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It would be easy to chart the history of civilization through a timeline of its wars. Most great kingdoms and empires were built and destroyed through conquest, from the very first classical records to the present day. Therefore, compiling a list of epic battles that shaped history is a daunting task, with a potential catalog that could span over 100 battles. With that in mind, here are 11 of the most titanic and epic battles whose effects would reverberate throughout the ages.1. Battle of Salamis 480 BCEKing Xerxes watches as the Greek and Persian navies engage. Source: meisterdrucke.ieIn the Greco-Persian Wars, the epic battle that normally comes to mind is Thermopylae, immortalized in Gerard Butlers movie 300. However, the clash that was significantly more influential was the naval engagement at Salamis. There, the Athenian fleet was similarly outnumbered by the Persians, yet unlike the Spartans, they were able to achieve a decisive victory, stopping the invasion in its tracks.Following his victory at Thermopylae, Persian ruler Xerxes looked to invade all of Greece. He gathered an enormous fleet and set sail for another of the major Greek city-states, Athens. Led by Themistocles, the Greeks baited Xerxes and the Persians into the Straits of Salamis near Athens. The larger invading fleet hoped to envelop the Athenians, clearing the way for an invasion of the Peloponnese. However, the narrow channel of water was difficult to maneuver in, and the Persians were soon disorganized. As a result, the Athenians were able to quickly form up and overwhelm them, easily picking off the Persian ships at the front and sending them crashing into either their reserves or running them aground.The Persian fleet was devastated, forcing Xerxes to retreat across the Aegean. His remaining land forces were soon defeated at the battle of Plataea. The significance of Salamis is that it ended the Persian invasions of Greece and kickstarted the rapid growth of Athens.Had Xerxes succeeded in his plan to defeat Athens, he would have laid the groundwork to invade the rest of Greece, stunting the growth of the city-states that would dominate the next century, culminating in the vast empire of Alexander the Great. As it stands, however, the Battle of Salamis was an epic naval clash that stopped the invasion of one of the most powerful forces in the ancient world.2. Battle of Cannae 216 BCEHannibal in Italy, detail from the fresco in the Hall of Hannibal, Jacopo Ripanda, ca. 1510. Source: Musei Capitolini, RomeThe most significant defeat in ancient Romes history, this epic battle was also one of the bloodiest right until the modern era. The Carthaginian General Hannibal managed to completely annihilate a greater Roman force, sending panic throughout the capital.After daringly crossing the Alps with his entire army, Hannibal had inflicted a series of defeats at Trebia and Lake Trasimene, which had caused the Romans to raise a large army to stop his invasion. The two sides met in southeastern Italy after the Carthaginians had razed the surrounding countryside.The Roman generals, commanding a force nearly 40,000 men larger, attempted to drive through the weak Carthaginian center, believing their superior numbers would easily overwhelm their enemy. However, this was all a ploy created by Hannibal, as the flanks of his army soon enveloped the Roman force. Surrounded, the Romans were easily cut down, with almost the entire army of 80,000 killed by the end of the day.The defeat sent panic through Rome, whose leaders began to resort to desperate measures, including enlisting slaves/younger men, consulting oracles, and even human sacrifice. However, they still refused to surrender. Eventually, Rome would regather its strength and decisively defeat Hannibal at Zama 14 years later.The significance of Cannae was that it drastically reformed Roman society. Military doctrine was completely reworked as the army was made much more flexible under a unified command. The defeat at Cannae also set in motion the development of Romes professional army that would dominate the centuries to come. Despite being a heavy defeat for Rome, Cannae was a significant battle in the development of one of antiquitys greatest empires.3. Battle of Arausio 105 BCEDefeat of the Cimbri and the Teutons by Marius by Franois Joseph Heim, c. 1853. Source: Harvard Art MuseumThe clash at Arausio was another epic battle and another epic defeat for Rome. Less known than Cannae, the battle of Arausio saw the destruction of an even larger force than what Hannibal managed. Indeed, 120,000 Romans were killed by a mix of Germanic tribes in an event that would shape the development of Rome for centuries to come.In 105 BCE, Roman forces marched north to stop the migration of the Cimbri and the Teutons. They were split under the command of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus and Quintus Servilius Caepio. The arrogance and hostility between the two generals meant they decided to camp on opposite sides of the river Rhone. As a result, the Germanic forces were able to easily overpower the divided army, taking turns to trap each force against the river and destroy them.Like Cannae, the epic scale of the Battle of Arausio sent shockwaves throughout Rome, which had lost a very large army and left a dangerous enemy at its doorstep. Rome quickly elected Gaius Marius as consul, and many of the subsequent changes following Arausio happened under his tenure. The background of the soldiery was expanded to include broader society, uniform equipment, and the formation of the cohort.The defeat at Arausio also reinforced the publics idea of the need for strong leadership. Marius was elected consul for five successive years after the defeat (seven in total). This was an early example of the cult of personality that would ultimately be exploited by Julius Caesar, Augustus, and others to bring an end to the Republic. Whilst Arausio was not the primary reason such events later occurred, it put in place many of the instruments that would be used to engender them.4. Battle of Tours 732 CEBataille de Poitiers, Octobre 732, Charles de Steuben, 1837; with Emperor Charlemagne, Albrecht Drer, ca. 1513. Source: TheCollectorOut of all the battles on this list, the one that has been debated the most as to whether it is truly an epic battle is the Battle of Tours. Historically hailed as a triumph of Christendom over the invading Umayyad Caliphate, the significance of the clash has come into question in recent years.The battle itself was a confrontation between the Umayyad Caliphate and a Frankish army led by Charles Martel. The previous decades had seen the Umayyad armies advance through all of Spain and now half of France. Odo of Aquitaine called for help to stop the invading army, and Martel was the first to respond. Protected by hills and forests, the Franks were able to catch the Caliphates forces by surprise. Withstanding their cavalry charges, Charles Martel was able to lead his army to drive off the Umayyad army, preventing their invasion force from advancing any further.Traditionally, the Battle of Tours has been seen as a decisive moment that prevented Islamic expansion into Europe and solidified the Frankish kingdom. However, its importance has recently been revised by historians, arguing that the Umayyad army was just a raid, and the Caliphates expansion into Europe was already at its limit. Moreover, contemporary sources, both Christian and Muslim, did not see the Battle of Tours as significant.However, the importance of the battle only strengthened as centuries passed. Charles Martel used the victory to gain favor with the pope, eventually helping to usher in the Carolingian Renaissance. Regardless of its actual impact on the Umayyad invasion, the Battle of Tours would be used to frame conflicts between Christian Europe and the Islamic Middle East, even up to the present day. Although it may have been only a small skirmish that defeated a raiding party, its effects were felt throughout the ages.5. Siege of Constantinople 717-718 CEMap of the Umayyad Caliphate at its largest. Source: historyoftheworldpodcast.comAn even greater battle that may have had a greater effect on stopping the Muslim conquest of Europe was the Siege of Constantinople.A few years before the Battle of Tours, the Umayyad Caliphate invaded the Byzantine Empire, which was gripped by internal political issues at the time. The Caliphate made easy gains and soon reached the capital of Constantinople, besieging it by both land and sea. A better equipped, yet still daring, relief force of Byzantine sailors soon destroyed the Caliphates fleet, leaving the land army to struggle through a brutal winter. Reinforcing armies were defeated by both land and sea, and the Caliphate was soon forced to abandon the siege. To add further devastation, the retreating armies were wrecked by storms on their way home.Unlike Tours, the siege continues to be seen as a bulwark against Arab expansion. Constantinople was abandoned as a target in favor of quick raids and border skirmishes. The Byzantine Empire was also strengthened, unifying again under Leo III, and would continue to dominate the region for the following centuries.6. The Fourth Crusade/Sack of Constantinople 1204 CESack of Constantinople by Palma Le Jeune, 16th or early 17th century. Source: War History Online; with Crusade of 1204 by Tintoretto, 16th century. Source: Timetoast.comThe Byzantines would not be able to hold out forever. However, this time, the threat came from the West. In 1204, the Sack of Constantinople would help accelerate the downfall of Christianity in Anatolia.In 1202, a Crusader army gathered at the request of Pope Innocent III to retake Jerusalem and defeat the Egyptian Sultanate. Departing from Venice, this invasion force was beset by issues from the very beginning. A number of factors had meant that the turnout for the Crusade was much lower than anticipated, standing at just over 10,000 instead of the 30,000 expected. As a result, the Crusaders were unable to pay the Venetian shipbuilders they had hired to prepare their fleet. Refusing to let them leave, the Venetians forced them to divert their aims to repay their debts. This led to the first attack against Christian armies by Crusader forces, who looted the city of Zara, which had recently rebelled against Venice.Miniature depicting the conquest of Constantinople, David Aubert, 15th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/GallicaContinuing on to Jerusalem, the Crusader army was then diverted to Constantinople, where they aimed to put Alexios, the son of Emperor Isaac II Angelos, on the Byzantine throne. When he was overthrown and murdered, the Crusaders attacked and looted the city for three days, stripping it of its significant riches. Many soldiers were outraged by this. Thus, they returned home and did not continue on the Holy Land as intended, disintegrating the crusading army. They were soon defeated by the vastly superior Sultanate forces, ending the Fourth Crusade in disgrace.The major effect of the crusade was the destruction of Constantinople. As previously seen, the city was the main defense against expansion from the east. The Byzantine Empire was now fragmented and severely weakened, losing an enormous amount of wealth in the looting of its capital. Unable to restore its previous strength, the empire continued to decline and was eventually defeated when the Ottomans seized the city in 1453. Had the Fourth Crusade not crippled the Byzantines, it may have been able to withstand the challenge of the Ottomans.7. Siege of Orleans 1428-1429 CEJeanne dArc at the Siege of Orlans by Jules-Eugne Lenepveu, 1886-1890. Source: Women With ProtectionBritain has done well to highlight the epic battles of the Hundred Years War in which it was victorious: Agincourt (thanks to Henry V), Crecy, and Poitiers in particular. However, the most decisive and most miraculous clash of the conflict was the siege of Orleans.In 1428, England was at its strongest in France. Key battles and an alliance with Burgundy had brought the British to the precipice of a decisive victory over the French. They descended upon the city of Orleans, hoping its capture would lead to the capitulation of the rest of France. French nobles urged the dauphin (the heir apparent to the throne) to surrender and withdraw south, potentially even to Scotland. The Duke of Bedford, leading the siege, rejected the offer, believing the city would soon fall. This angered his Burgundian allies, who left the English to besiege the city by themselves.It was at this time that the timely arrival of Joan of Arc, an unknown peasant girl up to this point, helped lift the siege. Believing she was on a mission from God to have the dauphin crowned, she managed to rally the defenders into a number of daring raids on the besieging army, breaking them within nine days. News of the victory brought a groundswell of support, and a bolstered army marched on to Reims, where the dauphin was eventually crowned.The French continued to reverse English gains, eventually driving them out of almost all of France by 1453 and ending the war. The heroic, last-minute arrival of Joan of Arc has been immortalized in paintings, statues, and films. Had Orleans succumbed to the English, the entire landscape of Europe would have likely been vastly different.8. Battle of Myeongnyang 1597 CEThe Conquest of Korea by Utagawa Yoshitora, 1863. Source: Ukiyo-ePerhaps the greatest upset on this list, the epic naval Battle of Myeongnyang was the master stroke of one of historys greatest military commandersAdmiral Yi Sun-sin.In the midst of the Japanese invasion of Korea, Yi had been a victim of internal politics and the incompetence of rival admirals and politicians. As a result, any successes he had managed to make were quickly reversed by the Japanese. A disastrous defeat had rendered the Joseon navy almost useless, left with 13 warships and 1,500 men, compared to an estimated 200-300 ships for Japan. The invading army thought it now had an open path to the Yellow Sea and would be able to ferry supplies and reinforce its forces on the mainland.Yi prepared extensively for what he realized would be a decisive battle. He established himself in a narrow passage of the Myeongnyang Strait, where he felt he could use the tide and landscape to help with his defense. Like at Salamis, soon after the battle began, the larger Japanese force was stuck in the Strait, making it easy for Yi to line up his ships and destroy much of the fleet. The Japanese admirals soon had to retreat and attempt to attack the western coast of Korea. However, assistance from Ming forces meant they eventually had to withdraw.Myeongnyang turned the Korean campaign into a disaster for Japan, leading to political instability and the decisive battle of Sekigahara. Had it not been for Yis tactical brilliance, the Joseon Kingdom may have crumbled soon after.9. Battle of Borodino 1812 CENapoleon at Borodino by Vasily Vereshchagin. Source: Store Norske LeksikonAusterlitz and Waterloo receive the most attention as epic battles of the Napoleonic Wars. The bloodiest, and maybe most important, however, was the Battle of Borodino. After a series of stunning French victories, Borodino was the Russian obstacle that would eventually lead to the disintegration of Napoleons empire.The Grande Arme began its invasion of Russia in 1812 and saw a number of successive victories. The inferior Russian army attempted to chip away at the invading forces without engaging them in the field. Slowly pushed back further and further, the newly-appointed Field Marshal Kutuzov decided to take a stand at Borodino, a town just outside of Moscow. The battle involved around 300,000 men, as the French attempted to seize key strategic points from which they could launch an assault on Moscow itself. The Russians resolutely defended their position, incurring huge French casualties.The Battle of Borodino by Peter von Hess, 1843. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The Hermitage, St. PetersburgNapoleon eventually emerged as the winner, forcing Kutuzov to withdraw. In a moment that has been analyzed extensively by historians since, Napoleon refused to commit his guard troops and decisively smash the Russian army, fearing fiercer resistance and further casualties. Able to retreat back to Moscow, Kutuzov decided to abandon the city, devastating the land around it to make it unusable by the pursuing French forces.Baited into the city, the severely weakened Grande Arme was made to wait for a surrender that never came. Overstretched supply lines and a ransacked city meant the French were forced to withdraw as winter came, beginning the long march which would eventually end in the destruction of Napoleons empire.Although a French victory, the inconclusive nature of the battle meant that it was a crucial turning point in Napoleons conquest. The annihilation of Grande Arme as the French soldiers retreated from Moscow due to the cold, starvation, disease, and harassing Russian troops left France severely weakened, culminating in a decisive defeat at the Battle of Leipzig.10. Battle of Warsaw 1920 CEGeneral Paul Henrys, the Chief of the French Military Mission to Poland, being cheered by the crowds in the center of Lww, February 1919. Source: Imperial War Museums, LondonDue to the titanic scale of each World War, many conflicts and epic battles of the interwar period are often overlooked. This is especially the case in Eastern Europe, where newly formed states from the remnants of the German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires were trying to establish themselves.No different were Poland and the Soviet Union. The former was created by the Treaty of Versailles, and the latter in the midst of a revolution and civil war. In 1920, Bolshevik leadership had fended off challenges from opposing White Russians and was securing the last parts of its vast new empire. Now, they looked to expand communism internationally, with Poland as its primary target.Soviet armies made quick inroads at the start of the war, shattering the fledgling Polish forces and making any attempts at counterattacks almost impossible. By August, a Soviet victory seemed imminent, with Bolshevik forces approaching Warsaw. In a plan called ridiculous by Polish commanders (and deemed suicidal by the Soviet command) a last-ditch surprise counterattack from the south threatened to cut off Russian supplies, which were already overextended. Luckily cracked Soviet codes meant Polish soldiers were able to move quickly, forcing the Bolsheviks to retreat.Polish soldiers during the Battle of Warsaw, photographer unknown, August 1920. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Central Military Archives, WarsawThe failure to take the Polish capital meant that the Soviet Union was unable to pose a serious threat again. The Russian High Command blamed Joseph Stalin, who at the time was in charge of a contingent of Soviet forces. It is reported that he disobeyed orders to reinforce Commander Mikhail Tukhachevsky, instead trying to seize glory for himself by capturing the city of Lvov (now Lviv).Poland was able to sign a peace deal guaranteeing its independence (for now) and stopped the spread of communism further westwards in Europe. Had it not been for the last ditch attempt of Polish defenders, the Soviet Union would have likely conquered Poland and pushed on to Germany, where they had more support waiting to launch another revolution. The epic battle has since been described as the Miracle on the Vistula.11. Battle of Stalingrad 1942-1943 CESoviet troops advance around Stalingrad. Source: Der Spiegel/APArguably the most pivotal and epic battle in terms of scale, the Battle of Stalingrad was also the most devastating. The battle witnessed up to 4 million casualties and 1.5 million deaths, and shifted the tide of the most significant conflict of the 20th century.In 1942, Nazi Germany was in complete control of Europe. It had chased the Allies out of France two years previously, and was advancing through the Soviet Union at a rapid pace, targeting the oil fields in the Caucasus, which would drive its future expansion.As his forces advanced, Hitler became obsessed with taking the city that bore his rivals name, Stalingrad. Instead of focusing on a general advance, he poured manpower and resources into the attack, further stretching the supply lines of Army Group South.Fierce fighting descended on the city, with close-quarters urban combat and even the return of trench warfare. At the most dire part of the battle the Germans got within 100 meters of the Volga River, which would have completely cut off Soviet reinforcements in the city. Waves of defenders rushed across the river to hold the city, and the Germans were unable to completely break resistance.The city held, and winter helped further grind the battle to a standstill. This gave the Soviet commanders the chance to regroup and plan a counterattack, which they launched on November 19. Codenamed Operation Uranus, a rapid attack broke through the Axis flanks and surrounded the city. Germany had concentrated all of its resources in Stalingrad, leaving weaker Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian forces to defend either side of their front. With the city encircled, Soviet troops slowly closed their trap, pressing the Germans into smaller and smaller pockets.Stalingrads main railway station in late 1942. Source: Radio Free Europe, Radio LibertyHitler refused to allow the Sixth Army to break out, leaving them to be reinforced by air. Once this became untenable, its leader, Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, was forced to surrender, becoming the first German Field Marshal to ever do so. The Sixth Army was the first German force to surrender in the Second World War.The defeat sent shockwaves throughout Europe, reinvigorating Soviet forces and shocking Germany. For the first time, Nazi propaganda admitted failures (although it did try to keep the public from the full extent of defeat.) Both inside and outside Germany, the image of an unstoppable Nazi war machine was shattered and turned the tide of the war. From that point on, Soviet forces kept advancing towards Europe, going all the way to Berlin. Had Hitler triumphed at Stalingrad, Germany would likely have become unstoppable and won the war, making this epic battle a strong contender for the most important battle in history.

The Vikings mercilessly raided England in the 8th century, ruthlessly took land for themselves in the 9th century, and systematically extorted Danegeld from the locals in the 10th century. Nevertheless, in the early part of the 11th century, Viking kings were recognized as the official kings of England.Sweyn Forkbeard took England from King Aethelred in 1013, and his son Cnut the Great then ruled as the English monarch and incorporated the territory into his North Sea Empire. He passed England to his sons, Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut, who lost the throne due to the lack of a male heir rather than a military defeat.Who Was Sweyn Forkbeard?The Battle of Svolder, by Otto Sinding, c. 1842-1909. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSweyn Forkbeard was the son of Harald Bluetooth, one of the first kings of a united Denmark. Bluetooth converted to Christianity around 960 to facilitate a peace agreement with the Holy Roman Emperor. The infant Sweyn was probably baptized at this time.In the mid-980s, Sweyn reportedly revolted against his father and took control of Denmark, with some sources suggesting that he did so under the banner of traditional paganism. This probably is not the case. While one of his first acts was reportedly to expel the German bishops his father had installed, he replaced them with bishops from England. This, along with the fact he is known to have built churches at Lund and Roskilde, suggests that the move was more about politics than religion. He probably objected to the Holy Roman Emperor interfering in Danish affairs.After becoming king of Denmark, Forkbeard expanded his influence into Norway. Entering an alliance with Olof Skotkonung, the king of Sweden, and Eirik Hakonarson, the Jarl of Lade in Norway, they took on Olaf Tryggvason, the king of Norway. One surviving saga suggests that the conflict began when Tryggvason insulted Sigrid the Haughty of Sweden when courting her for marriage. He subsequently married Thyri, a sister of Sweyn, who he did not treat well. But it may also just have been an opportune moment to move against Tryggvason. He had made himself unpopular in Norway by using harsh tactics to ensure conversion to Christianity and loyalty to the Crown.Olaf Tryggvason. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhatever the immediate motivation, the coalition attacked Olaf in the Baltic Sea when he was sailing home, at the Battle of Svolder in 999 or 1000. Olaf suffered a decisive defeat, though legend says that he may have survived and he continued to show up throughout history as one of those phantom historical figures who never died. He was even reported as being in the Holy Land. The victors divided control of Norway between them, with Sweyn taking the Viken district in the south.Not long after defeating Tryggvason, Sweyn Forkbeard turned his attention to England. Some sources suggest that he was specifically motivated by the St Brices Day Massacre.St Brices Day MassacreCoin of Aethelred the Unready, 978-1016. Source: The British MuseumThe start of the history of the Vikings in England is usually dated to the raid of Lindisfarne in 789 CE. Regular raids followed, and then waves of settlers looking for new homes. The Vikings established the kingdom of York in 866, and 20 years later in 886, King Alfred the Great of Wessex made a treaty with the Vikings, whom they called Danes. He gave them command over various English territories under the Danelaw Pact. Over the next 100 years, a significant Dane community was established within England.However, from the 980s, Viking raids intensified again, culminating in the Battle of Maldon in 991, which the Anglo-Saxons lost. King Aethelred the Unready was convinced to pay the Vikings off with Danegeld equivalent to around 3,300 kilograms of silver (3.6 tons). Of course, as the poet Rudyard Kipling wrote: Pay them danegeld and then you will never get rid of a Dane. Over the next ten years, there were many further Viking raids.Eventually, Aethelred ordered his army to slay all the Danes in England in a massacre that took place on November 13, 1002, St Brices Day. It is unclear who all the Danes were and whether this included peaceful settlers, women, and children. But there is evidence of the impact of the massacre. A royal charter from 1004 CE remarks on the most just extermination of the Vikings at Oxford. It describes the rebuilding of the local church after it was burned down to kill the Danes taking shelter inside to avoid the bloodshed.Bodies excavated at St John College, Oxford. Source: Museum of OxfordIn 2008, archaeologists discovered the bodies of 37 people under St Johns College, Oxford, believed to be victims of the massacre. The bodies include 35 males aged 16 to 25 and two children. Chemical analysis suggests that they were Vikings, and the bodies have been dated to c. 960-1020. The bodies are unarmed and show no defensive wounds, with most of their wounds in the back, suggesting that they were fleeing.Another group of 54 bodies has been found at Ridgeway Hill. The mass grave contains 54 male bodies that isotope analysis suggests were Vikings, who died around 970-1030, again suggesting a connection with the massacre. All the bodies were beheaded and the heads separated for burial.Sweyn Forkbeard in EnglandManuscript image showing Sweyn Forkbeard riding a blue horse, MS EE 3.59, fol. 4r, c. 13th century. Source: Cambridge University LibrariesIt is generally suggested that Sweyn Forkbeards move to England was to seek revenge for the St Brices Day Massacre, as it may have been his men who were responsible for the raid in the 990s. One source also suggests that Forkbeards sister Gunnhilde and her husband Pallig Tokesen were both killed in the massacre, making it personal. However, just as the case with Olaf Tryggvason, it may also have just been an opportune moment. Before starting his campaign, Forkbeard organized the right to sell the spoils of his raids to the Duke of Normandy.Sweyn and his men raided Wessex and East Anglia in 1003-1004 before famine forced them to return to Denmark in 1005. He returned in 1006-1007 and 1009-1012, extorting large amounts of Danegeld from the population. But despite taking money not to raid, Forkbeard launched a full-scale invasion of England in 1013.Portrait of Sweyn Forkbeard, c. 18th century. Source: British MuseumAccording to the Peterborough Chronicle, part of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Sweyn landed his fleet at Sandwich, near Dover. He sailed up the Humber River to attack East Anglia with what is described as an overwhelming force. The Earl of Northumbria was the first to submit, followed by the Kingdom of Lindsey, andthen the Five Boroughs, the five major Danish towns in Mercia. He took hostages from every kingdom that submitted and required them to provision his men. This gave him fresh men when he went south to Oxford, Winchester, London, and Bath.Aethelred was forced to send his two sons, Alfred and Edward, to Normandy for protection; to the same Duke of Normandy who had agreed to buy English spoils of war. He followed them into exile by the end of the year 1013, leaving Forkbeard as the new king of England. He set up his court at Gainsborough in Lincolnshire but did not enjoy his success for long. He died in unknown circumstances on February 3, 1014. His body was returned to Denmark to be buried.Cnut the Great, King of EnglandManuscript showing Cnut and Edmund, known as Ironside, Chronica Maiora I, fol. 80v, c. 13th century. Source: Stanford UniversityAfter his death, Sweyns eldest son Harald II succeeded him in Denmark and his younger son Cnut, who had accompanied him on thecampaign, succeeded him in England. Cnut (also known as Canute) was reportedly Forkbeards son with a Polish princess. He learned soldiery during his fathers campaigns in England.Cnuts succession in England was not smooth. When Forkbeard died, the English recalled Aethelred and his eldest son Edward from Normandy and they led an army against Cnut, who was forced to flee to Denmark. While there, he gathered a significant fleet with the help of his brother, Polish allies, and Sweden, since Forkbeard had married Sigrid the Haughty of Sweden. In 1015, Cnut landed in England with 200 ships and 10,000 men.Manuscript image showing battle and treaty between Cnut and Emund, MS EE 3.59, fol. 4r, c. 13th century. Source: Cambridge University Libraries18 months of intense warfare followed. Wessex submitted to Cnut in late 1015 when Mercia and other Wessex allies defected to Cnut. He then marched through Northumbria, taking the territory with relative ease. Meanwhile Aethelred retreated to London, where he died in April 1016. Cnut then laid siege to London, while also fighting Edmund and his troops in the field. The decisive victory came in October 1016. Cnut and Edmund agreed that all of England north of the Thames would go to Cnut, while everything south including London would stay with Edmund, but that possession of this land would go to Cnut on Edmunds death. He died on November 30 of the same year, making Cnut the undisputed king of England.Cnut was officially crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1017. He further consolidated his power by executing many English nobles, replacing them with loyal earls and jarls organized in the Scandinavian style. He then married Emma of Normandy, the widow of Aethelred, in 1018. He was soon secure enough to send most of his army home, reportedly with 26,900 kilograms (29.6 tons) of silver collected from across the country plus 3,900 kilograms (4.3 tons) collected from London alone, keeping just 40 ships as his personal bodyguard.Cnut and the North Sea EmpireMap of the North Sea Empire. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCnuts kingship provided protection against Viking raids, which had mostly been carried out by his kinsmen, allowing England to thrive. Meanwhile, his English resources helped Cnut expand his territory in Scandinavia.When Cnuts brother Harald died in 1018, Cnut went to Denmark to secure his claim. He was apparently not welcomed with open arms by everyone and seems to have carried out attacks against the Wends, who were Slavic allies, to secure his position. Nevertheless, by 1020, his position was stable enough to return to England, appointing his brother-in-law as regent in Denmark. He also made him the guardian of his young son by Emma, Harthacnut, who was designated heir to the kingdom.But when Cnut returned to England, the Norwegians and Swedes allied to attack Denmark. Cnut returned and defeated them at the Battle of the Helgea in 1026, leaving him as the dominant leader in all of Scandinavia. Not long after this, he wrote a letter in which he declared himself king of all of England, Denmark, Norway, and some of the Swedes. He was officially crowned king of Norway at Trondheim in 1028. He also received tribute from the Slavic Wends, was allied with the Poles, made vassals of several high kings of Scotland, and received Danegeld from the Welsh and the Irish.He was now a sufficiently powerful ruler that he was invited to Rome in 1027 to witness the coronation of Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor. Cnut remained the leader of his North Sea Empire until his death in 1035.Cnuts Successors and Losing EnglandCnut, king of England, Denmark, and Norway, and his sons Harald Harefoot (left) and Harthacnut (right), via Wikimedia CommonsWhen Cnut died in 1035, he was succeeded in Denmark by his son Harthacnut, but he was rejected by the English as a foreign ruler. His mother, Emma of Normandy, was forced to flee and Cnuts younger half-brother Harold Harefoot claimed power until his death in 1040. Following Haralds death, Harthacnut was invited to take the throne, but he still sailed to England with his mother and a fleet of 62 warships to ensure his claim.Harthacnut was probably already quite ill when he took the English throne, so in 1041, under the influence of his mother, he recalled his half-brother Edward the Confessor, the son of Emma with Aethelred the Unready, back to England and recognized him as his heir. So, when Harthacnut died in 1042, control of England returned to the sons of Aethelred, against whom Sweyn Forkbeard and Cnut had fought so long. Viking control of England ended with a fizzle rather than a bang. Nevertheless, this arrangement wouldnt last long, with the death of Edward leading to the Norman invasion of 1066 and the complete transformation of Anglo-Saxon England.

The incident of the Sword in the Stone is one of the most famous stories in the Arthurian legends. This account tells how Arthur was accepted as the rightful king of the Britons. Arthur proved his right to rule by withdrawing a special sword that had been stuck in a stone. The sword had an inscription on the side, explaining that only the rightful king would be able to take the sword out. While many people are familiar with this basic story, there are a lot of misconceptions about what the legend really says.The Earliest Account of the Sword in the StoneDrawing of Robert Wace, by John Everett Millais, c. 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe story of the Sword in the Stone does not appear in the earliest account of King Arthurs career. The earliest account in question was Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, written in c. 1137. This tells the entire story of Arthurs life, from his conception through to his abdication. In this account, Arthur is simply crowned king upon the death of his father, Uther Pendragon, when he was about 15 years old.After Geoffrey of Monmouth, a writer named Wace wrote Roman de Brut in c. 1155. He closely followed Geoffreys account but expanded on various parts, adding new elements to the Arthurian legend. However, he too did not mention the Sword in the Stone.It was not until c. 1200 that the Sword in the Stone was introduced to the Arthurian legends. It was first mentioned by the writer Robert de Boron in his poem Merlin. Hardly any of this poem survives, but its narrative is preserved in the slightly later Prose Merlin, possibly also written by Robert.Why Arthur Needed to Prove His Right to RuleManuscript of the Prose Merlin, by Robert de Boron, c. 13th century. Source: Bibliotheque Nationale de FranceRobert de Borons account differs from the earlier versions of the legend of King Arthur in some significant ways. Rather than portraying Arthur as succeeding his father immediately and without controversy, Robert presents matters very differently. According to the Prose Merlin, Arthur was given by Merlin to Sir Entor, or Ector, one of Uther Pendragons knights. Entor was to be his foster father. The reason for this is not stated. However, due to Merlins decision to have Arthur raised by someone else, his royal parentage becomes a secret. Therefore, Uther has no obvious heir when he eventually dies.As a result, Uthers death causes a crisis of succession. The nobles of the land attempt to agree on a new king, but they cannot come to a consensus. At this, Merlin speaks up and tells them to pray to Jesus for a sign to reveal who should be the new king. They agree to this suggestion, with the expectation that the sign will appear at Christmas, which is soon approaching.The Sword in the Stone AppearsA replica of the Sword in the Stone next to Llangorse Lake, Brecon, Wales. Source: Copyright Caleb HowellsOn Christmas Eve, all the nobles of the land gather together to celebrate Mass and to pray for Jesus to give them a sign, as Merlin had instructed. Just after doing this, the sign was given. A large block of stone with an anvil atop it appears on the grounds of the church where the nobles are. A sword is stuck in the stone, piercing right through the anvil. People from outside the church see what has appeared in the churchyard and rush to tell the archbishop. He comes out and sees the Sword in the Stone. On the side of the sword are the words:Who taketh this swerde out of this ston sholde be kynge by the eleccion of Jhesu Criste.Naturally, all the strongest men declare their wish to withdraw the sword, but the archbishop insists that it should be withdrawn by one who is worthy, not through mere strength. Nevertheless, they try, but no one who tries to pull the sword out, no matter how apparently virtuous, is able to do it.Arthur Withdraws the Sword in the StoneDepiction of Sir Kay at the tournament, by Howard Pyle, 1903. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEventually, the nobles give up on their attempts and decide to hold a tournament. One of the knights at this tournament is Sir Kay, the natural son of Sir Ector. He is slightly older than Arthur, his foster brother. Arthur is serving as Kays squire, or personal assistant. At one point, Kay asks Arthur to return home to get his sword. Arthur attempts to do so, but the chamber where Kays sword is kept is locked. Therefore, he starts returning to the tournament empty-handed.However, while on the way back to the tournament, he happens to pass the churchyard with the Sword in the Stone. Apparently not realizing its significance, Arthur approaches it, pulls it out, and takes it with him. When he returns to Kay, he explains that he was not able to get his sword, so he instead took the sword that had been stuck in the stone. To Arthur, there is nothing remarkable about this statement, but Kay understands its apparent significance.Proving Arthurs Right to RuleArthur pulls the sword from the stone, by Walter Crane, 1910. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHowever, this does not mean that Arthur is immediately accepted as king, as many people today imagine. Kay takes the sword to his father, Ector, to explain what has just happened. Ector leads the two boys back to the churchyard and gets Arthur to put the sword back in the stone. He does so, and then Ector instructs Kay to try to pull it out. Naturally, Kay is not able to do so. At this, Ector appears to realize that this really does mean that Arthur is the rightful king. Why Ector needs to have this verified privately is not made clear in Roberts account, since Ector already knew that Arthur was the son of Uther Pendragon.In any case, Ector gets Arthur to swear to make Kay his seneschal upon becoming king, which was a position of great honor. Not only should Arthur give Kay this position, but he should be lenient and understanding towards any dishonorable behavior shown by Kay. Arthur agrees to this.He stood there holding the magic sword in his hand, by Archibald Stevenson Forrest, 1906. Source: New York Public LibraryAfter this, Arthur has to prove his right to rule to all the other nobles of the land. Ector approaches the archbishop and explains that he will have Arthur try to remove the sword. Thus, in the presence of the archbishop and the nobles, Arthur does exactly that. The archbishop rejoices at the fact that Jesus has revealed his choice as king. However, the nobles strongly object to the idea of accepting such a boya common boy, as far as they knowas their king.Despite the archbishop insisting that this is the will of the Lord, many of the nobles and the common people in general refuse to accept this decision. They make an agreement with the archbishop that they will repeat the test at the next Christian festival. Despite Arthur performing the same feat on that occasion, the same dispute arises. The same agreement is made again, with the same objection arising, until the nobles are finally forced to accept that Arthur is indeed Jesus chosen king of the Britons.Inaugurated as KingAn illustration of Christ giving one sword to the pope and one to the emperor, by Hans Bornemann, c. 1445. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt is at Pentecost that Arthur is finally crowned king. This takes place in the church where the Sword in the Stone was located. During the coronation ceremony, the archbishop instructs Arthur to retrieve the sword one final time. He refers to it as:the swerde wherewith ye shull kepe justice, to deffende Holy Cherche, and mayntene right and the Cristin feith to youre power.The fact that this is described as the sword with which Arthur will keep justice indicates that this is identical to Caliburn, or Excalibur. This is the special sword used by Arthur in his battles seen in earlier sources. In the Vulgate Cycle, which came just after the Prose Merlin, this identification is made explicit. It is only later, in the Post-Vulgate Cycle, that the Sword in the Stone is made separate from Excalibur. Also, the close association between the Sword in the Stone and the defense of the Holy Church and the Christian faith is notable. This suggests that the whole story of the Sword in the Stone may be an allegory based on the concept of the Sword of Peter. This represented religious authority, while the name Peter means rock or stone.How Arthur Became King Through the Sword in the StoneIllustration of Excalibur, by Howard Pyle, 1903. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn conclusion, the story of the Sword in the Stone explains how Arthur proved his right to rule and became recognized as the rightful king of the Britons. This story first appears in Robert de Borons Merlin poem, written in c. 1200, and then later in the Prose Merlin, written in c. 1210. Contrary to the earlier versions of the Arthurian legend, this version has Arthurs parentage kept secret. For this reason, his true identity as the son of Uther Pendragon is unknown to almost everyone, leading to a succession crisis. To solve the issue, Christ sends a sign in the form of the Sword in the Stone. It appears in the churchyard next to where the nobles are praying.None of the mightiest or worthiest men in the land are able to pull the sword out. Yet, while sent home to get his foster brothers sword, Arthur happens to come across it and pulls it out. After a major controversy and many repeated demonstrations, Arthur is finally accepted as the rightful king of the Britons.

California Governor Gavin Newsom sharply criticized the U.S. Marines and National Guard on Saturday, accusing them of bringing war to the American people during their recent mission in Los Angeles.

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Just because the Battlefield 6 beta is over doesn't mean that there isn't anything left to play on Xbox.

Senua a dcid denvahir les consoles de Sony. Alors, cela donne quoi sur PS5 ?