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Throughout French history, few heroines have been admired as much as Joan of Arc. This teenage girl etched her way into French history thanks to her divine mission; she had been told by God to reclaim French territory from the English. Whatever the actual reasoning for the activities that she undertook in the name of the French crown, she certainly helped to turn the Hundred Years War in favor of France, and helped out her monarch, King Charles VII, greatly. Both Charles and Joan would go down in French history as hugely important figures. Read on to find out why.Background to King Charles VIICharles VII, by Jean Fouquet, 1444. Source: The LouvreBorn on February 22, 1403, to Charles VI of France and his wife Isabeau of Bavaria, Charles would go on to rule France as one of the countrys greatest kings. In fact, it was during Charless reign that the Hundred Years War came to an end, and in Frances favor. Charles has been called both Charles the Victorious and Charles the Well-Served, in no small part thanks to the efforts of Joan of Arc.Charles came to the throne aged 19 upon his fathers death in 1422, and he would rule France until his own death in 1461.Charles inherited the throne during one of the darkest periods of French history. Charles VI, who had suffered debilitating mental illness throughout most of his adult life, had died and lost most of the territory that his father, Charles V, had helped to reclaim from the English. In fact, the young Henry VI of England was due to be crowned Henry VI of England and France, showing what a state France had been left in. Indeed, any sort of moral or battlefield victories for the young French monarch would have likely placed him in higher esteem than his unfortunate father.Charles VII holding the lit de justice at the Parliament of Paris, from the Grande Chroniques de France, 13th century. Source: British LibraryCharles VII had it difficult from the onset of his reignhis father had disinherited him in favor of the heirs of Henry V of England, while at the same time, a civil war raged on in France between the Burgundians (supporters of the House of Valois-Burgundy, which was allied to England) and the Armagnacs (supporters of the House of Valois).Reims, the traditional city where French kings were crowned, was under English control, as were Paris and Guyenne, so Charles was forced to move his court south to Bourges, where he was patronizingly nicknamed the King of Bourges. For Charles to return in the fashion he did was nothing short of remarkable.Background to Joan of ArcJoan of Arc, c. 15th-20th century. Source: French National ArchivesJoan was born into a peasant family around 1412, in Domrmy, northeastern France. Her father was a farmer who also acted as a village official, which helped to supplement his income and support his family, which included his wife, Isabelle Rome, their three sons, and two daughters (including Joan).Joan was born in the heart of the Hundred Years War and certainly felt the economic, social, and cultural effects from a young age, as the majority of the fighting at this stage of the war took place in northern France. France was also politically divided, too, and the young Joan no doubt felt the aftershocks of this, too.Joan grew up as most peasant children would have donehelping her father on the farm and receiving a religious education from her mother. Religion would play a huge part in Joans life, particularly in her so-called visions, which would play a huge role in her involvement in the Hundred Years War.The combination of political strife and a religious upbringing would contribute to these views. Joans family was surrounded by Burgundian lands filled with Armagnac supporters, and by 1419, the war had arrived on their doorstep. In 1425, Domrmy was attacked, which led to the residents expressing their support for the notion that the English must be expelled from France once and for all. Coincidentally, it was shortly after this raid that Joan experienced her first visions.Charles VII and Joan of Arc: The First MeetingJoan of Arc at the Siege of Orlans, by Eugne Lenepveu, c. 1886-90. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJust as Charles was considering fleeing to the Iberian Peninsula, which would have enabled the English to take over even more French territory, he was introduced to Joan of Arc in 1429.The city of Orlans had been under siege since October 1428, with very little prospect of a way out. It was in early 1429 that Joan of Arc explained her vision and ordered the garrison commander to give her some soldiers and a suitable retinue to meet the Dauphin Charles at Chinon. She stated the importance of her divine mission and that the message had been delivered to her from God via visions of angels that she had seen.Joan was remarkably granted five veteran soldiers and a letter of referral to Charles by Lord Robert de Baudricourt, the garrison commander, and she arrived at Chinon on horseback on February 23, 1429.According to some contemporaries, Charles wanted to test Joans abilities and her claim that she would recognize him despite never having seen a picture of him, so he disguised himself as one of his courtiers. She reportedly immediately recognised him, and bowed in front of him, saying God give you a happy life, sweet King!After their private conversation, Charles emerged inspired and confident, and in April, Joan set out to relieve Orlans.Joan of Arcs Successful Military CampaignsThe Battle of Patay, Miniature from Vigiles de Charles VII, 1484. Source: Gallica Digital LibraryJoan was welcomed into the city as word had spread about her spiritual abilities, and she proved to be a great morale booster for the troops. She often led the lines in military skirmishes. Orlans was relieved by early May, just nine days after Joans arrival, which was a remarkable turnaround for a city that had been under siege for almost seven months. This also turned the tide of the Hundred Years War in favor of the French, leading to more territory gained for Charles and for France.The Loire Campaign was then led by Joan of Arc, and was perhaps the most important campaign during the Hundred Years War for France, and was most likely why they won the war two decades later.Joan and her troops were victorious at the Battle of Jargeau in June 1429, before moving onto the Battle of Meung-sur-Loire just days later, where her victory was also replicated. This was a key victory because it seriously hindered any English advancements south of the Loire, gaining Charles even more important territory.Battle of Jargeau, Miniature from Vigiles de Charles VII, 1484. Source: BnFA victory at the Battle of Beaugency the next day followed suit, before arguably Joan of Arcs most famous military victory of all: The Battle of Patay.Fought on June 18, 1429, an English reinforcement army, which had been sent from Paris to fortify the garrisons in the Loire Valley, had arrived. The usual English tactic of using spikes to slow down a cavalry charge, followed by the use of longbowmen to rain arrows down upon the French, would likely have worked, until the archers positions were revealed. Some of the English noticed a stag walk onto the battlefield, and gave a hunting cry, thus revealing their position.The French forces under Joan of Arc wasted no time and immediately attacked the English forces, who panicked and scrambled, creating a scene of pure chaos. The French, armed heavily and on horseback, made light work of the lightly-armored English archers, who were no match for them in hand-to-hand combat.This decisive victory opened the way toward Reims, where Charles and Joan marched, and where Charles was finally formally crowned as King Charles VII of France, with Joan by his side, on July 17, 1429.The Later YearsJoans Execution, Miniature from Vigiles de Charles VII, 1484. Source: Gallica Digital LibraryPatay had been a hugely successful victory, and the Loire Campaign was undoubtedly important in securing this victory as well as territory for Charles and for France.However, several more campaigns in 1430 would not go so well, and people began to doubt Joans spiritual abilities, even going so far as to suggest that the Loire Campaign had nothing to do with her alleged spiritual abilities and was instead down to astute planning and luck.Being an Armagnac supporter spelled the end for Joan when she was captured by the Burgundians on May 23, 1430, and after a failed escape attempt, she was handed over to the English.She was put on trial and found guilty of heresy, wearing mens clothes, and following demonic visions, by the French bishop Pierre Cauchon. She was sentenced to death by being burned at the stake, and died on May 30, 1431, aged approximately 19.However, in 1920, she was canonized by Pope Benedict XV, and two years later, she was declared the patron saint of France. She has often been a symbol of martyrdom and female empowerment.On the other hand, Charles VII experienced a much more positive end to his reign. He successfully put an end to the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (at least, temporarily), and with victory at the Battle of Castillon on July 17, 1453, the Hundred Years War came to an end, and the result was a victory for France.Charles would go on to be succeeded by one of the more controversial monarchs of the age, his son, with whom he famously quarrelled: King Louis XI, who was perhaps better known as the Universal Spider.LegacyJoan of Arc, by Albert Lynch, 1903. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBoth Joan of Arc and Charles VII of France have positive legacies. Indeed, without Joans involvement in the Hundred Years Warspiritual or notit is highly unlikely that the French would have experienced anything but more territorial losses.While the spiritual side of her involvement would be questioned today, with a desperate monarch, struggling people, and a country on the verge of being taken over by its old enemy, this would literally have been a miracle. It was a huge chance that Charles took, but Joans involvement paid off, and she rescued France from her English foes.Overall, the legacy of Charles VIIs reign is that he would not have achieved anywhere near as much as he did without the involvement of Joan of Arc, and Joan of Arc would not have gained as much traction as she did without the open, public support of Charles.Charless reign cannot be analyzed without looking at the impact that Joan of Arc had on it, nor can Joans life and military success be properly analyzed without first looking at the support and backing she had from the Dauphin.

The annulled marriage of King Henry VIII to Anne of Cleves has become known as the marriage that ended because Anne was too ugly for Henry. But this narrative glosses over the true circumstances of a politically motivated marriage, which was successful in some ways despite its brevity.Heir and a SpareThe Family of Henry VIII, featuring Jane Seymour, by British School, 16th century, Source: Royal Collection TrustAnne of Cleves was Henry VIIIs fourth wife. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, is generally considered his greatest love and also gave him the greatest thing of all: a son. Edward Tudor was born on the 12th of October 1537, finally giving Henry an heir. Sadly, 12 days after Edward was born, Jane died due to childbirth complications. While Henry was devastated by the loss, he needed a new wife, as every heir needs a spare.The Search for a MatchChristina of Denmark, by Hans Holbein the Younger, 16th century, Source: National Gallery, LondonAnne of Cleves was not Henrys first choice for wife number four. Henry sent his court painter, Hans Holbein the Younger, across Europe to paint eligible princesses. He set his sights on Christina of Denmark, but she was not in favor of the match, and reportedly said, If I had two heads, I would happily put one at the disposal of the King of England. It seemed that Henrys beheading of his former queen Anne Boleyn was frightening the princesses of Europe off. Thomas Wriothesley, the English diplomat in Brussels, advised Henry to fix his most noble stomach in some such other place.It was Thomas Cromwell, Henrys chief minister and right-hand man, who turned Henrys attention in a new direction. Cromwells search for a new queen of England had a pressing political motivation. Overseas, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Francis I of France seemed to be getting along better than usual, which was bad news for England. Cromwell knew that England needed support in case the worst happened, and the new enemies-turned-allies Charles and Francis decided to wage war on England, their mutual enemy.Choosing Anne of ClevesFlag and Coat of arms, Kleve, Germany. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThomas Cromwell sought out Protestant allies who could help England if they found themselves at war. Cromwell suggested that Henry consider the daughters of the Duke of Cleves, Anne and Amelia. The Duke of Cleves had previously stood up to the Holy Roman Empire, making him a logical and strong ally for England.Henry sent an ambassador to Germany to see Anne and her sister Amelia and discuss the terms of a proposed marriage. The report from diplomat Christopher Mont was positive enough to convince Henry to send Holbein to paint the two daughters for Henry to see. Henry heard accounts of their beauty, but he wanted to make up his own mind.Whether Cromwell instructed Mont to talk highly of the daughters beauty and promote the idea of an alliance with the Cleves family is debated. Henry was presented with Holbeins portraits and was enamored with Anne. No time was wasted, and plans for the marriage were set in motion. The final agreed-upon details were written up in a treaty, which was signed on October 4th, 1539.Anne Arrives in EnglandRochester Castle, by Bertram Nicholls, 19th century. Source: ArtUK.orgAnne was now sent to her new home, a strange and foreign land where she did not speak the language. She had a long and tumultuous journey to England, but she finally arrived in Deal, Kent, on the 27th of December 1539. Anne journeyed through England towards London and was expecting to meet Henry on January 3rd. On January 1st, she was resting at Rochester Castle when she received some unexpected visitors.Henry had arrived early at Rochester Castle to surprise Anne. There was a chivalric tradition popular in elite circles where a princess has an unexpected meeting with a young man whom she instantly falls in love with, only for her to discover later that he was really a prince in disguise. Henry appeared in Annes room, wearing a cloak and mask to disguise himself. Anne was alone, quietly looking out of her window, when suddenly Henry approached her and gave her a kiss.Anne, who was not familiar with this tradition, did not realize it was her betrothed in disguise. Naturally, she did not react well to the masked stranger kissing her in her room. She said nothing and turned away from her admirer in a state of embarrassment. Henry, who believed he was a handsome man, was mortified at Annes rejection. Did she not recognize a king when she saw one? Clearly, their love was not meant to be.Henry hastily left to change into his regal attire and returned to Annes room. She recognized him this time and was respectful and courteous towards him. Unfortunately, the damage was done. Henrys ego was hurt, and this could not be undone. He left the room and is said to have proclaimed, I like her not.Cold FeetThomas Cromwell, after Hans Holbein the Younger, 17th-century copy of a 16th-century original. Source: National Portrait GalleryHenry pleaded with Thomas Cromwell to find a way out of the marriage. He tried to blame Annes appearance for his dissatisfaction, claiming she was nothing as well as she was spoken of. There is no record of anyone saying anything negative about Annes appearance before this, and Henry himself reportedly admitted that she was well and seemly. Henry was probably motivated by embarrassment over their first meeting and needed to turn the narrative around on Anne.Despite the pressure on Cromwell to get Henry out of the marriage, there was no way to call off the wedding without offending Annes brother, the Duke of Jlich-Cleves-Berg, which could result in retaliatory conflict. Cromwell found no solution, and the wedding went ahead.Henry and Anne were married on the 6th of January 1540 at the Royal Palace of Placentia in Greenwich. It is reported that Henry said to Cromwell on the way to the chapel, If it were not to satisfy the world and my realm, I would not do that I must do this day for none earthly thing. The day ended and the newlyweds retired to their bed chamber.Ditching Anne of ClevesHenry VIII, by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1540. Source: Barbarini Gallery, RomeHenry was very open in his retelling of events in the bedroom with his new queen. The problem was a lack of events occurring at all. Henry tried for several nights to consummate the marriage, but to no avail. Again, the blame for this was placed entirely on Annes shoulders. Henry could not possibly be the reason for the lack of success, despite being twice Annes age and riddled with health problems that probably caused unpleasant odors. It became clear that the union would not last.In March 1539, Anne received a new lady in her household named Catherine Howard. When Henry first set his eyes on her, the impetus to get rid of Anne gained new momentum.Henry was not discreet when it came to his feelings toward Catherine, with Anne herself noticing his attraction to her. His ministers knew that they needed to free him from his marriage to Anne as quickly and as gracefully as possible; Henry wasnt one to wait patiently, and the longer he had to endure the situation, the angrier he would get.The AnnulmentPortrait of a Young Woman believed to be Catherine Howard, 1540-45. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThen, on the 24th of June 1540, Anne was sent to Richmond Palace in Surrey. Henry told her there were concerns about the plague in the city, and it was recommended that she leave Westminster and retreat to the much more rural Richmond. There was promise of Henry joining Anne there soon after, but the royal couple were not to see each other as husband and wife again.Considering that we know Henry himself was terrified of illness, had there been any actual threat of plague, Henry would not have stayed in London. Unsurprisingly, on the 6th of July, Anne was informed of Henrys intentions to annul their marriage. Anne accepted the annulment without much fuss, which was the smartest thing she could have done. We can never know how Anne truly felt about Henry, and if she was sad or relieved when their attempt at a marriage ended. However, the way she responded ensured her safety and comfort for the rest of her life, which was a better fate than some of his other wives.On the 12th of July 1540, the official announcement was made that the marriage of Anne of Cleves and Henry VIII had been annulled. Henry was not one to waste time, and was married to Catherine Howard on the 28th of July 1540.The SettlementRichmond Palace from across the Thames, c.1562. Source: Ashmolean MuseumAs Anne was amenable during the annulment process, Henry was very generous and kind toward her in the years that followed, perhaps as a way of showing his gratitude for Annes acceptance of the annulment and making things a lot easier for him than they had been before.Anne received a lavish settlement that included Richmond Palace and Hever Castle, former residence of the Boleyns. She also earned herself the moniker of the Kings Beloved Sister. She held rank above all the women in England, excluding Henrys daughters and any future wives.Considering the bitter ends that the rest of his wives met, Annes life was considerably better. She was often invited to court and maintained pleasant relations with Henry. The sad irony was that for Catherine Howard, her marriage to Henry very quickly deteriorated, and she became a victim of Henrys axe on February 13th, 1541.RetributionAnne of Cleves by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1539. Source: LouvreHenry was not just going to let things go and move on graciously. He felt that he had been poorly advised to pursue the ultimately embarrassing marriage with Anne. Soon, the finger of blame was pointing at Cromwell. The situation was made worse by the fact that the feared alliance between Charles V and Francis I failed to materialize, undermining the reason for the alliance. Consequently, Cromwell had put the king through a humiliating ordeal for nothing. Others involved in the marriage negotiation, such as Thomas Wriothesley, exploited Cromwells weakened status to make him their scapegoat.On the 10th of June 1540, Cromwell was arrested in Westminster. His execution was delayed by Henry until his annulment to Anne was complete, but Cromwell was publicly executed on Tower Hill on the 28th of July 1540. Meanwhile, Henry was happily enjoying his wedding day to Catherine Howard.Anne of Cleves LegacyAnne of Cleves, by Bartholomaeus Bruyn the Elder, 16th century. Source: St. Johns College, OxfordWhile history likes to remember Anne of Cleves as the ugly wife, there was much more to her than meets the eye. Probably the most successful bride of Henrys, she was the longest surviving of all his wives and lived for 10 years after Henrys death. She maintained favor with the Tudors and was even part of Mary Is coronation procession alongside Princess Elizabeth in 1553.She slipped out of the limelight around 1554, after tensions arose surrounding the Wyatt rebellion. As her health started to decline, Mary I allowed her to stay at Chelsea Old Manor. It was here that she would later pass away on July 16th, 1557. This made her one of the few true survivors of the terrors of the reign of Henry VIII.