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From their first encounters with Europeans in 1642 to the Musket Wars in the first half of the 19th century, the Mori, the Indigenous people of New Zealand, actively resisted British rule, both peacefully and violently. Led by their chiefs, Mori tribes from both the North and South Islands navigated the upheaval triggered by colonialism by signing treaties like the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) and forming inter-tribal alliances, such as the Kngitanga Movement established in 1858 to oppose the power of the British Crown. Read on to learn more about the history of New Zealand in the Colonial Period.Meeting the EuropeansPortrait of Abel Tasman, painting by Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp, 1637. Source: Australian MuseumIn 1642, Abel Tasman (1603-1659) sailed with his crew toward Tasmania. From Tasmania (which he named Van Diemens Land), he sailed to what is now Aotearoa/New Zealand. In December he anchored his ships Heemskerck and Zeehaen in Golden Bay, at the northern end of the South Island. His first encounter with the Mori people, with the men and women of the Ngti Tmatakkiri Tribe (iwi) was marked by violence.After naming the bay Murderers Bay, Tasman sailed northward to Tonga. In her A Concise History of New Zealand, historian Philippa Mein Smith writes that it was this repulsion by the Southlanders that entered European stories and rendered the Maori frightening to Europe. For more than a century, Europeans steered clear of the North and South Islands.Official portrait of James Cook, painting by Nathaniel Dance, 1776. Source: Australian National Maritime MuseumAfter Tasman, the second European to interact with the Mori was Lieutenant James Cook (1728-1779). The year was 1769. Over his four stays, Cook spent almost a year just exploring the islands coastline and charting its outline. Unlike Tasman, he was able to communicate with the Mori thanks to the help of Tupaia (1725-1770), a Tahitian Polynesian man from Raiatea (known among non-Indigenous people as the Society Islands).Tupaia was not only an arioi, a priest-like figure, but also a skilled translator and navigator whose experience was instrumental in the success of Cooks first journey in the Pacific. Cooks reports (and Tupaias drawings) effectively put Aotearoa/New Zealand (and the Mori) on the world map.If Tasman was the first European to discover Aotearoa/New Zealand and Cook was the second, the third was Frenchman Jean-Franois de Surville (1717-1770). To put it with Smith, By coincidence, Cook was sailing up the opposite coast at the same time. The St Jean-Baptiste sailed past the Endeavour in a gale without the knowledge of either, the British ship blown north while the French ship veered south.With Europeans came the whaling trade and the Christian Church of England (from mainland Australia). Samuel Marsden (1765-1838), an English-born Anglican chaplain, magistrate, and agriculturalist, based at Parramatta, New South Wales, was the first missionary to preach the first Christian sermon to a group of Mori men, women, and children at Hohi (Oihi) Bay in the Bay of Islands on December 25, 1814. A missionary settlement was soon established at Kerikeri. Today, it is Aotearoa/New Zealands oldest heritage building.Inter-Tribal Warfare and Declarations of IndependenceFlintlock muskets made of walnut wood. Source: Royal Museums GreenwichInter-tribal warfare was a staple of Mori life. It was, however, a low-intensity kind of warfare. The new wave of people coming to Aotearoa/New Zealand in the early 1800s triggered a scarcity of resources, which in turn fuelled inter-tribal warfare. The introduction of European technology made it deadlier. Ironically, it was a Mori rangatira (chief), Hongi Hika, of the Ngpuhi tribe, who introduced muskets to his people in 1821.For four decades, from the early 1800s to the early 1840s, inter-tribal violence ravaged the South and North Islands, affecting civilians and warriors alike, and ultimately killing some 20,000 people, including women and children. This period is now known as the Musket Wars. The bloodiest tribal battles took place between 1818 and 1840, but intertribal conflicts involving muskets continued, to a lesser degree, after the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi.South Sea whalers boiling blubber, painting by Sir Oswald Walters Brierly, 1876. Source: Hudson River Maritime MuseumThe Moriori, a peaceful splinter group who had inhabited the Chatham Islands since the 1500s, were nearly exterminated. Historian P. M. Smith reports that the Moriori population numbered 1660 in 1835, and 101 by 1862. Survivors, both men and women, were taken as slaves.The Musket Wars revolutionized Mori society and warfare. They caused a redefinition of tribal borders, leaving large regions, even entire districts across the North and South Islands, depopulated or sparsely settled. Power dynamics among Mori tribes were permanently altered. While some tribes lost power (mana), others, such as the Ngpuhi in the North and the Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama from Taranaki, gained prestige.Decimated tribes were forced to intermarry to survive and some sought the assistance and protection of Europeans. In 1835, the British, concerned that France might try to claim New Zealand, asked James Busby, the British Resident, to draft a declaration of independence for Mori chiefs to sign.Mori girls, one of them wearing a tasseled cloak (korowai) and the other a tasseled cloak with decorative kiwi feather (korowai whakahekeheke). Source: Te Papa Tongarewa Museum of New ZealandIn October 1835, 34 Mori chiefs signed He Whakaputanga (o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni), which translates in English as the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand. Four years later, 18 other chiefs signed it. In the declarations first article, we read that New Zealand is an independent state (whenua rangatira). The second maintains that Mori chiefs hold kingitanga, that is, sovereign power, over their lands, and that they will not allow any other group to frame laws (wakarite ture), nor any Governorship (Kawanatanga) to be established in the lands of the Confederation, unless (by persons) appointed by us to carry out the laws we have enacted in our assembly (huihuinga). He Whakaputanga was followed by the Treaty of Waitangi five years later.The Treaty of Waitangi (1840): The Turning PointThe Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, today considered New Zealands funding document, painting by Marcus King, 1938. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn February 6, 1840, various Mori rangatira (chiefs) met with Governor William Hobson (1792-1842) and signed the so-called Treaty of Waitangi. Today, its regarded as Aotearoa/New Zealands founding document. The first three Mori to sign were the above-mentioned Hne Heke, Patuone, and Tmati Waka Nene, Patuones brother, of the Ngpuhi iwi. Many more followed, alternatively signing the seven existing copies in Mori and the one English reprint.Overall, 500 chiefs signed the treaty and at least eleven of them were women. The chiefs who did not sign were the ones less exposed to European influence and to Christianity, including Te Wherowhero, who later played a significant role in the history of Mori-settler relations.Queen Victoria, painting by Hubert von Herkomer, 1891. Source: National Gallery of VictoriaThe treaty was divided into three articles, with the first determining that Mori chiefs shall cede to the Queen of England for ever the government of all their lands. In the second article, the Queen acknowledges to Mori chiefs the entire supremacy of their lands, of their settlements, and of all their personal property, while the third promises that in return for their acknowledging the Government of the Queen, the Queen of England will protect all the natives of New Zealand, and will allow them the same rights as the people of England. This is, however, the English version of the Treaty. Its Mori translation (known as Te Tiriti o Waitangi), is slightly but significantly different, and the two texts have been interpreted in different ways by the two different groups ever since.Signing the Treaty of Waitangi. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAccording to its English version, the treaty validated European settlement in Aotearoa/New Zealand, thus laying the foundation for a country built on the full and free consent of its Indigenous peoples. There is a term in the Mori language, taonga, which, according to the Te Aka Mori Dictionary, translates as treasure and is also applied to anything considered to be of value including socially or culturally valuable objects, resources, phenomenon, ideas, and techniques. The Mori version of the Treaty of Waitangi recognizes the chiefs authority (tino rangatiratanga) over their land, language, and customs, over anything they hold dear. Essentially, Te Tiriti o Waitangi recognizes Mori self-determination, while simultaneously recognizing the Queens delegated authority or governance (kwanatanga) over them.Chart of the Pacific Islands based on information provided by Tupaia, attributed to James Cook, 1769. Source: National History MuseumThe Mori term kwana (from which kwanatanga is derived) doesnt have an exact equivalent in English, but historians speculate that the Mori chiefs who signed the treaty understood it as governor and that they envisioned their relationship with the new governor in terms of equality in power and rank. English translators understood (and translated) the term kwanatanga as complete sovereignty.As a consequence, in the English version of the treaty, the Mori chiefs are surrendering complete sovereignty, over their lands to the British Crown. Mori and Pkeh (non-Mori) scholars are still debating whether this was done intentionally, to undermine Mori authority or whether it originated from a cultural misunderstanding.The New Zealand CompanyParliament House in Wellington was built on the lands of the Taranaki people, photograph by Koon Chakhatrakan, 2022. Source: UnsplashWithout the New Zealand Company, a British joint-stock company founded and directed by Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796-1862), the history of New Zealand would have been quite different. Wakefield was an influential businessman in London who believed that the civil unrest in the United Kingdom was the result of too much labor and capital, which in turn led to high rates of unemployment and low wages. His solution was simple: the problem could be solved by selling lands at a price low enough to attract worthy colonists, but high enough to prevent laborers from becoming landowners too quickly and too soon.As for Indigenous people, he believed they could be civilized and welcomed the prospect of intermarriage with colonists. His goal was to create one people who could thrive on the bountiful land of the North and South Islands.Love and marriage exhibit, young married couples were the cornerstone of Wakefields plan for New Zealand. Source: New Zealand Portrait Gallery Te Pkenga WhakaataNew Zealand, a place he had never visited at the time he was writing A Letter From Sydney in 1829, was, in his mind, a romanticized version of England. The perfect country, waiting to be properly exploited by the perfect people the British. To put it with P.M. Smith, the New Zealand Company was a vast propaganda machine that set out to create towns and farms that would transplant civilisation to the New World and claim the wilderness as a garden.The cornerstone of civilization was family life and motherhood (more important than fatherhood, in his mind). Young married couplesand not convictswere the cornerstone of Wakefields plan for New Zealand. In 1839, long before the first colonists set foot in New Zealand, Wakefields company began to sell and rename the ancestral lands of the Mori.Dr. Isaac Featherston, one of the many Europeans who arrived in Wellington in May 1841. Source: Museums WellingtonIn the 1840s, around 10,000 settlers landed in New Zealand under the New Zealand Company schemes. Among them, there were 3,846 children under the age of 13. Almost half of the settlers were women. Wellington was established in 1839, on lands of the Taranaki people. It was declared a city one year later, and in 1865 it was chosen as the capital of New Zealand. The Mori name for Wellington is Te Whanganui-a-Tara, while the Wellington area is known as Te Upoko-o-te-Ika-a-Mui, the Head of the Fish of Mui. On May 21, 1840, William Hobson annexed New Zealand to the British Crown. One year later, Auckland became the capital. Tensions over land issues soon arose.Mori Kings and European SettlersTe Whanganui-a-Tara, the Mori name for Wellington. Source: Museums WellingtonTensions turned into clashes and clashes quickly escalated. In 1841, William Hobson moved the capital from Russell to Auckland. The Ngpuhi resented this change, as fewer ships were now heading towards Russell (Kororreka), which resulted in a serious revenue loss for them. In the mid-1840s, Hne Heke (1807-1850), rangatira of the Ngpuhi tribe (iwi), became the face of the so-called Flagstaff War (also known, meaningfully, as the Hne Hekes Rebellion).Fought between March 1845 and January 1846 around the Bay of Islands, where Heke was born, the conflict began on July 8, 1844, when chief Te Haratua, supported by Heke and another prominent chief, Te Ruki Kawiti, cut down the British flagpole on Maiki Hill, at the north end of the town of Russell (Kororreka). Flying high over Mori lands, the British flag was a symbol both for the British and the Mori. Battles, attacks on villages, and shootings ensued.Te Kouma Harbor, in the Waikato region, photographed by Petra Reid. Source: UnsplashP.M. Smith writes that by 1845 Heke had largely repudiated the Treaty of Waitangi because he maintained that he had agreed to be all as one with the Governor, not subordinate, his chiefly authority curtailed. On January 19, 1845, Heke cut down the flagpole for the second time. To make matters worse, in 1846, Governor Grey arrested Te Rauparaha and imprisoned him without charge for ten months on a naval vessel, thus crushing his prestige among the Mori.As more and more land passed into the hands of European settlers and the Mori were increasingly marginalized on a political level, the pan-tribal Kngitanga movement emerged. Known in English as the Mori King Movement it was established in 1858 in the central North Island. Ptatau Te Wherowhero, the most powerful and respected chief in New Zealand, was crowned king (kngi) and Waikato was chosen as the seat of the Kngitanga.Queen Victoria. Source: National Galleries of ScotlandIn the 1840s and early 1850s, several chiefs had traveled to England, where they had met Queen Victoria. They believed that Kngitanga could provide a separate governing body for the Mori, a body that could match the queens authority. From their perspective, the chosen Mori king would be equal to the British monarch.Theitia Paki, the current and seventh Mori monarch (who has no legal or judicial power within the New Zealand government) was elected in 2006. By 1861, two-thirds of New Zealand (particularly the South Island) had passed into the hands of the government. Three-quarters of the North Island, on the contrary, still belonged to the Mori.Power Tips Toward the Settler SocietyThe New Zealand Wars were fought between 1860 and 1872 in the Taranaki region pictured here, photograph by Raquel Moss. Source: UnsplashThe so-called New Zealand Wars officially began in 1860 and lasted until 1872, although some scholars maintain that the Flagstaff War of 1845-46 should be considered a chapter in the New Zealand Wars. Whatever the case, the conflict raged for more than a decade on the central North Island, where Mori tribes still owned significant lots of land.It is worth remembering that the New Zealand Wars were started by the government, not the Mori. After a decade of relative peace, the conflict began at Waitara, where Governor Thomas Gore Browne (1807-1887) sent a group of surveyors in January 1860 to acquire land. Today, Waitara is a town in the northern part of the North Island, on the route connecting the Taranaki region and Waikato. In 1860, it was under tribal control and long coveted by settlers.Members of the Ngti Koata, Ngti Toa, and Ngti Kuia tribes, 1916. Source: Nelson Provincial MuseumWhen a group of Mori prevented the surveyors from entering their lands, the British burned the Waitara village. Wiremu Kngi (1795-1882), chief of the Te ti Awa, turned to the Kngitanga. In the meantime, the British government replaced the governor with Sir George Grey (1812-1898), a decision that proved catastrophic.Twhiao, who succeeded his father as king of the Kngitanga in 1860, quickly gathered the support of various tribes and established Mangatwhiri Stream as aukati, that is, one of the borders of his Kngitanga where Europeans could not enter. In 1863, Grey crossed Mangatwhiri Stream with his troops: the invasion of Waikato had just begun. At the same time, the colonial parliament passed the New Zealand Settlements Act, which effectively allowed the Crown to confiscate the lands of those Mori tribes deemed in rebellion against the British.Colonial Governor Sir Thomas Gore Browne. Source: National Portrait GalleryWar soon spread to Tauranga in the Bay of Plenty. Twhiao and his allies were forced to retreat. In 1865, their lands, which amounted to some 1.2 million acres, were confiscated. The New Zealand Wars had the ultimate effect of further splitting society into several groups. It was the Mori against British troops, but this was just one side of the story because several colonial forces included men from mainland Australia. Furthermore, some Mori tribes remained loyal to the Crown, while others chose neutrality.At the end of the conflict, the British rewarded loyal Mori with confiscated lands, which in some cases belonged to former Mori enemies. The New Zealand Wars also saw the emergence of new Mori leaders and unique figures at the crossroads between pacifist chiefs and prophets. One of them was Te Whiti-o-Rongomai III (1840-1907) of the Te ti Awa of Taranaki, who urged his people to protest European encroachment through pacifist methods of resistance.A New, Remote Settler SocietyIn 1861 gold was found in the South Island: pictured here is Lake Tekapo (Takap), photograph by Tobias Keller, 2016. Source: UnsplashAs war raged across the North Island, gold fever raged across the South Island. In May 1861, Tasmanian farmer Gabriel Read struck gold in a gully in Otago (which now bears his name). This discovery triggered a gold rush that saw thousands of Irish migrants arrive by way of Australia. Another wave of Europeans came from Cornwall and Devon, and yet another from China. Gold-seekers actively transformed the landscape in their quest for riches, as Mori struggled to adapt to this new settler society.While in 1840, the Mori numbered around 100,000 and non-Mori people were at 2,000, by 1860, the Pkeh population outnumbered Mori. Forty years later, in 1901, the Mori population had fallen to an estimated 43,143, while European migrants and families numbered around 772,719. In the 1870s, migrants from Germany and Scandinavia began to settle and develop the North Island, as more roads, railways, and telegraph lines finally linked isolated communities.Auckland (Tmaki Makaurau), in the North Island, is New Zealands most populous city, photograph by Mathew Waters, 2015. Source: UnsplashIn 1867, all Mori males aged 21 and over were granted the vote, although rebels in the New Zealand wars were denied political citizenship. The years between 1885 and 1895 saw financial institutions fail, a substantial rise in unemployment and strikes, the property market crash, and a general sense of disillusion arise among settler New Zealanders. Historians call this ten-year economic crisis the Long Depression.From the 1880s, however, non-Mori men, women, and children born on New Zealand soil had begun to outnumber migrants. At this time, a distinct sense of national identity started to come to the surface, a sense of national identity interlinked with the land and civil rights. Womens suffrage, for instance, was granted in 1893 and included Mori women too.In 1907, as New Zealands major cities, Auckland and Wellington, were on the rise, growing steadily and rapidly by the day, New Zealand finally gained the status of a self-governing dominion within the British Commonwealth.Gottfried Lindauers Mori portraits on display at the Auckland Art Gallery. Source: Auckland Art GalleryNew Zealand had come a long way, and so had Mori society. From their first encounters with Europeans in the 17th century to the Musket Wars of the 19th century and finally the New Zealand Wars, Mori men and women managed to stand their ground as their country transformed into a settler society with European customs and ancestry. Today they are an integral part of the society, culture, and politics of Aotearoa/New Zealand.

The 20th century got on to a rocky start with a slew of wars and revolutions of varying scales. From the Russo-Japanese War to World War I, peace seemed elusive. Mankind would then outdo itself with World War II in 1939, less than 25 years after World War I. Later, Cold War developments resulted in tense geopolitical confrontations such as the Cuban Missile Crisis. As a superpower that emerged in the 20th century, America stood at the forefront of these intense episodes. How did the everyday American navigate these challenges?1. World War I and the 20th-Century AmericaThe front page of Domenica del Corriere depicting the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn June 28 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the future ruler of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated by a Bosnian-Serb nationalist group desiring to unite territories of ethnic Serbs. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, compelling Russia to get involved as a Serbian ally. One thing soon led to another as numerous world powers intervened to support their respective allies. World War I broke out swiftly, with the Central Powers (primarily Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire) pitting against the Allied Powers (primarily France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan, and America). By August 1914, a huge part of Europe was at war as the continent descended into sheer chaos.America Goes to WarAmerican soldiers in trenches during World War I, France, 1918. Source: Library of Congress, WashingtonInitially neutral, America entered the war in 1917. More than two million American soldiers were drafted to fight at the frontlines across the Atlantic Ocean. Women, too, supported the war effort by filling in essential roles at home and abroad. Some were part of the Ambulance Corps and American Red Cross on the Western Front, while others worked as telephone operators for the Army Signal Corps. Housewives back home were actively taking on jobs in factories that produced weapons, ammunition, and raw materials.The War That Did Not End All WarsA British soldier in front of a ruined home, 19141918. Source: The National WWI Museum and Memorial, Kansas CityRanked among the deadliest military conflicts in history, the impact of World War I was far-reaching. By November 1918, the war had left more than nine million soldiers dead and another 21 million wounded. More than 10 million civilian casualties were reported, and cities turned into ravaged war zones overnight. Massive debts, high unemployment, and inflation woes plagued post-war Europe. Conversely, America, having joined the war late, enjoyed significant economic growth from 1914 to 1918. Its real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rose by 6.6% every year on average, while its exports soared from US$2.3 billion to US$9.6 billion. This was attributed to its role as a major supplier of weapons, raw materials, and food to the Allies.A poster advertising the Liberty Loan, 1917. Source: Library of Congress, WashingtonFrom 1917, the government expanded its military expenditure and drafted millions of men, creating jobs and boosting the economy. To finance its war machine, the government sold war bonds that were repaid with interest and regarded as attractive investments for individuals and corporations. Marketed as a way for the ordinary American to contribute to the noble national cause, the sale of war bonds raised US$24 billion. Economically, World War I transformed America from a debtor nation to a creditor, solidifying its vast fiscal might to shape the post-war world order.Three African American men who served in WWI, 1918. Source: National Museum of African American History and Culture, WashingtonAmerican society was profoundly shaped by the wartime experiences. Men fought valiantly at the battlefront, with some returning home bearing lifelong wounds and the heavy burdens of shell shock. Women ventured beyond the domestic sphere to take on jobs traditionally meant for men. This contributed to the dramatic shift in the role of women, intensifying post-war calls for womens rights. More than 350,000 African American men served in the war, and some saw it as confirmation of their equal citizenship rights in a segregated nation. After the war, the African American community persisted in its fight for equality, most notably from the accelerated momentum of the Great Migration.2. World War II: War on the Doorstep, AgainAmerican soldiers searching for snipers in Zweibrucken, Germany during WWII, 1940s. Source: The National WWII Museum, New OrleansLess than 25 years after World War I ended, war came knocking again on 1 September 1939. In the early hours, Germany invaded Poland, sparking World War II as the Allies declared war two days later. Two years later, the Pacific War broke out in December 1941, with the Japanese launching simultaneous attacks on the American territories of Hawaii, Wake Island, Guam, and the Philippines. Thailand, as well as the British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong, were not spared either.America Goes to War, AgainThe battleship USS Arizona during the attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941. Source: Australian War MemorialAs with its stance in the early years of World War I, America adopted an isolationist policy even after war engulfed Europe in 1939. But on December 7, 1941, the surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii killed 2,400 Americans, sank five out of eight battleships, and destroyed aircraft fields. The U.S. saw this as a deliberate, unprovoked act of aggression, prompting President Franklin D. Roosevelt to declare war on Japan the very next day. Within days, Germany and Italy, as Japans allies, declared war on the U.S., drawing the sleeping giant into an all-out conflict in both theatres of World War II.U.S. troops approach Omaha Beach, Normandy, France on D-Day, June 6, 1944. Source: The National WWII Museum, New OrleansWhile the U.S. only provided military supplies and escorted Allied convoys prior, it was able to dedicate large numbers of military personnel after 1941. The U.S.-backed Allies gained control over land and sea, leading to a decisive victory in Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Western Europe in 1944. Concurrently, American military and naval strength proved pivotal in significant battles such as the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. Later, in August 1945, the U.S. controversially dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, hastening Japans unconditional surrender and ending World War II.The Deadliest Military Conflict in History: How It Shaped AmericaAmerican soldiers and English girls parade the Stars and Stripes in Piccadilly Circus, London, August 1945. Source: Imperial War Museum, LondonThree months before the Japanese surrender, Victory in Europe Day was celebrated on May 8, 1945, a day after Germany surrendered. While figures vary, an estimated 70 to 85 million people died in World War II, making it the bloodiest military conflict in history. Much of Europe and Asia were in ruins, with civilian populations displaced and left in hunger and poverty. More than 400,000 Americans perished during World War II, and about 670,000 were wounded. However, compared to the other Allied powers, America did not suffer heavy infrastructural damage.Tanks in an assembly line at Chrysler, Detroit, 1941. Source: Library of Congress, WashingtonUnlike the devastation in Europe, Americas economy achieved significant growth due to the efficient pivot to wartime production. In 1945, Americas Gross National Product (GNP) rose to US$212 billion, almost double the figures of 1940. The vast economic strength transformed America into a global leader capable of influencing the balance of power in international relations. Together with its military might and demonstrated nuclear capabilities, the U.S. has since dominated world affairs as a champion of democracy and capitalism.Black trainees in the metal trades, 1944. Source: National Archives, New YorkPeople from all walks of life were galvanized to support the war effort in more ways than one. Whether it be men sent to the battlefield or women taking on factory jobs, the whole-of-nation effort boosted patriotism, redefining what it meant to be American. Defying discrimination, the African American community stepped up to boost the war effort. They took on skilled positions as defense contractors and were forced to end segregation with new hiring policies. Millions of African Americans served in the military forces in the Pacific and Europe. Initially relegated to menial labor positions and non-combat roles, they rose to the occasion and served as pilots and officers when troop losses mounted.Times Square, New York, 1952. Source: Library of Congress, WashingtonThe middle-class experience was forever changed in the post-war years. With the GI Bill, war veterans enjoyed a multitude of benefits, such as specialty care, education, and re-employment training. Favorable home loans helped families start life afresh in furnished homes in the growing suburbs with ample amenities such as schools, parks, and churches. Unemployment rates and inflation were low. Conversely, consumer spending was at an all-time high as Americans splurged on automobiles, televisions, and refrigerators.3. Cold War: The Heated Superpower RivalryAn editorial cartoon commenting on U.S.-Soviet relations in the aftermath of World War II, 1946. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWith the war in its rearview, the world seemed ready to usher in a new era of prosperity. As the U.S. capitalized on its influence as a global leader, it found itself in a tense relationship with the Soviet Union (USSR), the other surviving superpower. This was known as the Cold War defined as a period of economic, political, and military tensions between the U.S. and the USSR short of an all-out war. Championing two conflicting ideologiescapitalism and communismthe two superpowers were previously wedded to a wartime alliance to defeat Germany. However, Cold War developments would soon threaten to drive a wedge between the two former allies.Senior U.S. commanders, including General Douglas MacArthur, inspect the Inchon port area, Korea, September 1950. Source: Naval History and Heritage CommandFrom 1947 to 1991, despite not having an all-out war, the U.S. and the USSR were engaged in conflicts of various scales across the globe. From pitting the Eastern Bloc against the West to the arms race and Space Race that saw defense spending skyrocketing on both sides, the superpowers were relentless in proving that one was better than the other. Simultaneously, they fought proxy wars overseas and participated in conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, and Cuba. The bipolarity and Cold War politics created a fragmented world order and affected regional developments in Europe and Asia, oftentimes escalating violence in many areas.A Bipolar World Order: How It Shaped AmericaA rally for the Hollywood Ten, 1950. Source: Jewish Museum of MarylandIn the Cold War years, American society was constantly plagued by the fear of a communist takeover, with government propaganda reinforcing this paranoia. Known as the Second Red Scare, it was an era characterized by hysteria about the perceived communist threat. Millions of federal employees were investigated to eliminate any subversive elements thought to have penetrated the government. Alleged communist sympathizers, including celebrities and intellectuals, were harassed by law enforcement, terminated from their jobs, and alienated from their social circles.A woman viewing a model bomb shelter display stocked with food and supplies, United States, 1961. Source: Library of Congress, WashingtonWhile the U.S. government pursued an arms race with the Soviets, the American public lived with the omnipresent threat of nuclear annihilation. Civilians built fallout shelters in their basements and backyards and stocked up on food and necessities to prepare for an impending Soviet nuclear attack. Civil defense drills, quite possibly futile and comical by todays standards, were also practiced nationwide. Schoolchildren participated in duck and cover drills where they would dive underneath their desks to take cover in the event of an attack.Large crowd demonstrating to end the war in Vietnam, Washington, D.C., 1967. Source: Library of Congress, WashingtonThe Cold War fuelled the counterculture movement in the 1960s and 1970s. A growing disillusion with the government and its morally questionable policies created a generation of people seeking alternatives to the post-war conformist attitudes. Many rejected consumerism and decried the prevailing social and racial injustice. They supported social movements and protests that championed civil rights, feminism, and the welfare of marginalized communities. A common thread binding these individuals was their opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which ran counter to their peace advocacy.Fall of the Berlin Wall, 1989. Source: German-American Heritage Museum, WashingtonAfter another two decades of competition, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, symbolizing the end of the Cold War. With the USSRs dissolution by December 1991, the U.S. reigned supreme, flying the flag of the free world proudly. Ever since, communism and all things socialist have been tagged as dirty words in the political realm. Many people of the older generation still associate these ideas with the dark years of the Cold War, evoking memories of the horrifying prospects of a nuclear war. Even to this day, politicians shy away from these associations.Looking Back at 20th Century AmericaThe American flag at the Pearl Harbor National Memorial in Honolulu, Hawaii by Gage Skidmore, 2022. Source: Wikimedia CommonsUndoubtedly, the 20th century proved to be both transformative and tumultuous for America and its people. In the first half of the 20th century, the two World Wars cemented the U.S. vast economic prowess. It also elevated the country to a superpower status capable of influencing global politics. For the remainder of the century, the Cold War pushed the world, on many occasions, towards annihilation. Not only has this shaped U.S. domestic and foreign policy, but it has also affected the worldview of its people. More significantly, the 20th century witnessed Americas meteoric rise from an isolated country to a political and economic powerhousea legacy that still profoundly impacts how the world works today.

The tumult and competition of World War II ignited innovation in military technology at an unprecedented pace. The development of new technologies and doctrines spurred innovation as the combatants battled for technical supremacy on and off the battlefield. The field of aviation was one of the most significantly affected by these developments, with aviation taking a massive leap from cloth-winged biplanes and lumbering heavy bombers at wars beginning to sleek metal-clad jet-powered aircraft by wars end. This exceptional progress in aviation technologies created some unique and unconventional designs for WWII aircraft.1. The K-Class BlimpNavy K-class Blimp K-29 conducting exercises aboard escort carrier USS Altamaha (CVE-18), 1944 (colorized by author via DeepAI). Source: US National Archives via usndazzle.comInterestingly, one of the most unique aircraft of World War II was not an airplane, but instead an airship. The K-class blimps of the US Navy were integral to the Navys Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) operations and proved to be some of the most successful instruments for deterring and countering the German U-boat fleet. Despite their unglamorous and vulnerable appearance, these ships of the sky were proven combat machines that escorted untold tons of resources and personnel across the Atlantic. The K-class featured an extensive avionics and intelligence suite that allowed them to be the eyes and ears of the convoys and to direct strikes against detected U-boats.While they were armed with depth bombs and a Browning M2 .50 caliber machine gun for taking on U-boats, their primary purpose was to direct aircraft and vessels to destroy enemy submarines. In this role, they provided exceptional support due to their long endurance, and most significantly, their ability to move at the pace of the convoy and maintain the slow speeds needed for adequate reconnaissance. The ability to hover slightly ahead of the convoy using sensors and visual checks to detect U-boats meant that they could spot the enemy well before any other ship or fast-moving aircraft could. The airships were extremely effective and proved to be a thorn in the side of Axis U-boat commanders, as they could no longer easily carry out hit and run torpedo attacks once a convoy was being escorted by airships.A United States Navy Blimp soars over the USS Boise (CL-47), with the USS Midway (CV-41) on the left. Irving Berman, 1945 (colorized by author via DeepAI.) Source: US National ArchivesThe K-class blimps proved to be incredibly successful and valuable in the fight against U-boats. They were so effective that once implemented in the convoys, out of the 89,000 ships protected throughout the war, only one vessel escorted by the airships was ever sunk. The tanker SS Persephone was off the coast of New Jersey when it fell victim to a torpedo from U-593 that impacted her starboard side, breaking her in half. While nine crew members were killed, 28 survivors were rescued by the Coast Guard with the help of a K-class blimp. The U-boat was detected and damaged during its escape.SS Persephone sinking off the coast of New Jersey after being torpedoed by U-593. A Navy K-Class blimp is seen surveying the scene and coordinating rescue and recovery missions, 1942, (colorized by author via DeepAI). Source: U-Boat ArchiveWith this illustrious track record, the K-class blimps appear as one of the most successful aircraft of WWII, having contributed significantly to the Allied war effort and their ultimate victory. Despite lacking the glamor and glitz of the high-performance fighters and bombers, the K-class suffered only one loss throughout the war when K-74 engaged U-134 on a patrol off the Florida coast. The airship crew spotted U-134 and commenced an attack on the U-boat with depth charges, which apparently damaged the boat, but the boat was still in action and the crew returned fire with their anti-aircraft guns. Despite the return fire, K-74 pressed the attack, firing their .50 caliber machine gun at the U-boat. In the exchange, the airship was badly damaged and was ultimately shot down.The entire crew survived the crash and awaited rescue, but Aviation Machinists Mate Second Class Isadore Stessel was attacked by a shark and died minutes before the rescue forces from USS Dahlgren (DD-187) arrived on the scene. U-134 survived the attack but was sunk five weeks later by the British frigate HMS Rother (K-224) in the Bay of Biscay while on its way home for repairs. The impressive combat record of the K-class blimps speaks for itself, and it has earned its spot on this list and in the annals of history.2. The Dornier-335 PfeilLast surviving Do-335 captured in WWII restored and on display in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington DC. Source: FlickrThe Do-335 Pfeil or Arrow was a heavy fighter developed by the Germans during WWII. The aircraft was intended to provide the Luftwaffe with a fast and heavy fighter that could carry out various missions, from interception of enemy bombers, to groundstrike and air interdiction. The primary advantage that the 335 possessed over other designs was its incredible speed.The design of the Pfeil was unique because it was one of the few aircraft to implement a push/pull propeller configuration. This meant that the aircraft had a propeller at the front like a traditional plane that would pull it through the sky, but it also had a propeller at the rear of the aircraft that would push the plane from behind. This doubled the efficiency of the aircraft while avoiding the additional aerodynamic drag associated with a traditional twin-engine aircraft, where both engines were at the front of the plane. This meant that the fuselage could be streamlined for speed, thus giving the plane its nickname arrow. The 335 also featured other innovations such as an ejection seat for the pilot as well as the use of a tricycle landing gear.The Cockpit of the captured Do-335 at the National Air and Space Museum. Source: National Air and Space MuseumThe Do-335 was introduced later in the war as the Germans were suffering losses in materiel and men, which had greatly limited the production capability of the embattled war industry, especially with the Allied forces continued day and night bombing campaign. This meant that the 335 was fielded in limited numbers, with approximately 48 being completed by the end of the war with another 9 still in production. The plane lived up to its promise of high-speed attack capability, becoming the fastest piston-engined aircraft the Luftwaffe fielded during the entire war, reportedly reaching speeds of up to 474 mph in level flight.The aircraft was armed accordingly for its strike-fighter mission set, with one 30mm cannon and two 15mm machine guns that were dual purpose for taking out enemy aircraft, in particular bombers, as well as ground targets in strafing attacks. The 335 also had an internal bomb bay that could store up to 500kg (1,100lbs) of bombs. Other variants of the aircraft were designed to carry different armament depending on mission requirements. The internal bay served as an additional means to reduce aerodynamic drag by keeping the bombs away from the exterior skin of the aircraft, thus maintaining its streamlined shape.Close-up shot of the front engine of the static display Do-335. Note the streamlined shape of the cockpit and fuselage aft of the engine. Source: National Air and Space MuseumThe late arrival of the Do-335 meant that it saw very little combat prior to the end of the war. The innovative design with its high speed, streamlined body, ejection seat, and tricycle landing gear provided aircraft designers with material further development after the war. Despite its lacking much wartime combat, the Do-335 remains one of the most unique and interesting aircraft designs of WWII.3. The Gloster MeteorWhite-painted Gloster Meteor F Mark III, Meteors were painted white to aid identification of Allied jets from German ones, 1945 (colorized by author via AI). Source: Imperial War MuseumThe Gloster Meteor was a jet fighter that was developed to house one of the first turbojet engines produced by inventor and RAF officer Frank Whittle. The revolutionary turbojet represented a change in how aircraft could be powered in the future. While the Gloster Meteor was the first Allied jet aircraft to see action in WWII, the German defense industry was also creating similar engines independently and was the first to successfully field them in a series of aircraft such as the Me-262 fighter and Arado Ar-234 light bombers.While a different approach to jet propulsion meant that the Me-262 surpassed the Gloster Meteor in its overall top speed, the British jet was still capable of high speeds and was only in the infancy of its development as an aircraft.A British Meteor F. Mk.1 intercepting a German V-1 flying bomb, Shigeo Koike. Source: FlickrThe Meteor was designed primarily as a fighter, but it could be employed in a limited strike role with bombs and rockets. The Meteor was armed with four Hispano 20mm cannons and could mount RP-3 rockets and up to 2,000 pounds of bombs. The Meteors primary role during the war was to counter the threat of the V1 flying bombs that were fired at London from German bases in Europe. The jets proved useful in this mission and were able to intercept and destroy many of these cruise missiles as they made their way towards the British capital. During the final months of the war, the Meteor served as an air defense platform over mainland Europe, although by this point the Nazi Luftwaffe had been completely decimated by the Allies.While the Meteors service during WWII was short, it became one of the most successful first-generation jet aircraft and saw combat in many other conflicts including the Korean War, where it proved to be a reliable and stalwart example of early jet airpower. The Meteor had numerous variants and served with many air forces around the world, thereby solidifying its reputation as a combat-proven aircraft.4. The Me-163 KometMesserschmitt Me-163B at the National Museum of the United States Air Force. Source: National Museum of the United States Air ForceThe Me-163 Komet is arguably one of the most intriguing and unique aircraft designs of WWII. This aircraft was powered not by a propeller, or a jet engine, but instead by a rocket engine. The Komet was the only operational combat aircraft in history to use this means of propulsion and is considered a feat of aeronautical engineering by pilots. The Komet was employed as a last-ditch attempt to hinder Allied bombing raids over Nazi Germany, but arrived much too late and in too few numbers to be of any real detriment to the Allied war effort. In addition to its small numbers, the aircraft also suffered from numerous technical faults that often resulted in the fiery death of its pilots, as its rocket motor was extremely unreliable and packed with fuel.This compact aircraft was armed with two MK 108 30mm cannons that fired highly destructive rounds that could take down large targets such as heavy bombers with only a few shots. However, despite the raw power of the projectiles, the cannons suffered from an extremely slow rate of fire. This, in addition to the fast speed of the aircraft itself, meant that it was difficult for Luftwaffe pilots to hit the target while carrying out their attacks. Therefore, the initial missions of the Komets resulted in little real damage to Allied aircraft over Europe.Me-163 on display at the National Air and Space Museum; note the rocket powerplant next to the aircraft. Source: National Air and Space MuseumIn total, the Komets accounted for only nine aircraft kills against Allied bombers. The short effective range and limited fuel of the aircraft also meant that once a pilot completed their attacking passes, there was little time to escape before running out of fuel and being forced to slowly glide away from the Allied fighter screens. This technical shortcoming meant that Allied forces would destroy 14 of these rare aircraft, which were already in extremely limited supply.The Me-163 suffered from many technical issues that plagued the aircraft during its short operational life. The aircraft lacked landing gear and was instead launched from a trolley which would separate after the plane was in the air. It would then land on a centerline skid, which made landings a dangerous activity. The special rocket fuel mix that powered the aircraft was extremely volatile and could ignite and explode without warning, often killing or severely burning the pilot. Furthermore, the primarily wood construction of the aircraft contributed to the fire hazard.Despite these drawbacks, the aircraft was extremely fast and was capable of reaching higher altitudes much quicker than any prop-driven aircraft. Like many of the Third Reichs late war wunderwaffe (wonder weapons), the Komet represented the pushing of the boundaries of aviation technology. Although it was severely limited in its actual effectiveness, it was a technological marvel that exemplified the massive progress in aviation technology during WWII, and served as a foundation for the future of rocket aircraft development in the postwar era.5. The Ryan FR FireballRyan FR-1 Fireball aboard a carrier, likely the USS Ranger (CV-4), c. 1945 (colorized by author via DeepAI). Source: US Navy ArchivesThe Ryan FR-1 Fireball was one of the first aircraft that adapted jet engines for naval use. It was a plane that utilized a mixed propulsion system that was revolutionary for its time and is one of the only such aircraft to ever enter operational status. The plane was even more unique because it operated from aircraft carriers and proved that it was viable to use jets on carriers. The Fireball was powered by two systems, a conventional piston engine with a propeller in the front, and a turbojet in the rear.The combination of these two propulsion systems gave the Fireball power and redundancy. It was also the first Navy aircraft that employed a jet engine. The Fireball was designed to serve as a fighter aircraft that could take the war to Japan. Its armament consisted of four .50 cal machine guns, rockets, and up to 2,000lbs of bombs.The platform for the Fireball bore a close resemblance to other piston-powered naval aircraft of the time, but the tail section of the plane held the additional jet engine that was almost invisible to the average observer.The tail section of a FR Fireball showing the J31 turbojet engine within (colorized by author via DeepAI). Source: San Diego Air & Space Museum ArchivesWhile the Fireball did enter operational service, it never saw combat. Pilots of the only Fireball squadron, VF-66, had just completed qualifications in landing the aircraft on carriers and were gearing up to ship to the Pacific when Japan surrendered in September 1945. Despite the lack of combat service, the Fireball still ranks among the most unique aircraft of WWII.The Fireball did not bode well after the war. The aircraft, while unique, was soon superseded by pure jet fighters that were much more powerful and better suited for the jet age. The aircraft continued postwar operations aboard carriers including the escort carrier USS Badoeng Strait (CVE-116) until 1947, when the type was retired from service to make way for more advanced fighters, primarily the purely jet-powered FH phantom.WWII produced some of the most unique and interesting designs in aviation history. Some of these designs sometimes were successful while others were simply not operationally viable at the time. We should appreciate and acknowledge these aircraft that paved the way for the development of modern aviation technology.

The Bandung Conference, attended by 29 Asian and African countries, was held in April 1955 in the Indonesian city of Bandung. The participants of the conference condemned colonialism, racial discrimination, and segregation, expressed support for people fighting for independence, and advocated for economic and cultural cooperation among states and peaceful resolution of conflicts. The conference played a crucial role in laying the foundation for the Non-Aligned Movement, which was formally established in 1961.The Bandung Conferences Background: Decolonization & the Cold WarPoster calling for the decolonization of India. Source: Liberating NarrativesFollowing the end of World War II, decolonization was adopted as one of the leading tenets of post-war global order. The newly established international organization, the United Nations, supported this principle. As a result, by the first half of the 1950s, new Asian and African nations emerged with their diplomatic corps which needed to be integrated into the new world order.In this new landscape, President Sukarno of newly independent Indonesia and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru emerged as key initiators of the Bandung Conference, bringing together newly decolonized Asian and African nations.The idea of forming a united front among such countries was first born during the Asian Relations Conference held in March 1947 in India and hosted by Nehru, then the head of Indias provisional government. Soon after the meeting, in August of the same year, India became an independent political entity.The 1947 conference represented the inaugural act of Jawaharlal Nehrus vision of Indias foreign policy in a post-World War II international stage. The new approach was based on enforcing the principles of non-alignment, anti-colonialism, and anti-racism.Portrait of President Sukarno, c. 1949. Source: Leiden University Libraries Digital CollectionsIn January 1949, a second conference was held in New Delhi, India. The meeting, attended by 19 Asian and African countries, discussed Indonesias struggle for independence from Dutch colonial rule. Headed by Nehru, the leaders condemned Dutch actions in Indonesia and demanded Indonesias right to become a sovereign country. During the conference, the leaders created a series of resolutions and presented them before the United Nations Security Council, urging the organization to act.The international pressure forced the Dutch to negotiate, and following the successful Dutch-Indonesian round table, Indonesia was granted independence on December 27, 1949.The event marked a significant milestone in the anticolonial struggle, showcasing the potential of Afro-Asian diplomatic unity, though Western pressure on the Dutch also played a crucial role.In the initial stage of consolidating the Afro-Asian nations, Chinese support played an important role. Mao Zedong, influenced by Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai, aimed to foster anti-colonial, anti-imperialist, and nationalist sentiments across Africa and Asia.Despite Chinas strong relations with the Soviet Union, Mao envisaged communist China as the regional leader. During this period, Mao Zedong publicly supported newly emerged Asian nations while denouncing Western colonialism.Setting the StageMap showing the 29 participants of the Bandung Conference, by Ichwan Palongengi. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn April 1954, the Colombo Powers Conference was held, where Indonesia once again proposed organizing an international meeting of decolonized countries. As a result, a planning group was established, which met in the city of Bogor, Indonesia, in December 1954 and formally declared that such a conference, later known as the Bandung Conference, would be held in April 1955.During the preliminary meeting, the group outlined the key goals of the anticipated conference: promote cooperation among newly independent Asian and African nations; discuss the social, economic, and cultural challenges these nations faced; outline their mutual interests; oppose colonialism; and increase the visibility of African and Asian countries on the international stage.These events carved out the contours of the movement of the non-aligned nations. These Asian and African countries preferred neutrality amid the rising Cold War tensions, believing that by aligning themselves either with the United States or the Soviet Union, their interests would not be met or represented.This sentiment was even more reinforced after the armistice agreement between the United States, China, and North Korea, ending the Korean War. During the negotiating process, Asian nations were largely excluded. However, many of them, including India, which organized the repatriation of prisoners of war, were involved in the conflict.Third World leaders during the Colombo Conference, 1954. Source: LMDThe first Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1954-1955 caused wider discontent among the Asian nations. Fearing that the conflict over the Quemoy and Matsu islands, held by Taiwan but claimed by Communist China, might spill over, the rest of the region criticized the United States and China for their critical military and political decisions that were made without the Asian countries consultation.In addition, despite the waves of post-World War II decolonization, France refused to grant independence to Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, declaring the colonies an integral part of French territories. To safeguard its influence, France utilized violence against the Algerian rebels, while key Western powers, such as the United States and Great Britain, failed to push Frances decolonization.When Indonesia was granted independence in 1949, another European colonial power, the Netherlands, refused to cede West New Guinea (West Papua) to Indonesia. In this case, Western powers also did not show much support for Indonesias claim, as they feared the formation of an Indonesian-Chinese alliance.Indonesia, however, viewed West New Guinea as an integral part of the former Dutch East Indies and believed its inclusion was essential to completing the process of national decolonization and unifying the archipelago under one sovereign state. When Indonesian President Sukarno emerged as the leader of the newly independent Asian and African nations (also known as NEFOS, Newly Emerging Forces), one of his key goals was to acquire international support to prevent the transferring of sovereignty of West Papua to indigenous Papuans.The Bandung ConferenceDelegates arriving at the Bandung Conference, 1955. Source: MediumThe idea of holding the first large-scale international conference of Asian and African countries materialized between April 18 and 24, 1955, in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia.Twenty-nine countries attended the Bandung Conference, representing a total of 1.5 billion people, 54% of the worlds population. These countries were: Egypt, Ethiopia, Gold Coast (present-day Ghana), Liberia, Libya, Sudan, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Burma (present-day Myanmar), Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka), India, Nepal, Pakistan, Cambodia, China (Peoples Republic of China), Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Philippines, Thailand, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Malaya (before it became Malaysia in 1963), Syria, Turkey, Yemen (North Yemen), and Jordan.Sukarno, Indonesias first president, appealed on behalf of the Southern countries in his opening speech dedicated to Bandung:This is the first intercontinental conference of people of color in human history. Wherever, whenever and however it appears, colonialism is an evil thing, and one must be eradicated from the earth I hope that it will give evidence of the fact that we Asian and African leaders understand that Asia and Africa can prosper only when they are united, and that even the safety of the world at large cannot be safeguarded without a united Asia-Africa I hope that this conference will give guidance to mankind, will point out to mankind the way which it must take to attain safety and peace. I hope that it will give evidence that Asia and Africa have been reborn, nay, that a New Asia and a New Africa have been born.A plenary session at the Bandung Conference, 1955. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Foreign Ministry of the Republic of IndonesiaDuring the conference, participants carved out the Ten Principles of Bandung (also known as the Bandung Spirit and Bandung Declaration). These principles represented a political statement of the Asian-African countries, laying out the framework for peaceful resolution of conflicts, cooperation among the nations, respect for international law, self-determination, non-interference, and equality. This ten-point declaration on promotion of world peace and cooperation, was inspired in part by the values found in Indonesias Pancasila, which is the founding philosophy of Indonesia, formulated by President Sukarno for the newly-independent country in 1945. Pancasila is composed of five principles:Belief in the One and Only God;Just and civilized humanity;The unity of Indonesia;Democracy;Social justice for all the Indonesians.The Ten Principles of BandungGrand Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin el-Husseini with the prime minister of the Peoples Republic of China, Zhou Enlai at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia, 1955. Source: Middle East EyeThe Ten Principles of Bandung were not drafted in one session but were the result of several days of intense discussion and negotiation among the delegates. Despite having diverse political systems, cultures, and ideologies, participants formally agreed upon and included the following principles in the Final Communiqu of the Bandung Conference:Respect for fundamental human rights and the principles of the Charter of the United Nations;Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations;Recognition of the equality of all races and nations;Non-interference in the internal affairs of another country;Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself singly or collectively, by the Charter of the United Nations;Abstention from the use of arrangements of collective defense to serve the particular interests of any of the big powers, abstention by any country from exerting pressures on other countries;Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any country;Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means;Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation;Respect for justice and international obligation.The Final Communiqu of the Conference also outlined the necessity of technical and economic assistance to developing countries to lessen their dependency on leading industrialized nations, mostly Western countries.The participating states agreed to support this effort by sharing their expertise and knowledge, including setting up regional research and training centers.Legacy of the Bandung ConferenceCIA map showing the areas of colonial tension, 1953-68. Source: Library of Congress, Washington DCThe Bandung Conference marked a shift toward a more inclusive international system, promising to reshape the global order through collective action founded on shared values and aspirations. For these reasons, the Bandung Conference is commonly referred to as the inaugural moment for the emergence of the Third World.At the same time, the Final Communiqu and Ten Principles of Bandung reinforced global discussions on human rights and self-determination, aligning with the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.However, for some scholars, like Julian Go, the direct influence of the Bandung spirit on world politics remains unclear. According to this view, after Bandung, the policies of these emerging nations still reflected aspects of their colonial past, albeit with a non-Western identity. They mirrored Western-style industrialization and state-driven modernization rather than introducing alternative economic models. For instance, under Nehru, India went through the Five-Year Modernization Plan, largely inspired by Western political and economic strategies centered on economic growth.For others, the Bandung Conference and its legacy are multilayered. Narendran Kumarakulasingam, for example, calls this notion a Bandungs beyond Bandung.There is no denying, however, that the meeting in Bandung in 1955 indelibly altered the global stage, resulting in the creation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1961. This movement influenced many leaders, including Yugoslavias Josip Broz Tito and Ghanas Kwame Nkrumah, to pursue a distinct foreign policy. Indeed, these leaders would alter the Cold War dynamics by advocating for strategic neutrality.

The modern visitor to the Croatian coastal city of Split marvels at the towering walls of Emperor Diocletians Palace, which were later woven into the fabric of the medieval old town. Located on the Dalmatian coast, the history of Split consists of periods under Byzantine, Hungarian, Venetian, French, and Austrian rule. Incorporated into Yugoslavia after WWI and experiencing brief Italian and German occupation during WWII, Split emerged relatively unscathed out of the Yugoslav Wars and is now a popular tourist destination.The Emperors PalaceThe Peristyle at Diocletians Palace, Split, Croatia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenThe history of Split begins around the 3rd century BCE with the foundation of a small Greek colony known as Aspalathos. When the Romans arrived at the end of the century, the settlement came to be known as Spalatum in Latin.For several centuries, Split was overshadowed by nearby Salona, which would become one of the largest cities in the Roman world. In 244 CE, the future Emperor Diocletian was born in Salona. After being proclaimed emperor in 284, Diocletian spent the next decade campaigning against his rivals for the throne. His experiences made him recognize that a single person could not rule the empire on their own. In 293, he set up the tetrarchy, dividing the empire between East and West, with a senior and junior emperor for each.With the empire at peace, Diocletian relinquished his power as emperor in 305 and retired to a palace he built at Spalatum. He had chosen the site because it was close to his native Salona and had direct access to the sea. The vast complex covers an area between three and four hectares and, at the time, consisted of a military camp as well as the emperors private quarters.More than a century and a half after his death in 312, Diocletians Palace may have been used by Julius Nepos, who held imperial power in Rome for just over a year before he was forced to flee to Dalmatia in 475. He plotted to retake the throne but was assassinated in 480.A Refuge From WarCathedral and Belltower of St Domnius, Split, Croatia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenAfter the Fall of Rome, Dalmatia remained part of the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire, but by the early 7th century, the area was subject to frequent raids by Avars and Slavs, most of whom were Croats. The inhabitants from Salona escaped to the islands off the Dalmatian coast and established a temporary refuge.By the middle of the 7th century, the refugees decided to move back to the mainland. Rather than reoccupying the site of Salona, they chose to live within Diocletians Palace, whose formidable walls protected them from further incursions by the Croats, who were by now well-established in the hinterland. The citys economy began to thrive as a result of fishing and maritime trade. As the population increased over the centuries, a new district was built to the west of Diocletians Palace.Christianity had already taken root in Salona a few centuries earlier, and Roman structures were quickly converted into churches for the local community. In a historical irony, the Christians converted Diocletians Mausoleum into the Cathedral of Saint Domnius (Sveti Duje), named after a bishop of Salona who had been martyred during Diocletians persecution of Christians at the beginning of the 4th century.An Autonomous City StateGregory of Nin Monument, Split, Croatia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenAlongside several other cities on the Dalmatian coast, Split remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire. However, as the city was surrounded by the independent Duchy of Croatia, it enjoyed a considerable level of autonomy with a self-governing council and a mayor known by the Italian title of Podest.While the Croatians were unable to establish political control over Split, the city found itself at the center of a religious dispute in the early 10th century. Bishop Gregory of Nins efforts to promote the Old Slavonic language in church services were vehemently opposed by the pope and the archbishop of Split.As a result of decisions made at the first and second Councils of Split in 925 and 928, Latin was confirmed as the official liturgical language and the Croatian dioceses were made subordinate to Split.Among the attendees at the church councils was Tomislav I, the first king of Croatia. In 1069, the kingdom of Croatia took over the Dalmatian coasts and islands, but Split continued to enjoy its previous autonomy. Following a decade-long succession crisis in Croatia at the end of the 11th century, King Coloman of Hungary emerged triumphant in 1102 and added king of Croatia to his titles. During the 12th century, the Byzantines, Venetians, and Hungarians continued to fight over the Dalmatian coast.A Venetian Trading PostVenetian Tower, Split, Croatia, photography by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenSplit retained most of its political rights under Hungarian rule, which lasted until the early 15th century. In 1409, after failing in his efforts to lay claim to the Hungarian crown, King Ladislaus of Naples sold his nominal rights to Split to the Venetian Republic, who used the sale as a pretext to take control of the city in 1420.Known by its Italian name, Spalato, the citys population was predominantly Croatian by the 15th century. The Venetians abolished the citys autonomous government and put in place a new administration that promoted a Venetian dialect for administration and trade. Nevertheless, the majority of the population continued to speak Croatian, and the city was home to Marko Maruli, one of the most accomplished Renaissance poets. Celebrated by contemporaries for his Latin works, Marulis epic poem Judita, based on the biblical tale of Judith and Holofernes, was the first long poem written in Croatian.During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire conquered much of the Balkan peninsula, leaving Venice with a strip of territory along the Dalmatian coast. While other Christian powers were alarmed by the success of the Muslim Turks in taking over southeastern Europe, the commercially-minded Venetians soon established trade relations with the Ottomans. As a result, Split became an important trading post for the Ottoman-Venetian trade, though it was also subject to several Ottoman invasions when the two parties were at war with each other.Napoleonic InterludeMarmontova Ulica, Split, Croatia, photographs by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenVenetian rule in Split continued until 1797 when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered and abolished the Venetian republic following his First Italian Campaign. Under the Treaty of Campo Formio, the young French general transferred the Venetian territories to the Austrian Habsburg Empire in return for recognition of republican administrations in northern Italy.Split remained under Austrian rule until 1805, when Napoleon defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Austerlitz. Dalmatia then became part of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, ruled by Napoleons stepson Eugene de Beauharnais. In 1806, Napoleon appointed General Auguste de Marmont as governor-general of Dalmatia. Marmont was charmed by Splits Roman ruins and modernized the citys infrastructure by establishing new schools and hospitals, tearing down most of the Venetian walls, and building new paved roads.Upon resumption of hostilities with Austria in 1809, Marmont led the Army of Dalmatia and was appointed Marshal of the Empire during the campaign. Dalmatia was incorporated into the Illyrian Provinces, which formally became part of France. Although Marmonts actions leading up to Napoleons abdication in April 1814 would sully his reputation in France, Split continues to honor him with a major thoroughfare to the west of the Old Town named ulica Marmontova.The Austrians reoccupied Dalmatia in 1813 following Napoleons defeat at the Battle of Leipzig, and Split remained under Austrian rule for more than a century as part of the Kingdom of Dalmatia.Split IdentitiesRepublic Square (Prokurative), Split, Croatia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenFour centuries of Venetian rule gave Split a large Italian minority that dominated the citys political and economic life. Over the course of the 19th century, Split and Dalmatia faced an identity crisis amid competing Italian and Slavic nationalisms.Two factions emerged in Dalmatian politics during the second half of the 19th century. The Peoples Party, largely representing Croatian Dalmatians, favored union with the neighboring Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, which officially became part of the Hungarian crown after 1867. The Autonomist Party, representing the Italian Dalmatian elite, wanted to maintain the autonomy of the Kingdom of Dalmatia under the Austrian crown but was accused of secretly wanting unification with Italy.One of the most prominent Dalmatian politicians in the second half of the 19th century was Antonio Bajamonti, a leader of the Autonomist Party who served as mayor of Split between 1860 and 1880. Bajmonti had a transformational impact on the city. He built a public theater and a palace on the site of the Venetian fortifications that had been torn down by the French. Although the theater later burned down, these structures would form part of an architectural complex known as the Prokurative, inspired by the Procuratie in St. Marks Square in Venice. He introduced gas lighting and restored the Roman aqueduct that brought water into the city, which he commemorated with the construction of a monumental fountain. The Bajamonti Fountain was completed in 1880 but demolished in 1947 as a symbol of Italian nationalism.YugoslaviaSplit Harbor, Croatia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenAfter the end of World War I and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Split and Dalmatia became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. Since the Dalmatian capital of Zadar had been annexed by Italy during the war, Splits political and economic significance increased, and it became the most important port in the new kingdom.During World War II, Split was occupied by Fascist Italy between 1941 and 1943. The city was one of the centers of partisan resistance to the fascist occupation. The Yugoslav Partisans briefly took control of the city in September 1943 but were soon driven out by the Germans and did not return until October 1944.In late 1945, Yugoslavia became a socialist republic led by Josip Broz Tito. Tito united Croatia and Dalmatia, which became one of the six constituent republics of the Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia. The Dalmatians welcomed socialist reforms, and Split reassumed its role as the most important port in Yugoslavia. The port became the headquarters of the Yugoslav Navy and fostered an internationally renowned shipbuilding industry. Its population expanded rapidly and the city came to occupy much of the Split peninsula.Decline and RevivalCroatian Flag at Marjan Hill, Split, Croatia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenIn the wake of the fall of communism in Europe, Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. As the headquarters of the Yugoslav Navy with a large army garrison, Split found itself in the middle of a stand-off between the Croatian National Guard and the Yugoslav military. The violent clashes reached their peak in November when the Yugoslav Navy ship Split lightly shelled the city. In January 1992, the Yugoslav military evacuated its forces from Split.While Split largely escaped the bloodshed of the Croatian War of Independence, which ended in November 1995, the economy went into sharp decline as much of Croatias industrial capacity had been destroyed during the war.Split has experienced a revival in its fortunes in the 21st century as a popular tourist destination. With a population of 160,000, Split is Croatias second-largest city and boasts 900,000 visitors a year. Despite its rich Roman history, labyrinthine Old Town, and attractive Italianate architecture, most holidaymakers visit Split in search of sun, sea, and cheap alcohol.While Splits thriving tourism industry has had a positive impact on the redevelopment of Diocletians Palace and the Old Town, the citys inhabitants have blamed tourists for driving up the cost of living, and local authorities have considered measures to restrict visitor numbers. Like the even more crowded Dubrovnik further along the Dalmatian coast, Splits experience in recent years illustrates how tourism can often be a double-edged sword.

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