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For decades, the Moriori have been considered extinct. When two Mori tribes invaded their homeland, the Chatham Islands, in 1835, the Moriori refused to fight back. They remained faithful to the Law of Nunuku, the central tenet of Moriori life, which prohibited warfare and cannibalism and emphasized conflict resolution through peace and dialogue. Thousands died. The survivors were enslaved on their lands and forbidden from speaking their language. And yet, Moriori culture survived. Today, the Moriori are recognized as one of the Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa/New Zealand.Who Are the Moriori?Moriori flag. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Moriori, a splinter group of the Mori, were the first human beings to populate the Chatham Islands, an archipelago off the coast of what is now Aotearoa/New Zealand. Most of what we know about their arrival on Rkohu (Chatham Island) and Rangihaute (Pitt Island), the archipelagos two largest islands, is a matter of speculation. Moriori lawyer and activist Maui Solomon writes that Moriori acknowledge two streams of settlement. The first is our tukana line direct from Eastern Polynesia via Rongomaiwhenua and Rongomaitere. The tina or later migrants, such as Kahu and Moe and other waka, came from mainland New Zealand.According to Moriori traditions, the first group arrived from Eastern Polynesia about 1,000 years ago. Moriori tribes trace their ancestry back to their founding ancestor, Rongomaiwhenua, whose name translates as land god.Profile portraits of Te Ranguira and her husband, Mori chief Te Rangihaeta, by Isaac Coates. Source: Pitt Rivers Museum Photograph and Manuscript CollectionsOnce he settled on Rkohu with his younger brother, Rongomaitere, Rongomaiwhenua began establishing sacred places and erecting altars, staking his claim as the first human being to populate the island. The first of these sacred sites, Ko Ro Puke o Heauoro, was placed near Te Awapatiki, just north of the opening of the lagoon, and it continues to be one of the most sacred places on the Chatham Islands. The first group was then followed by a second migration that sailed directly from mainland Aotearoa/New Zealand.Archaeologists have subsequently validated the Morioris claim that they were the first humans to settle the islands. However, carbon dating of artifacts found on the Pitt and Chatham Islands suggests that the first settlers arrived between 1500 and 1550 directly from mainland New Zealand and that they were the descendants of the first Polynesian settlers who had settled Aotearoa/New Zealand and from whom the Mori are descended as well.This chart of the Pacific Islands, attributed to James Cook, was drawn based on information provided by Tupaia, 1769. Source: National History MuseumUpon their arrival on New Zealands North and South Islands at some point in the 13th century, the ancestors of the Mori were forced to adapt to a climate radically different from that of their Polynesian islands. The ancestors of the Moriori faced a similar challenge: the flora that flourished on the North and South Islands could not survive on the Chathams. They became hunter-gatherers. They often sailed to the smaller islands of the archipelago (now uninhabited) on birding missions in their vessels, the so-called waka krari (or waka phara), a special flat-bottomed waka (canoe).Its sides and bottoms were covered with dry flowering flax stems, called krari, hence its name.In the Chatham Islands, the Moriori developed a unique culture with unique traditions and a unique language, known as re Moriori.The Chatham IslandsPitt Island, 2023. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Chatham Islands are an archipelago of twelve islands in the Pacific Ocean, located about 800 kilometers (500 miles) southeast of New Zealands South Island and 840 km (521 miles) east of Christchurch. Some of them are quite large, others extremely small and uninhabited. The largest islands, inhabited by the Moriori, are Chatham Island and Pitt Island. Among the Moriori, they are known as Rkohu, which translates as Misty Sun or Misty Skies, and Pitt Island, the second largest, is known as Rangihaute.The Mori, who invaded the Chathams in 1835, were called Chatham Island Wharekauri and Pitt Island Rangiauria. As of today, they are the archipelagos only inhabited islands. Both islands are dotted with dunes and lagoons, rugged cliffs, beaches, and streams.Waitangi, on Chatham Island, 2023. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn November 1791, the HMS Chatham, one of the ships of the Vancouver Expedition, reached Rkohu/Chatham Island. The ship had been blown off course while en route to Tahiti. Lieutenant William Broughton (1768-1821) planted the British flag on Rkohu, claimed it for the British Crown, and named the island after the First Lord of the Admiralty, John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham.This was the Morioris first encounter with Europeans. For almost three centuries, they had lived on the Chathams in complete isolation. Europeans (and Mori) whalers, sealers, and traders followed shortly afterward, establishing sealing and whaling stations. In 1865, they introduced sheep and the export of wool soon became the basis of the Chathams economy. After (failed) negotiations with the Germans, the islands became part of the Colony of New Zealand in 1842.In the 2023 New Zealand Census, the population of Chatham and Pitt Islands numbered around 612. 72.5% are Pkeh, that is, people of European descent. 68.6% are Mori, who almost entirely supplanted the Moriori after they invaded the islands in 1835.The Law of NunukuSmall boulder of granodiorite representing Rongo M Tne, the atua (god) of cultivation and peace. Source: Nelson Provincial MuseumUnlike the Mori, the Moriori were peaceful people, committed to peace and conflict resolution through dialogue. Throughout the centuries and even in the decades following the Mori invasion of 1835, they remained committed to upholding the so-called Law of Nunuku, the law of nonviolence based on the sayings of Moriori chief Nunuku-whenua.The colonization of the Chatham Islands by the Moriori was bloody. According to Moriori traditions, the second wave of settlers arrived on two canoes, Rangimata and Rangihoua. The third waka, rupuke, arrived on Rkohu one generation later. Conflict soon erupted between different tribes, the Rauru and Wheteina. It was brutal and long and deeply scarred Moriori society. At the time, Nunuku-whenua was a high-ranking chief, spiritual leader (tohuk), and carver.Petroglyphs on limestone at Nunukus Cave. Source: Chatham Island MuseumHorrified by the devastating conflict that was ravaging the islands, he intervened by banning warfareany form of warfareas well as murder and cannibalism among all the Moriori tribes of Rkohu and Rangihaute. Never again let there be war as there has been this day. Do not kill, he reportedly urged the Moriori.It did not take long before all the Moriori tribes embraced his call for nonviolence. They abandoned their weapons, placed them onto the altars, and willingly entered into a sacred pact with their gods. By surrendering their weapons to them, they were handing them back the right to decide whether a human being should live or die. They also rejected cannibalism (common among Mori tribes, especially in times of war), and remained faithful to the path laid out for them by Nunuku-whenua, even when the Mori invaded their islands.Taiaha, one of Moris most iconic weapons. Source: Tairawhiti MuseumThis sacred covenant (tohinga) between the Moriori and the gods was cyclically renewed with every generation. The elders would show the old weapons of their ancestors to the younger ones, explaining to them what they represented and why they had been abandoned, and then place the weapons back on the altar. Whenever dialogues were not enough to resolve tribal issues, Nunuku granted his people the possibility to fight with wooden staffs the thickness of my two thumbs.In any case, as soon as even one drop of blood was spilled, fighting had to cease instantly. By the time European sealers and whalers arrived on the Chatham Islands, the Moriori numbered about 2,500 people. By the early 1860s, after the war of 1835, only 101 Moriori were still alive.Conflict With the MoriMori performing haka, the traditional Mori war dance, painting by Joseph Jenner Merrett, 1845. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe bloodshed that brought the Moriori to the brink of extinction is today considered an act of genocide. Unlike elsewhere in Oceania and the American continent, the perpetrators were not Europeans but Mori.In 1835, displaced men and women from two Mori tribes, the Ngti Tama and Ngti Mutunga, invaded the Chatham Islands. They were originally from the Taranaki region in the west of New Zealands North Island. Historian Philippa Mein Smith reports that they seized the brig whaler Lord Rodney anchored in Wellington and kidnapped its (European) captain. On November 19, they arrived at Rkohu. Another group disembarked on December 5. They were mainly warriors, carrying muskets, tomahawks, and clubs. The Moriori offered them food and shelter, sharing the resources of their lands. They also called a peace council of 1,000 men who met at Te Awaptiki to discuss possible responses.The tribes who invaded the Chatham Islands were originally from the Taranaki region (pictured here) on New Zealands North Island, photograph by Raquel Moss, 2021. Source: UnsplashAlthough they outnumbered the Mori newcomers two to one, the Moriori eventually stuck to Nunukus Law of peace and nonviolence, as their ancestors had done for the past 24 generations. As Maui Solomon beautifully puts it, the Moriori had developed, here on their home island, a greater respect for the sanctity of human life, and had agreed to observe the law of peace, literally through life and death. They were nearly exterminated.The Mori mistook the peace council for a war council and waged war on the Moriori. About 300 people were massacred, some even cannibalized. The rest were enslaved, dispossessed of their lands, forced to desecrate their sacred places, and prevented from speaking their language. Over the next few years, they died by the hundreds. For 30 years, they were kept as slaves on their lands.The Aftermath of the GenocideA group of Moriori on the Chatham Islands, photograph by E. Cornford, 1900. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1862, a group of surviving Moriori elders wrote to Governor George Grey (1812-1898). Leading them was Hirawanu Tapu (1824-1900), a member of the wenga Moriori tribe from the southeastern coast of Chatham Island. He had gained his freedom only two years earlier after the death of his master, Chief Wiremu Kngi Meremere. Urged on by the missionaries who had settled on the island in the 1840s, the Moriori petitioned the governor for justice and the restoration of their stolen lands.In 1863, the Crown freed the Moriori from slavery. At that point, however, only 101 were still alive. Some 1,561 Moriori had died in the previous decades. Equally outraged and fascinated by the demise of the Moriori, Europeans began to search for the last Moriori. One of the candidates was Tame Horomona Rehe (also known by the Western name of Tommy Solomon), widely regarded as the last full-blooded Moriori.Tame Horomona Rehe, also known as Tommy Solomon, 1925. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen he died in 1933, many believed that the Moriori people were extinct. In 1870, the Native Land Court awarded 98 percent of all land on the Chatham and Pitt Islands to the Ngti Mutunga, one of the tribes responsible for the Moriori genocide. Meanwhile, the other tribe had returned to its homeland in the Taranaki region. In the early 1870s, despite the hardships of the previous decades, the Moriori population outnumbered the Mori on Chatham Island.Regardless of the myths perpetuated for decades by Western and New Zealander historiography, the Moriori did not die out in 1933. In February 2020, Moriori tribal leaders signed a treaty with the New Zealand Government, which included an apology for the violence inflicted on them by the Mori and the failure on the Pkeh side to act and prevent the genocide. The treaty became law on November 23, 2021, 186 years after the first wave of Mori warriors invaded the Chathams.Wharf at Waitangi on Chatham Island, 1933. Source: Chatham Islands MuseumThe Moriori Claims Settlement Bill, as the law is called, recognizes that the ancestors of the Moriori (Moriori karpuna) are the original inhabitants of the Chatham Islands. It also awarded them NZ$18 million in reparations and ensured the return of the stolen remains of the men, women, and children killed during the 1835 genocide.Today, the Hokotehi Moriori Trust represents the Moriori people in New Zealand and abroad. It is also involved in land negotiations with the Crown and the government and the promotion of Moriori culture, history, and language. First established in 2003, the Karanga Aotearoa Repatriation Programme has worked in collaboration with the Hokotehi Moriori Trust to repatriate the smuggled remains of hundreds of Moriori ancestors that for decades have been stored in museums and collections around the world.Moriori on the Chatham Islands, photograph by W Rerwick, 1910. Source: Wikimedia CommonsA statue of Tommy Solomon stands today on Rkohu, a memorial to all the Moriori who lost their lives, lands, and freedom during the Musket Wars, a memorial meant to honor, in Maui Solomons words, the stories of a people who once were warriors but who made a decision to become warriors for peace.

The Inca Empire was the largest of the pre-Columbian civilizations. At its peak, the empire spanned from the highest peaks of the Andes mountains to the inhospitable Atacama desert. At its peak between 1438 and 1533, the Inca Empire, known in the Quechua language as Tawantinsuyu, or Four Quarters Together, was made up of four distinct regions. This article explores the unique ways the Inca Empire governed the Four Quarters and delves into the rich culture behind each region.The Foundation of TawantinsuyuA statue of Manco Capac in modern-day Cusco, 2022, Kala Chuymani. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAccording to indigenous historical accounts, the Inca Empire was founded by the semi-divine figures of Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo towards the beginning of the 13th century. The focal point of the empire was the settlement Cusco, which served as the political, administrative, and spiritual heartland of the Inca civilization. From Cusco, the Inca Empire developed into the largest empire of the pre-Colombian era. One of the most fascinating aspects of the Inca civilization is the fact that it grew rapidly from a small settlement into a vast empire without the use of the wheel, a writing system, or sophisticated metalwork.The Incas presided over a vast area of geographically distinct regions and culturally diverse ethnic groups. To maintain order, the Incas combined traditional methods of military might with more unique diplomatic and social policies. During its peak, the Inca Empire spanned an area of nearly 3,000 miles along the Western coast of South America and incorporated parts of modern-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.The Incas remarkably advanced network of paved roads, complex architecture, and sophisticated agricultural economy were key to keeping the four quarters together. From Cusco, the Inca Empire was administrated without the use of a major currency or markets. Rather, the economy functioned on a goods and services approach where labor was granted in return for food, access to land, and other incentives.Chinchaysuyu: The Northwestern QuarterThe Inca Citadel of Sacsayhuamn in Cusco, 2015, Diego Delso. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy far the most densely populated and prosperous quarter of the Inca Empire was Chinchaysuyu, the center of the empire and home to the capital, Cusco. Chinchaysuyu was agriculturally abundant, with ample space for growing crops and other staple foods. The area was also a source of alpaca and llama fiber that could be woven into valuable textiles and simple armor and even used as a substitute for written communication. Notably, the northwestern quarter was home to the Inca Empires sources of valuable metals like gold and silver that were either traded for other goods or transformed into jewelry and objects of religious worship.Despite the fertile ground of Chinchaysuyu, the Incas were frequently at the mercy of the El Nio metrological effect, which could either inundate crops or bring about catastrophic droughts. To boost their agricultural output and support their empire, the Inca made extensive use of the fertilizer guano, irrigation canals, and terraced farms. Using these sophisticated methods, they were able to generate a surplus of food that was stored in granaries and distributed among the people of the Four Quarters.Beginning in the 13th century, the Inca spread outward from Cuzco and began incorporating neighboring civilizations. To maintain order, the Incas used a policy of forced resettlement known as mitma to consolidate and control new territories that fell under their control. The system involved moving groups of previously defeated peoples to areas that had been freshly conquered. The system of mitma helped to reinforce the Inca dominance over the areas they controlled and ensured an unprecedented level of social cohesion and stability across the Incas domain.Antisuyu: The Northeastern QuarterThe Inca Settlement of Machu Picchu. Source: Peru TravelIn contrast to Cusco, the region of Antisuyu was one of the most sparsely populated and underdeveloped regions of the Inca Empire. Spanning from the slopes of the Andes mountains down to the Amazon basin, the geography of Antisuyu was made of highland plateaus, mountain valleys, and thick rainforests. Due to the challenges of this topography, the Inca were unable to exercise the same level of power and influence over their Northwestern quarter as they were over Chinchaysuyu.However, the wealth of natural resources that this region offered the Incas made it essential to the Empire. To access valuable commodities such as medicinal plants, exotic animals, rubber, and coca, the Incas set up a complex network of trade roads. Due to the unique geographical challenges the region presented, the Inca administered Antisuyu in its own way. Instead of imposing their will directly on the region, the Inca established and maintained trading partnerships with several local tribes, incorporating them into their economy through a system of tribute and commerce.Collasuyu: The Southeastern QuarterCopacabana on the Shores of Lake Titicaca, 2021, EEJCC. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCollasuyu was the second-largest quarter of the Empire and spanned from the frigid highlands of modern-day Bolivia down to the vast Lake Titicaca. Characterized by its severe climate, the region of Collasuyu presented the Incas with a unique challenge, one they overcame with ingenious adaptation and ingenuity to ultimately make the Southeastern Quarter one of the most important in the Empire.While the climate of the Collasuyu was sometimes harsh, it did provide the Inca with vast areas for the grazing of llamas and alpacas, which provided the Empire with essential fibers, food, and transportation. In addition, the Inca also managed to cultivate tuber crops in the high-altitude basins of the Collasuyu, such as potatoes and oca. To combat the relatively harsh winters in the Southeastern Quarter the Inca made use of a unique freeze-drying process to preserve meat and vegetables. This approach allowed the Inca to thrive in Collasuyu while harsh winter weather prevented the growing of certain crops.Collasuyu was home to the legendary Lake Titicaca, a sacred site in Incan culture and revered as the spiritual origin of the Inca people; as a result, the region held great cultural and religious significance for the Empire. According to Inca legends, the first leaders of the Inca emerged from the waters of Lake Titicaca and made their way to Cusco, where the kingdom was founded. In addition, Collasuyu also provided the Inca with the essential resources of copper and tin, which were vital for the creation of tools and implements.Contisuyu: The Southwestern QuarterIce Crystals in The Atacama Desert, 2015. Source: European Southern ObservatoryThe last of the four quarters, Contisuyu, proved the greatest challenge to the Inca Empire, and in prevailing over the regions difficulties, they were able to demonstrate their innate ability to adapt and overcome changing climate and environmental conditions. Contisuyu stretched from the fertile valleys of the Andean highlands down to the inhospitable Atacama Desert and arid coastal plains. Despite the challenges it presented, the resources of the Southwestern Quarter were essential to the prosperity and stability of the Inca Empire.The coastal areas of the Southwestern Quarter provided the Inca Empire with vast supplies of fish, and its seabird colonies were a vital source of guano that was used as a fertilizer for farms across the four quarters. The Incas developed an intricate network of irrigation canals that distributed fresh water to the coastal valley settlements, where crops such as maize, beans, and cotton were cultivated.Contisuyu served as an extensive demonstration of the Incas capacity for resource management and administration. The Inca answered the need for adaptation methods due to the landscapes diversity with magnificent irrigation networks, road systems, and fortifications, all of which contributed to Tawantinsuyus cohesion and prosperity.The Administrative Framework of the Inca EmpireAn original Inca quipu, Peru, 1300-1532 CE. Source: Museo Larco, Pueblo Libre, PeruIn spite of its vast territory and diverse demographics, the Inca Empire grew rapidly and flourished from the thirteenth century onwards. One of the key reasons for this growth lay in the sophisticated centralized administration that originated in Cusco and spread out across the four quarters. The head of government was the absolute monarch, the Sapa Inca or one true Inca. The Sapa Inca was respected not only as the head of state but also as a divine religious figure, which further strengthened their influence over the four quarters.In addition, each quarter or suyu was further managed by a regional governor known as an Apu, who was often closely related to the Sapa Inca. Beneath the Apu, several lower-level officials governed the individual provinces of each quarter and ensured that the will of the Sapa Inca was carried out.Remarkably, the Inca governed the four quarters without a written language; instead, information was recorded using knotted strings known as quipu which could be used to convey a variety of messages. The quipu allowed the Inca to carry out the complex tasks of the Empire building such as recording tributes, tracking census information, and monitoring labor.To keep their empire running, the Inca practiced a system of mandatory service known as mita, which was essentially a way of giving tribute to the Sapa Inca in the form of labor. Under this system, citizens of the empire were mandated to provide their labor in a variety of ways, from performing agricultural work to building road networks and colossal structures like the settlement of Machu Picchu.Cultural and Religious IntegrationA Modern Day Sun Festival or Inti Raymi Ceremony, 2017. Source: Kanoo ToursCulture and religion played a vital role in uniting the Inca kingdom. The Sapa Inca was seen as the earthly manifestation of the Sun God Inti, whose worship was the official state religion. By endorsing this all-encompassing deity, the Incas created a shared religious identity that bridged the diverse cultures of the Four Quarters.The worship of local deities and practice of religious rites were tolerated under Incan rule; however, religious festivals such as Inti Raymi were used to reaffirm the authority and divinity of the Sapa Inca. While preserving regional customs, the empires policy of religious tolerance allowed various civilizations to assimilate into the Empire. Additionally, the Incas introduced linguistic standardization measures. For example, to facilitate effective communication and governance of the Empire, the Incas administration language, Quechua, was used throughout its territories.The Legacy of TawantinsuyuA Preserved Bowl From The Inca Period, 1400-1535 CE. Source: The METDespite the Spanish conquistadors overthrow of the Inca Empire in the sixteenth century, its influence can still be felt today. There is no doubt that Tawantinsuyu has left behind a profound and enduring legacy. The rich cultural heritage, architectural wonders, and sophisticated agricultural practices of the Inca have fascinated historians, archaeologists, and travelers from all over the world.Inca sites like Machu Picchu serve as reminders of the Incas mastery of architecture and peaceful coexistence with nature. Technologically advanced, highly environmentally conscious cultures have terraced fields, elaborate masonry, and complex water management systems. Many aspects of Incan culture, such as language, customs, and agricultural methods, have been preserved by the Quechua and Aymara people, who are descendants of the Inca. They stand as living testaments to the once-prosperous Andean civilization.In studying the Inca Empire, researchers have revealed that Tawantinsuyu was more than just a political entity. The accomplishments of this empire included fusing several cultural traditions, governing large swaths of territory with highly developed administrative methods, and producing enduring contributions to human knowledge and culture.

Embark on a hike through the historic village of Old Khndzoresk in Armenia, perched on the steep slopes of a breathtaking gorge. This remarkable site, fully inhabited during the 17th and 18th centuries with a population of over 8,000, offers a unique exploration of both natural and manmade caves. Until 1958, the village thrived with homes, schools, cheese factories, churches, and even a lively bar where villagers would gather in the evenings.The History of Old KhndzoreskA small cave in the old Khndzoresk area which would have once been inhabited, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Old Khndzoresk, a cave village in Armenia, is a place steeped in mystery and history. Though its exact founding date remains unclear, the first written mention dates back to the 13th century, with archaeological evidence suggesting the caves have been inhabited for over 1,000 years. The villages unique architecture features caves stacked atop one another, forming a complex network where one persons floor served as anothers roof.Rising up to 25 meters (82 feet), these caves provided a natural defense against threats. In its prime, Old Khndzoresk was a bustling community. By 1913, the three-kilometre-long settlement was divided into nine districts, home to roughly 1,800 cave dwellings, 27 shops, and seven schools.The remains of the caves in Old Khndzoresk, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Unfortunately, the residents of Old Khndzoresk faced a variety of threats, both natural and human-made, which influenced their decision to live in the fortified caves. These included:Invasions and Military Conflicts: One of the most significant threats came from invading forces, particularly during the Ottoman Empires expansion. The caves provided a natural fortress, protecting the villagers from attacks and invasions.Natural Disasters: Earthquakes were a significant danger in the region, as evidenced by the devastating earthquake in 1930 that caused substantial damage to the village. Living in caves offered some protection, but the threat of cave-ins or rockslides remained a constant concern.Banditry and Local Conflicts: The regions remote and rugged terrain made it susceptible to bandit raids. The elevation and structure of the caves provided a strategic advantage, allowing villagers to defend themselves more effectively against such threats.Wild Animals: In earlier centuries, wild animals posed a danger to the villagers. The caves, often high up and difficult to access, provided safety from predators.Harsh Weather: The caves offered shelter from the elements, protecting residents from extreme weather conditions like cold winters, heavy rains, and harsh winds.Although the cave village protected its citizens for hundreds of years, tragedy struck in 1930 when a powerful earthquake hit the region, causing significant damage to the village. The earthquake further highlighted the precariousness of life in the caves, contributing to the Soviet governments decision in the 1950s to relocate the residents.By 1974, the last family had left the caves. Despite its abandonment, Old Khndzoresk stands as a testament to the resilience and ingenuity of its former inhabitants, echoing stories of survival, conflict, and community.Myths and LegendsMkhitar Sparapets tomb. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOld Khndzoresk, with its ancient caves and dramatic landscapes, is steeped in myths and legends that add to its allure. Here are some of the most intriguing stories associated with this historic village:1. The Legend of Mkhitar SparapetOne of the most famous legends associated with Old Khndzoresk involves Mkhitar Sparapet, a revered Armenian military commander. According to the legend, in 1730, Mkhitar Sparapet took refuge in Old Khndzoresk while fleeing from Ottoman forces. Fearing that his presence would lead to an Ottoman attack on the village, the locals reportedly killed him to protect themselves. This story is significant in Armenian history and is reflected in the stone tomb of Mkhitar Sparapet located near the village.2. The Caves as Refuge for RebelsAnother popular legend suggests that during various historical conflicts, Old Khndzoresk served as a hidden refuge for rebels and outlaws. The complex network of caves and the villages strategic location made it an ideal stronghold for those fleeing from authorities or enemies. The caves natural defenses and the villages remote location provided a perfect sanctuary for those seeking safety from pursuit. The different revolutionary groups included the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), the Armenian National Congress (ANC), and the Armenakan Party.3. The Enchanted CavesLocal folklore often describes the caves of Old Khndzoresk as enchanted or mystical. Some stories speak of hidden treasures or magical artifacts concealed within the caves, left behind by ancient inhabitants or by supernatural beings. These legends have fueled local curiosity and added an air of mystery to the already intriguing site.Old Khndzoresk, photograph from 1920s. Source: Armgeo.am4. The Ghosts of Old KhndzoreskLike many ancient sites, Old Khndzoresk is said to be haunted by the spirits of its former inhabitants. Stories of ghostly apparitions and strange noises echo through the caves, especially in the quiet of the night. These tales are often passed down through generations, adding a supernatural layer to the historical narrative of the village. One particular story involves a ghostly figure that is said to appear near the entrance of a prominent cave during certain times of the year, particularly around dusk. This apparition is believed to be the spirit of a former resident or a victim of historical conflicts who perished in the village.5. The Secret TunnelsSome legends speak of secret tunnels hidden within the cave network, supposedly leading to distant places or other ancient sites. These tunnels are said to have been used for escape or secret meetings during times of conflict. While there is no concrete evidence of these tunnels, they continue to be a fascinating part of local lore.These myths and legends enhance the rich tapestry of Old Khndzoresks history, making it not just a place of historical significance but also a site of enduring fascination and intrigue.Exploring the Cave City of Old KhndzoreskArriving at Khndzoresk via suspension bridge, photograph by Ashley White, 2022The most convenient way to reach Old Khndzoresk is by car. From Yerevan, the drive is approximately 250 kilometers (about 155 miles) and takes around four to five hours along some winding and bumpy roads, but there are many beautiful stops along the way. Some of the highlights along the route are Arenis wine country, Noravank Monastery, and the Tatev Monastery and therefore turning the journey into a three or four-day trip will only enhance the visit even more.Once you arrive in the village of Khndzoresk, youll need to cross a suspension bridge that spans the gorge to reach the Old Khndzoresk cave village. The bridge itself is an attraction, offering stunning views of the gorge and surrounding landscape, even if it is a little bit terrifying to cross! It was only erected in 2012, offering easy access between the old and the new parts of the town and therefore opening the world up to the opportunity to visit this fascinating place.After crossing the bridge, a short hike down into the gorge will bring you to the cave village. The trails are well-marked.Good shoes, terrifying bridge! Photograph by Ashley White, 2022You can, of course, join a guided tour from Yerevan or Goris and these tours often include transportation, a guide, and visits to other nearby attractions, but I always prefer to explore these gems alone!So, Why Visit Old Khndzoresk?Crossing the suspension bridge over the gorge on the way to Khndzoresk, photograph by Ashley White, 2022The journey through Armenias countryside is epic and scenic, with views of rolling hills and rugged terrain, setting the stage for an incredible historical site to explore.The adventure begins with crossing a suspension bridge that sways slightly over the gorge, offering breathtaking views of the cliffs and the network of caves carved into them. The bridge provides an excellent opportunity for photos and a chance to take in the panoramic scenery. Once youve crossed, youll start your descent into Old Khndzoresk. The path down is steep and uneven, so wearing sturdy, comfortable hiking footwear is essential.As you explore the caves, youll notice the unique architectural layout, with some caves reaching up to 25 meters (82 feet) in height and stacked on top of each other. The narrow pathways and makeshift ladders connecting the caves reveal the ingenuity of the villages design. Look for remnants of past life here, such as stone walls, wooden beams, and old doors, which offer a glimpse into how the village was once inhabited.Although the caves are incredibly interesting, the surrounding scenery is equally as beautiful and impressive. The area might remind you of the fairy chimneys of Turkeys Cappadocia, but with way fewer tourists and commercialism. It is possible to walk around the area for hours and simply get lost in the caves, nature, and history.Another significant highlight of your visit is the stone tomb of Mkhitar Sparapet, the prominent Armenian military leader who was killed here in 1730. His tomb is a poignant reminder of the historical events associated with Old Khndzoresk and provides a moment of reflection on the villages past.Hiking trail at Khndzoresk, Armenia, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Overall, a visit to Old Khndzoresk offers an unforgettable glimpse into Armenias rich heritage. Whether youre navigating the cave complex, enjoying the views from the suspension bridge, or reflecting at Mkhitar Sparapets tomb, the site provides a unique and enriching experience for anyone wanting to add this stop to their Armenian road trip itinerary!