngest son, John, came to the throne, William Marshal again found himself at the royal court. John, not Richard the Lionhearts nephew, Arthur of Brittany, was named Richards successor. This was in part due to the support from Johns mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and Marshal.When Marshal voiced his support for the youngest OG Plantangent, the archbishop of Canterbury was recorded telling Marshal, Youll never regret a decision more so than this. Those were pretty strong words of warning coming from Englands most senior holy man. So strong was Marshals sense of loyalty to the crown and the royal family that regardless of the archbishops words of warning, Williams support of John as the next king did not waver.Johns reign was chaotic and unstable; it ended with the signing of one of the most critical documents in Western history, the Magna Carta, and a possible invasion by France. King John was a vengeful man who demanded complete loyalty and servitude from his barons. Throughout Johns reign, Marshal walked a tight line, trying his best not to upset the temperamental, insecure king. There were even times when the Marshal left the kingdom for Ireland to avoid Johns wrath. However, once the Magna Carta was negotiated between the barons and King John, William Marshal, ever loyal to the crown, acted as an in-between for the barons and John throughout the documents signing.Magna Carta, 1215. Source: The British LibraryKing John died in 1216. He left behind a nine-year-old heir, who would become Henry III. King John died amid a civil war after deliberately going against the outlines of the Magna Carta that promised a fairer government. Thus, Marshal was again caught between his loyalty to the crown and to the barons of whom he was a part.His loyalty to the crown outweighed everything, and at 70 years old, William Marshal found himself strapped into his battle armor atop his horse and charging into the melee to help preserve the kingdom for young Henry III.DeathEffigy of William Marshal in Temple Church, London. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWilliam Marshal died on May 14th, 1219. He was around 72 years old and knew that his death was fast approaching. On his deathbed, Marshal summoned his children and close friends to his bedside, instructing his children to remain loyal to the crown and to continue to serve Henry III. Marshals last wish was to be buried in Temple Church as a member of the Knights Templar.The death of William Marshal marked the end of one of the most extraordinary lives of the Middle Ages. His life spanned the service of five English kings. It was a true rags-to-riches story that started with Marshal as a lowly younger son who advanced to become one of the most respected and wealthy knights of his age. Marshal is still revered as the pinnacle of knightly behavior and a model knight.

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