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Saladin (1137-1193) has gone down in history as one of the greatest statesmen and generals of the High Medieval Era. He made himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founded the Ayyubid Dynasty, defended his kingdom from the Crusader states, and recaptured the sacred city of Jerusalem in 1187. But how did Saladin manage to defeat the Crusaders, and how did he succeed in keeping Jerusalem from being retaken by the seemingly overwhelming Third Crusade?BackgroundA statue of Saladin in Al-Karak, Jordan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTo understand how Saladin defeated the Crusaders, we must look at the origins of Saladin himself and how things stood at the time in the Holy Land. Yusuf ibn Ayyub Salah ad-Din (Latinized to Saladin) was the son of a Kurdish mercenary employed by the Zengid Dynasty of northern Iraq and Syria. In 1164, Saladin began his first military campaign under his uncle in Egypt, intervening in a local power struggle to seize control of the country.In 1167, he got his first taste of fighting crusaders in the Battle of Al-Babein, when he and his uncle fought against the united forces of King Amalric of Jerusalem and the vizier of Egypt. By 1171, Saladin, with his uncles support, had politically maneuvered himself into becoming the Sultan of Egypt and breaking away from Zengid control. Over the next few years, he kept the Crusaders at bay while he consolidated his control over Egypt and expanded into Syria, becoming the first ruler of the Ayyubid Sultanate.In contrast to Saladins rise, the Crusader kingdom of Jerusalem was in a more fractious state. Amalric died in 1174, leaving the kingdom to his 13-year-old, leprosy-stricken son Baldwin IV. His age and affliction made him reliant on regents and noble deputies who regularly squabbled among themselves. Chief among them were Raymond of Tripoli, Baldwins sister Sibylla, and her husband, Guy De Lusignan.Though all three served Baldwin dutifully, Guy and Raymond regularly butted heads, Guy also had great ambitions and equally ambitious friends, including the notorious warlord, Raynald De Chatillon. Though Baldwin proved a capable ruler when he came of age and kept his squabbling nobles in line, his leprosy sadly worsened as time wore on, leaving him less physically capable of defending his kingdom.Raids and InheritancesManuscript image from the Histoire dOutremer showing Saladins army raiding the Crusader state of Jerusalem, 13th century. Source: British LibraryAfter securing his Sultanate and its borders, Saladin inevitably turned his attention to the fractious Jerusalem, due also in part to provocation by repeated raiding of his lands and Islamic trade routes by Raynald De Chatillon. Saladins first campaign in 1177 met with defeat by Baldwin at the battle of Montgisard. However, Baldwins attempted counter-invasion petered out, and Saladin then achieved a major victory in 1179 at Marj Ayyun.The fact was, the size and wealth of Saladins domain allowed him to recover from losses, call up reinforcements, and fund campaigns just that much more easily than the Crusaders. By comparison, the Crusader power base was relatively small, and much of their support had to come all the way from Europe.Baldwin IV, the leper king, as portrayed in the film Kingdom of Heaven, art by Eddy Paintings. Source: DeviantArtThis logistical bottleneck and the losses at Marj Ayyun saw Saladin and Baldwin enter a game of cat and mouse as the 1180s began. Saladin made forays into Crusader territory, but Baldwin and his commanders refused to fight a pitched battle. Instead, they shadowed Saladins forces, harrying them where they could and preventing him from besieging major strongholds.Yet while this prevented Saladin from capturing much territory, he was still able to plunder and raid the countryside, enriching himself while sapping Crusader wealth, strength, and morale. Raynald made further raids in response, but they failed to weaken Saladins ability to wage war. The Crusaders lacked the means for a serious counter-invasion or to effectively check Saladins raids. It was either risk it all in a pitched battle or let Saladin bleed them dry.Meanwhile, the political situation in Jerusalem became less stable as Baldwins leprosy worsened until he died in 1185. He had appointed Sibyllas five-year-old son from her first marriage, also called Baldwin, as his heir, with Raymond as regent, but the boy died a year after his uncle. Political infighting then erupted as Guy and Sibylla pushed their claim for the throne, while Raymond and his supporters argued in favor of Baldwins other sister, Isabelle.Saladins DiplomacyA painted miniature showing the coronation of Sybilla and her personal coronation of Guy, thereby promoting him to be the equal King of Jerusalem alongside her, 15th century. Source: Bibliothque National de FranceSaladin, although not making much progress, managed to portray himself as a champion of Islam thanks to his taking the fight to the Crusaders. He forged alliances with neighboring Islamic rulers, another advantage the Crusaders lacked, and gained supporters from across all branches of Islam to support his ultimate goal of retaking Jerusalem.This demonstrates one other crucial component of Saladins success: his diplomatic and political skill. Persuading most of the Islamic world to get behind him was no mean feat. Still more impressively, despite this religious rhetoric, Saladin also managed to engage in good-faith diplomacy with his Crusader foes. In fact, in 1186, he agreed to a truce with Raymond during the young Baldwins regency.Ironically, however, this truce gave Sybilla and Guy the political ammunition to discredit Raymond and take the throne for themselves after the younger Baldwin died. However, Guy proved devastatingly less capable than Baldwin in controlling his subjects. In early 1187, despite Guy trying to avoid open war, Raynald De Chatillon made a series of brutal raids on caravans of pilgrims completing the Hajj to Mecca. This was a clear violation of the truce, a targeted act of religious outrage, and the perfect excuse for Saladin to call a full Jihad against the Crusaders. Saladin, vowing to behead Raynald personally, gathered an enormous army bolstered by Ghazi holy warriors and other Islamic leaders, eager to support this holy war.Guy de Lusignan, by Francois-Edouard Picot, 1845. Source: French Ministry of CultureAs Saladins invasion began, the Crusaders weakness in leadership and strategy persisted. Raymond, still resentful of Guy and Sybillas coronation, refused the summons to join the Crusader army, considering himself still bound by the truce. When the scale of Saladins intentions became apparent, Raymond relented. However, by then, Saladin had quite literally stolen a march on the Crusaders and was already besieging the city of Tiberias, deep in Crusader territory.The Crusaders gathered the largest army they could, but once again faced the dilemma of whether or not to meet Saladin in a pitched battle. Raymond, despite his wife being trapped in Tiberias, urged caution, but Raynald and others convinced Guy to commit to open battle. On July 3, 1187, Guy and the Crusader army marched for Tiberias just as Saladin had hoped.Horns of Hattin and Fall of JerusalemA depiction of the capture of the Piece of the True Cross during the battle of Hattin, 15th century. Source: British LibraryAs the Crusader army marched out of their fortified camp, Saladin baited them onto a dry, waterless plain between two mountains known as the Horns of Hattin, then surrounded the Crusaders completely. For two days, the trapped Crusaders, weakened by the heat and thirst, desperately tried breaking through Saladins lines. Eventually, however, the force collapsed, deserting, dying, or surrendering to Saladins army, even losing a Piece of the True Cross into the bargain.Guy, Raynald, and almost all the other Crusader commanders were captured, save for Raymond and one Balian of Ibelin, who both managed to escape. Saladin then fulfilled his vow and beheaded Raynald personally. Guy and the other leaders were well-treated and taken into custody rather than executed.Saladin promptly received the surrender of Tiberias, allowing Raymonds wife to safely return to her husband before sweeping on towards Jerusalem. As Saladin stormed through the Crusader kingdom, he reached out to the cities in his path with surprisingly generous terms of surrender. Saladin generally forbade the plundering of cities that surrendered and allowed their civilians to live peaceably or leave safely if they preferred. Saladins conduct towards these towns, the Crusader leaders, and their families, reveals another crucial trait to his success: his mercy.The Battle of Hattin, by Matthew Paris, 13th century. Source: Cambridge UniversitySaladin may have been merciful in spirit, but it also made good strategic sense. The generous terms encouraged the Crusader cities to open their gates rather than risk destruction through defiance, allowing Saladin to continue his advance uninterrupted by sieges while ensuring his control of vital strongholds. By mid-September, Saladin had taken almost all the major crusader cities and was now outside Jerusalem itself.The holy city, however, refused even the most generous terms of surrender. They were commanded by Balian of Ibelin, who ironically had been allowed safe passage into the city by Saladin to safely evacuate his family. On entering the city, however, he had been press-ganged into leading its defense by the Patriarch of Jerusalem. However, even with Balians arrival, the garrison of Jerusalem was desperately small, and despite astonishing resistance, on September 28, 1187, eight days after the siege began, Balian agreed to surrender.Saladins MercyA portrait of Saladin by Italian artist Cristofano dellAltissimo, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsUnder the conventions of medieval warfare, Saladin had every right to sack the city, instead, he agreed to accept a peaceful surrender, allowing all the citys inhabitants who could afford a ransom to leave the city unharmed, including Balian and his family.In fairness, this came after Balian threatened to massacre Jerusalems remaining Muslim population if the city was sacked. Even so, Saladin also ensured Christian holy sites were left in peace, save for restoring former mosques that had been converted into churches. The relatively peaceful recapture of Jerusalem stands in stark contrast to the brutal sack wrought upon it by the Crusaders of the First Crusade.Saladins merciful actions ensured his strategic success while also making him appear a just and reasonable opponent to the Crusaders, while simultaneously still the great defender of Islam to his allies. In the end, he had achieved the ultimate goal of once again retaking Jerusalem and tipping the balance of power in favor of the Muslims against the Christians. Yet the struggle for the holy land was not over.Conrad of Montferrat, by Francois-Edouard Picot, 1845. Source: French Ministry of CultureThe Crusader state of Jerusalem still had one major holdout, namely the well-defended port city of Tyre. Strategically, Saladin could have taken Tyre before Jerusalem, effectively cutting Jerusalem off from any reinforcements by land or sea. Instead, Saladin aimed for the political and propaganda victory of taking Jerusalem first, considering this his main goal. However, while Saladin focused on Jerusalem, another Crusader leader, Conrad of Montferrat, arrived in Tyre with reinforcements and took charge of the city. Meanwhile, after taking Jerusalem, many of Saladins holy warriors and support from his Islamic allies began to slowly dwindle away, considering their religious obligations fulfilled.Saladin besieged Tyre on November 2, 1187, but after two months of stout defense, his forces shrinking and exhausted after a long campaign, he abandoned the siege to consolidate his other gains. Conrad, for his part, made no attempt at a counterattack but did declare himself the new King of Jerusalem, with Guy de Lusignan still Saladins prisoner after Hattin. This, however, led Saladin to perform another, more questionable, act of mercy.The Third CrusadeA map of the Near East at the time of the Third Crusade, including the sites of the major battles and sieges. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the summer of 1188, Saladin released Guy from his custody. Perhaps Saladin felt sorry for Guys wife, Sybilla, who had constantly petitioned Saladin for Guys release. Perhaps Saladin hoped that Guys release would weaken Conrads position and sow division among the surviving Crusader states with two claimants to the throne of Jerusalem. Initially, this seemed accurate as Guy and Conrad spent the next year squabbling over who was king and who had authority over whom.By early 1189, Guy gathered together an army of arriving knights from Europe and troops from the surviving Crusader states of Tripoli and Antioch. However, he then marched his forces not against Conrad and Tyre but to besiege the vital port city of Acre. If captured, Acre and Tyre would be the perfect staging posts for the full force of the European response to Saladins victory, which was already well on its way.Frederick Barbarossa, Strasbourg Cathedral, 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHattin and the fall of Jerusalem sent shockwaves around Christendom. Pope Urban II reportedly dropped dead of a heart attack on hearing the news, and a new Crusade was swiftly called for. Europes three greatest rulers, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, King Philippe II of France, and King Richard I of England, all answered the call. They each raised huge funds and armies through taxes, dubbed the Saladin tithe in England, for what is now known as the Third Crusade.Though delayed by logistics and internal politics, all three Crusader armies were well on their way by the time Guy besieged Acre. Saladin was well informed of the rapidly approaching European reckoning and moved quickly to break Guys siege before it arrived. Despite growing instability in his own lands and waning support from his allies, Saladin gathered his forces and attacked Guy outside Acre in October, 1189. After a bloody stalemate, Saladin decided to dig in and pressure Guys forces from outside the city, essentially besieging the besiegers of Acre.Fall of Acre and Battle of ArsufAn image from the Luttrall Psalter, depicting a fictional joust between Richard I (left) and Saladin (right), the devilish facial features attributed to Saladin are typical of common European perceptions of him at the time, 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor 18 months, the city, Crusaders, and Saladin fought a brutal campaign of attrition. The Crusaders gained reinforcements from Conrad, who put aside his differences with Guy, and the first wave of Third Crusaders. However, Acre refused to fall, nor could they break through Saladins lines. Saladin, for his part, could not destroy the Crusaders outright. Then, in summer 1191, Philippe II and Richard I finally arrived in the Holy Land.The struggle between Richard and Saladin, the two great champions of Christianity and Islam, is one of the most notorious in history. The fresh Crusader forces, armed with massive trebuchets named Bad Neighbor and Gods Own Sling, battered Acres defenses until on July 12, the city surrendered. Horrifically, a dispute over the ransoming of the garrison then led to over 3,000 of the citys defenders being massacred, and Saladin could do nothing in response.Richard, the Crusades de facto commander in chief, then marched out to recapture lost Crusader territory and, naturally, eventually retake Jerusalem. Saladin desperately harassed Richards march, trying to provoke him into another Hattin. However, Richard was too competent a general to fall for the bait, and kept his troops well supplied and disciplined on the march. Saladin then gambled on an all-out assault on the Crusader column at the forest of Arsuf. However, Richard, leading from the front, bloodily repulsed the attack, before moving on to take the city of Jaffa, a vital stepping stone towards Jerusalem.Philippe and Richard receiving the keys of Acre, 1375-80. Source: BnFAll of Saladins great achievements appeared doomed by a stunning reversal of fortune. After doing all he could to avoid an offensive siege, he had let himself become bogged down in a defensive one. After his masterstroke of provocation at Hattin, the tables were grimly turned at Arsuf. However, Saladin still had some diplomatic tricks up his sleeve.Saladins mercy and nobility had impressed the famously chivalric Richard, and at Acre the two leaders had opened up friendly diplomatic correspondence. Saladin also deployed his brother Al-Adil as a direct negotiator, who greatly charmed Richard and the Crusaders and further burnished his brothers reputation. At one point, Richard allegedly proposed marrying Al-Adil to his sister to secure a long-lasting peace. While this idea fell through, Saladin and Richard made good headway in organizing a peace treaty despite the continued battles and sieges.Treaty of JaffaThe notorious Massacre of Ayyediah, when Richard I executed the garrison of Acre, despite this act of brutality, Saladin continued his diplomatic correspondence with Richard, 15th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe truth was, while Richard was militarily gaining momentum, his situation was slowly destabilizing yet again, and the Crusaders were infighting. Richard fell out badly with Leopold of Austria, the Holy Roman Empires Crusade leader after Barbarossa died en route, while Philippe II abandoned the Crusade entirely. Meanwhile, Richard also had to mediate between Conrad and Guy, who were back to squabbling over the crown of Jerusalem, but as a distant relative of Guy, Conrad suspected his impartiality.This political headache makes Richards diplomacy with Saladin more understandable. It is possible that Saladin and Al-Adil were friendlier to Richard than his own allies. However, despite the talks, Richard continued campaigning, marching within sight of Jerusalem in late 1191 but turning back due to bad weather and a refusal from Conrad to provide reinforcements. In April 1192, the political situation got worse when Conrad was elected king by the Crusader nobility but was then assassinated just eight days later. Richard and Guy were heavily suspected, though it was never proved.Nevertheless, a few weeks later Richard again marched within sight of Jerusalem, but again he halted. The militarily savvy Richard was wary of rushing on Jerusalem as Saladin had done, and potentially overextending himself, so instead planned to take the fight to Saladin by invading Egypt. This was militarily brilliant, but politically and symbolically, Richard had miscalculated.Old Jaffa, 2013. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMany of the Crusader commanders were incensed at twice coming within sight of Jerusalem without even attempting to retake the city. The Crusaders were split into two, and eventually, the whole army retreated as neither side could achieve its goal without the other. Saladin then made an abortive attempt to retake Jaffa but was again repulsed. Both sides now appeared spent from the fight, so Al-Adil once again travelled to Richards camp to see about terms.In September 1192, Richard and Saladin signed the Treaty of Jaffa. The treaty agreed to new borders between the kingdoms while Saladin kept Jerusalem in exchange for allowing Christian pilgrims safe passage to the city. It is possible to view Saladin as agreeing to the treaty out of desperation, but both sides agreed to compromises. In any case, Jerusalem remained in Saladins hands thanks in the end to diplomacy, Crusader disharmony, and, ironically enough, Richards own strategic competence.ConclusionSaladin the Victorious, by Gustav Dor, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSaladin died just six months after signing the Treaty of Jaffa, exhausted by over a decade of constant warfare. Though Saladin had not completely destroyed the Crusader states, there is no denying the scale of his achievements. He had recaptured Jerusalem, and even after the Treaty of Jaffa, he had tipped the balance of power in the region firmly away from the Crusaders.It would take just over a century for the Crusaders to be fully removed from the Holy Land, but even with several more Crusades from Europe, after Saladin, the Crusader fortunes trended firmly downwards.One can argue that Saladin had an enormous advantage with his stable power base, short logistic lines, and nearby allies compared to the disunited Crusaders and their relatively distant support network. Yet a lesser leader could have easily squandered these advantages.Having forged his own kingdom and dynasty, he could have been content to reap the rewards of his success. However, this relative upstart, of no particular family or great dynasty, convinced rulers who could have seen him as a threat to support him as the champion of Islam who would retake the Holy Land. Simultaneously, he continued diplomatic correspondence with his Christian foes and made clear his willingness to consider peace.Saladin, 1584. Source: The British MuseumThis highlights that perhaps Saladins greatest strength was his political skill and eye for symbolic gestures, as seen with his victory at Jerusalem and repeated acts of mercy. Tyre may have been a better military target, but then Saladin may have found his religious war stalling in fervor as Richard had done. Similarly, his decision to release both Guy and Balian may have been a strategic mistake, but they went a long way to changing Crusader perspectives on Saladin, leading to his long-term success in achieving peace while keeping Jerusalem.In fact, Saladins adherence to principles of mercy and justice appears ironclad. He was generous to a fault, giving away so much wealth that at his death he didnt have enough money to even cover his funeral expenses, and was both extremely pious but also religiously tolerant. A leader who follows such principles and matches them also with the political and military brilliance Saladin demonstrated is very rare indeed.

In 1513, Giovanni de Medici, second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, became the first Medici pope with the name of Leo X. The election of Giovanni inaugurated the apogee of the Medici family in the Italian peninsula. While Leo turned Rome into a leading cultural center, he underestimated the religious turmoil spreading in Germany. His cousin, Pope Clement VII, was left to deal with the Protestant Reformation and an increasingly unstable political landscape in Europe. Read on to discover how the Medici popes shaped 16th-century Italian and European history.The Medici Family Between Politics and ArtsThe Medici coat of arms, photograph by Michael Colburn. Source: Flickr / Vatican Museum, Vatican CityIn 1436, Filippo Brunelleschi completed an ambitious project that had kept him busy for 16 years: building a dome for the Duomo (Cathedral) in Florence. An octagonal vault built without the traditional wooden supports, the impressive construction is traditionally hailed as the symbol of Renaissance Florence and a testament to human ingenuity.Brunelleschis project was made possible by the patronage of Florences wealthiest citizens, especially Cosimo de Medici (the Elder), the head of the Medici family. The Medicis derived their wealth from their bank, founded in 1397 by Cosimos father, Giovanni di Bicci de Medici. The credit institute grew under Cosimo, who secured the management of the papal treasury and obtained from Pope Pius II the control of the Tolfa alum mines.Around the time Brunelleschi finished his dome, Cosimo returned to Florence after a brief exile and, after successfully defeating his opponents, became the de facto ruler of the city, establishing the familys future political base. Like other prominent Florentine families, the Medici expressed their civic pride and influence through an extensive patronage of the arts. As a result, Florence became the center of the Italian Renaissance, a period that saw the flourishing of artistic and scholarly achievement but also political instability.Portrait of Lorenzo de Medici, by Giorgio Vasari, ca. 1533/34. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Uffizi Gallery, FlorenceAs members of the ruling family in Florence, Cosimos descendants actively shaped the geopolitical landscape of Renaissance Italy. Chief among them was Lorenzo (nicknamed the Magnificent), Cosimos grandson, famously described by 16th-century historian Francesco Guicciardini as the ago della bilancia (needle of the scale) in the delicate power balance between the rival regional states in the peninsula.Navigating this rocky political balance was not without its risks. In 1478, Lorenzo almost lost his life due to the Pazzi Conspiracy, a plot organized by Pope Sixtus IV, the King of Naples, and the rival Pazzi banking family to overthrow the Medicis leadership in Florence. While the coup failed, Lorenzos brother, Giuliano, was murdered by the conspirators on Easter Sunday during mass in the Cathedral.After the plot and a two-year conflict known as the War of the Pazzi, Lorenzo set out to strengthen his familys prestige and hold in Florence and the peninsula. In 1489, after Sixtus IV was replaced by Pope Innocent VIII, the Magnificent also managed to secure for his second-born, Giovanni, a cardinal hat, thus setting in motion a plan to extend the Medicis influence in the Catholic Church. Giovanni, only 13 years old in 1489, was formally appointed cardinal in 1492, the same year of his fathers death.The Papal States in Renaissance ItalyMap showing the extension of the Papal States (yellow) in 1499. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the 15th century, the Papal States, a cluster of territories spanning central Italy, saw the succession of a series of pontiffs more interested in the pursuit of temporal power than attending to spiritual matters. Under their leadership, the papacy became an Italian principality seeking political alliances to affirm its hold in the peninsula.In the previous century, the Holy Sees political power had declined. In 1309, Pope Clement V had transferred the papal capital from Rome to Avignon, a move influenced by King Philip IV of France as a means to curtail the papacys role in secular affairs. Upon returning to Rome in 1377, the Papal States prolonged internal divisions led to a considerable loss of prestige.Indeed, the following 40 years, a period known as the Great Western Schism, saw the election of two, and then three, rival popes and the growth of conciliarism, a movement challenging the idea that the pontiff held the ultimate authority within the Roman Church.After the end of the schism, the papacy sought to regain its power and control over central Italy. The pursuit of political authority, however, resulted in a sharp decline of the churchs religious role. Pope Sixtus IV, elected in 1471, set to strengthen his hold on the Papal States by appointing family members to key offices and launching a policy of territorial aggrandizement. Apart from etching plots to benefit the Holy See and his family, Sixtus was also a patron of the arts and letters, commissioning the construction of the Sistine Chapel and opening the Vatican Library to scholars.The facade of St. Peters Basilica in Rome, photograph by Joaquim Alves Gaspar, 2015. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlexander VI, the head of the powerful Borgia family, was similarly disinterested in his spiritual duties, instead electing to pursue the ruthless promotion of his familys interests. His successor, Julius II, combined his patronage of the arts with a series of military campaigns aimed at recovering the territories that Alexander VIs son, Cesare Borgia, had taken from the Papal States. One of the most influential rulers of his age, Julius II, the Warrior Pope, also defended the Holy See (and the Italian peninsula) from Frances aims.In the following years, however, the Italian states struggled to maintain their independence as France and Spain sought to bring the peninsula into their sphere of influence. On top of that, the papacys disregard for its religious duties led to another, more serious, division within Christendom.A Renaissance Ruler: Pope Leo XPortrait of Pope Leo X With Two Cardinals. On the left of Leo X is his cousin Giulio de Medici (the future Pope Clement VII), by Raphael, 1518. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Uffizi Gallery, FlorenceJulius IIs military efforts, albeit largely successful, took a toll on the Papal States. After he died in 1513, the cardinals taking part in the conclave opted to elect a less warlike candidate: Giovanni de Medici. Taking the name of Leo X, the first Medici pope turned Rome into a leading cultural center in Europe.Growing up in Lorenzo de Medicis Renaissance court, Giovanni received a humanist education under the tutelage of leading scholars and went on to study theology and canon law at the University of Pisa. Besides classes in Latin and rhetoric, Lorenzos sons were trained to become skilled statesmen. A solid education in the art of politics was essential in the ever-shifting landscape of Renaissance Italy, where the ability to form the right alliances was a matter of survival.Indeed, in 1494, it was the lack of political insight of Giovannis older brother, Piero, that led to the overthrow of the Medicean rule in Florence. Unable to protect the city from the French invasion, the Medicis were forced to flee Florence as the population broke into the Medici Palace, the symbol of the familys power and prestige. Only in 1512 did Giovanni, then a cardinal and protg of Julius II, manage to reinstate the Medici rule in Florence.Engraving of Pope Leo X, by Philippe Soye, 1568. In the top right corner is the Medici coat of arms. Source: Wikimedia Commons / British Museum, LondonAfter his election as pope, Giovanni de Medici continued to favor his family, naming his cousin Giulio a cardinal and his nephew duke of Urbino. In his last letter to the newly appointed cardinal Giovanni, his father Lorenzo had encouraged his first born to use his position in Rome to favor your family and your native place, emphasizing that he should be the link to bind this city of Florence closer to the Church, and [his] family with the city. After urging Giovanni to be a good ecclesiastic, Lorenzo added what he deemed to be the most important piece of advice: There is one rule which I would recommend to your attention in preference to all others: Rise early in the morning.How much Leo X, often described as intelligent but indolent, heeded his fathers advice remains unclear. It is undeniable, however, that, as head of the Medici family after Pieros death, he resorted to nepotism to enhance the Medicis grandeur in Italy and Europe.As the ruler of the Papal States, Leo was also an active player in European politics. Like Julius II, the Medici pope sought to prevent foreign powers, mainly France, from extending their influence on the Italian peninsula. After defeating Louis XI at Novara in 1513, the papal anti-French coalition lost the Battle of Marignano two years later. During a meeting in Bologna, the new French king, Francis I, secured the monarchys right to nominate priors, abbots, and bishops. Despite the setback, Leo managed to score a victory for his family: his brother Giuliano was made Duke of Nemois.The papal bull Exsurge Domini against Martin Luther issued by Leo X in 1520. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn Rome, Leo X followed his fathers example and became the embodiment of a Renaissance ruler. More interested in supporting the arts and organizing elaborate feasts than attending to his spiritual duties, Leo largely ignored the calls for religious reforms and depleted the papacys treasury. To acquire new funds for the construction of St. Peters Basilica, the pope resorted to selling indulgences.While the popes albino elephant Hanno (a gift from the King of Portugal) delighted the Roman court, troubles were brewing in Germany. In 1517, one year after the death of Leos beloved Hanno, Martin Luther, a young Augustinian friar from the Wittenberg monastery, denounced the sale of indulgences as a morally bankrupt system in his Ninety-Five Theses.In 1520, Pope Leo X ordered Luther to recant his theses, threatening him with excommunication. When the Augustinian friar, backed by various members of the German elite, refused, the pope issued the bull of excommunication in January 1521. In December of the same year, Leo X suddenly died. By then, the Protestant movement was already spreading through northern Europe.Clement VIIs Reign: A Bitter Rivalry & a DivorcePope Clement VII (Giulio de Medici), by Sebastiano del Piombo, ca. 1531. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Getty Center, Los AngelesWhen Leo X died, Rome had become the center of the High Renaissance, with scholars and artists converging on the city to work under the tutelage of the Medici pope. Leo, however, left the papacy with the impervious task of dealing with the religious turmoil brought by Martin Luther. On top of that, the king of France and the newly elected Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, turned their attention to the Italian peninsula, inaugurating a new phase in the Italian Wars.Leo Xs successor, the Dutch Adrian VI (the last non-Italian pope until John Paul II) and former tutor of Charles V, sought to introduce a series of reforms. Opposed by most Italian cardinals, however, he was unable to achieve much. He died only a year after his coronation as pope. After a 62-day-long conclave, the cardinals finally agreed on a candidate: Giulio de Medic, Leo Xs cousin, who took the name of Clement VII.The illegitimate son of Giuliano de Medici, Lorenzos younger brother, Giulio was born shortly before his father died in the Pazzi Conspiracy. Giulio was raised and educated alongside his cousins in the intellectually stimulating Florentine court. Made a cardinal in 1513, he became a close advisor to Leo X.Cardinal de Medici shared his familys keen interest in the arts. In 1517, he tasked Raphael, the author of a series of frescoes for the papal apartments in the Vatican (including the School of Athens), with creating an altarpiece (the Transfiguration) for his Marbonne cathedral. In 1520, he commissioned Michelangelo to design a series of monuments to commemorate the Medicis for the Sagrestia Nuova (New Sacristy) in San Lorenzo. Then, in 1534, Giulio commissioned Michelangelo to create one of his most famous masterpieces: The Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel.The Last Judgement, by Michelangelo, 1536-1541. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Apostolic Palace, Vatican CityWhile Clement VIIs achievements as a patron of the arts undoubtedly enriched Florence and the Vatican, the second Medici pope was less successful on the political stage. Faced with the combined threat of France and Spains expansionist policies, Pope Clement VII often shifted his alliances in an attempt to defend the independence of the Papal States and the Medici familys control in Florence.In 1525, Clement supported Charles Vs forces in the Battle of Pavia, which ended with Francis I as a prisoner of the emperor. The following year, however, when Charles V was a direct threat to Italy, the pope promoted the League of Cognac and sided with France. The decision had dire consequences for the papacy.Sack of Rome of 1527, by Johannes Lingelbach, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGrowing increasingly frustrated with the lack of action and a delay in their pay, the Landsknechte, or mercenaries (mostly Protestants) fighting for Charles V, sacked Rome on May 6, 1527. The traumatic event is still seen by some scholars as the end of the Renaissance in Italy. Clement VII himself was forced to take refuge in Castel SantAngelo. As news of the sack reached Florence, the population rebelled against the popes representative. Forced to sign a humiliating peace, the pope, a virtual prisoner of the emperor, returned to Rome only a year later.Henry VIII, by Joos van Cleve, 1530-35, Source: The Royal Collection TrustBy then, another matter had complicated Clement VIIs reign: King Henry VIIIs request to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, the aunt of Charles V. On top of that, in 1528, French troops invaded the Italian peninsula. Clement sent Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio to England to try Henrys case with Cardinal Wolsey. However, as he was still under Charles Vs control, the pope was unable to reach a decision.When the chronically indecisive Clement VII finally pronounced the marriage between the English King and Catherine valid in 1533, it was too late. The king had already married Anne Boleyn in secret. The following year, the Act of Supremacy declared the monarch as the head of the English church.While Clement VIIs foreign policies led to significant setbacks for the papacy, he was more successful in his attempts to strengthen his familys prestige. In his treaty with Charles V, he managed to secure the emperors promise to help the Medicis reestablish their rule in Florence. Then, Clement arranged the union between Caterina de Medici, the daughter of Lorenzo (Leo Xs nephew), with Henri de Valois, Duke of Orleans, Francis Is second son. When Henri became king of France, the Medici family joined the French royal family.The Last Medici PopesPainting showing Henry II of France and Philip II of Spain at the signing of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrsis, date and author unknown. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, TuscanyBesides Leo X and Clement VII, the Medici family gave the Roman Catholic Church two other popes: Pius IV and Leo XI.Pius IV (Giovanni Angelo de Medici), elected in 1559, did not belong to the Medici of Florence but was born in an unrelated Milanese branch of the family. In the 1560s, Pius IV convened the final session of the Council of Trent, the churchs response to the Protestant Reformation. In 1564, the pope compiled a summary of the doctrine of the Counter-Reformation established in Trento, known as Professio Fidei Tridentina. He also drafted the Index of Forbidden Books and reformed the Catholic catechism.Leo XI, the last Medici pope, belonged to a collateral branch of the Medici of Florence. Born Alessandro Ottaviano de Medici, he was elected on April 1, 1605, but died on April 27, making his pontificate one of the shortest in history.Elected in the golden ages of the Italian Renaissance, the most influential Medici popes embodied the ideals and tastes of their times, making Rome a political and cultural center in Europe. More temporal rulers than spiritual leaders, Leo X and Clement VIIs policies shaped the political and religious landscape of the following decades.The Italian Wars that spanned both Medici popes reigns ended in 1559 with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrsis, leaving most of the peninsula under Spanish influence. Italy would regain its independence only in the 19th century with the Risorgimento. Though the Medicis managed to retain control over the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the political entity that followed the Republic of Florence, until the 18th century, they were under Spains sphere of influence.

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