During the Crusades, warriors devoted themselves to protecting the Holy Land from attack, dedicating themselves to God, the Church, and their mission. Several orders of devout knights emerged, the most famous of which was the Knights Templar, but another well-known order was the Knights Hospitallers. They had one of the longest and most eventful tenures of any militant holy order. Starting as a small group of caretakers for sick pilgrims, they grew into one of the most powerful organizations in Christendom. Their centuries of service have left a lasting impact on history.Humble OriginsSaint Gerard, founder of the Hospitallers, from a fresco in the Chapel of the Grand Magistry in the Via Condotti in Rome. Source: Knights of MaltaThe Hospitallers have a long history, beginning even before the European leaders considered the idea of a crusade to retake the Holy Land. In 1080, perhaps even earlier, a group of merchants from Amalfi, Italy, began tending to the sick and injured at a hospital in Jerusalem. They would soon be organized under the Benedictine order of monks. After the First Crusade successfully captured Jerusalem in 1099, the burgeoning order intensified its work. They set up hospitals in Italy and Southern France, seeing to it the needs of pilgrims moving to and from the Holy Land. Though their main concern was Christian travelers, they would also tend to non-Christians.In 1113, this informal order was granted official status by Pope Paschal II. Its first leader, the Blessed Gerard, was named the first master, and its members were officially recognized as monks. During the rule of his successor, Raymond de Puy, the monks became more militant. In addition to providing medical attention and shelter for traveling pilgrims, the order began to hire mercenaries, knights, and other fighting men to protect the travelers from attack while on the road. Eventually, these warriors would become monks themselves, a transition that was possibly inspired by another order of warrior monks, the Knights Templar.The orders main base of operation was the hospital in Jerusalem, a large facility that could treat over 1,000 patients at a time. It was divided into mens and womens wings. The order took its name from this location, being officially named the Knights of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem. This long name would be shortened to the Hospitallers, though they have also been known as the Knights of St. John, especially after Jerusalem was captured by Saladin in 1187 and they lost access to the hospital. Originally, they were named after St. John the Almsgiver, a 7th-century patriarch, though this was changed to the more well-known St. John the Baptist.The Militant Orders OrganizationLead seal of the Hospitallers, found in England, 13th Century. Source: British MuseumLike their brother organization, the Templars, the Hospitallers were a group of warrior monks. The group was structured using a combination of the monastic Benedictine and military hierarchies. At the head of the Hospitallers was their supreme leader, the Grand Master, who held this position for life. Directly under him was the Grand Commander, followed by the Master of the Hospital, who oversaw the day-to-day operations of the organization.The bulk of the order was broken down into three broad sections. The most prominent were the brother knights. These men were of noble birth and, according to the medieval tradition, had been trained in the knightly arts of horseback riding and armed combat, both mounted and unmounted. These were the core of the Hospitallers, who the rest of the organization supported. Under them were the men-at-arms or serving brethren. These were commoners who did not have the same training as the knights, but they supported the knights in battle by acting as infantry. They would also act as blacksmiths, farriers, and general laborers who kept the order running. The third group was the clergy, who did not fight but oversaw the spiritual needs of the men, conducting religious services and fulfilling the Hospitallers original mission of caring for the sick and injured.The Hospitallers were a monastic order, and the men who joined took vows of chastity, obedience, and poverty, vows which lasted for life. Once they joined, the members voluntarily subjected themselves to a lifetime of service to the Church as monks under the Benedictine rule, with some modifications to support their militant mission, such as prayers being replaced by military training. Though they expanded in size and influence, manpower was always in short supply, and the Hospitallers employed temporary members. These lay members did not take the vows of the full professed knights and did not have the same privileges within the order as full members.The Hospitallers were cloaked in their own unique heraldry, a white eight-pointed cross or Latin cross on a black background. However, in the mid-13th century, this was changed to a red background, though the traditional black was still used occasionally.Hospitallers in the Holy LandKrak de Chevaliers, Syria. Source: UNESCOThroughout the 12th century, the Hospitallers grew in size and influence, acquiring lands and territories in the Holy Land and Europe, which enabled them to continue their operations. With this vast network of holdings, recruits and wealth poured into the order, enabling them to expand their work. In addition to their hospitals and hostels to care for traveling pilgrims, the Hospitallers also acquired castles and fortifications, which emphasized their role as a fighting force. In 1144, they gained control over the strategically vital Krak de Chevaliers, granted to them by the Count of Tripoli. In total, about two dozen castles and fortresses were controlled by the Hospitallers in the Middle East, located mostly along trade routes and at seaports.During the height of the crusades, the Hospitallers, along with their brother organization, the Knights Templar, were a formidable force. They plagued Saracen armies so much that the Muslim leader Saladin placed a bounty on them. They played a key role in several battles in the late 12th century, including the Battle of Hattin and the Siege of Jerusalem. After the fall of Jerusalem in 1187, the headquarters of the order was moved to Acre. However, out of respect for their work treating the sick, Saladin granted them a year to move the patients and infrastructure from the captured city.The Hospitallers played a pivotal role in the Third Crusade, especially at the Battle of Arsuf. The Hospitallers made up the rear guard of the crusading army, which was continuously harassed by the Saracens. Frustrated by these repeated attacks, the Hospitallers launched a countercharge, followed by a general attack ordered by Richard the Lionheart. This battle was the only major field battle of the Third Crusade. They then participated in the capture of the city of Jaffa.In spite of this success, Jerusalem was never recaptured, and the Hospitallers set to work providing protection and medical aid to the remaining Crusader holdings in the Holy Land. In 1271, the stronghold of Krak de Chevaliers fell to the Mamluks, marking the beginning of the end for their presence in the region. When the last Crusader stronghold of Acre fell in 1291, the Hospitallers aided in the final defense of the city and are credited with helping large numbers of refugees escape. Lacking any foothold in the Holy Land, they relocated to the island of Cyprus. When Cyprus proved unsuitable for their operations, they then shifted their sights to the island of Rhodes.The Knights of RhodesThe Blessed Gerard Tending to the Sick, by Mattia Preti, c. 1680. Source: St. Johns Co-CathedralUnfortunately for the Hospitallers, the island of Rhodes was controlled by the Byzantine Empire. In 1306, they began the conquest of the island, fighting against the Byzantines. They wrestled control of Rhodes and many other islands away from the Empire in 1309. From these bases of operation, the newly named Knights of Rhodes, or the Knights of St. John, shifted into a primarily naval force, battling Muslim pirates and naval forces. Around the same time, the Templars were dissolved, and many of their holdings were transferred to the Knights of St. John.While on Rhodes, the Knights of St. John became an independent political entity, free from any other state, ruling the island as they saw fit. They set up their own administration and infrastructure, even minting their own coins, and the Catholic knights ruled over the primarily Orthodox population. Keeping with their original mission, they also set up hospitals in their new lands, tending to the sick and injured, and built churches and monasteries. Though they did concern themselves with civil matters, they were a militant order. Combat was still their primary mission. The next century saw the Knights of St. John holding their ground against continual Muslim expansion, particularly the Ottoman Empire and the Barbary corsairs.From their base on Rhodes, they continually attacked Ottoman naval forces, acting as an anti-pirate force in the eastern Mediterranean. They also provided direct assistance to the Byzantines in their campaigns against the Ottomans on at least one occasion and launched multiple raids against targets along the North African coast. Their stubborn resistance left Rhodes and the other areas under their control as Christian bastions in an increasingly Ottoman Aegean Sea. By the mid-1400s, the Knights of St. John had a strength of over 450 knights and 2,000 other members. They held out against repeated attacks. The Ottomans struggled to remove the order, attacking Rhodes several times, first in 1455 and again in 1480. They were repelled both times. It would not be until 1522 when the knights were finally dislodged from Rhodes.The Knights of MaltaPortrait of a knight, probably Fra. Jacopo Salviati, attributed to Mirabello Cavalori, 1566. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtAfter a brief time in Sicily, the order then found itself in possession of the island of Malta, being given the island by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. They were, for all practical purposes, an independent entity, though they were forced to pay the emperor a fee of a falcon every year on All Saints day. With this new land now under their control, the Knights of St. John once again set to work overseeing the administration and infrastructure of the island. Once again, they set up hospitals for the sick and created fortifications to protect against attack, as well as churches and chapels throughout the archipelago.From this new location, the knights once again built up a fleet, attacking Ottoman and Barbary naval forces in the Mediterranean Sea. History repeated itself as the Ottomans tried to dislodge the knights from their island stronghold but failed to do so after a disastrous siege in 1565. In 1571, Ottoman naval power was broken at the Battle of Lepanto, in which a combined fleet of many Christian nations, including the Knights of St. John, won a decisive naval battle. Shortly after, the knights built their magnificent capitol at Valetta, named after the orders grand master, Jean Parisot de la Valette.The Battle of Lepanto, by unknown artist, c. late 16th century. Source: Royal Museums GreenwichAs the 16th century wore on, they continued their mission of combating Islamic expansion and piracy in the Mediterranean, though they gradually began to lose their power and influence. The fervor that inspired their creation during the Crusades had faded, and much of Europe was more concerned with internal affairs, such as the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Recruits and donations that had helped sustain the order diminished to a trickle.While the Knights of St John continued to exist into the 18th century, it was clear that their organization was an outdated relic of a bygone age. They became less and less involved in military affairs, concerning themselves with the governance of Malta, until that was conquered by Napoleon in 1798. Though they lost control of the island, they continued to exist. The remnants of the once proud order established themselves in Rome, where it still exists today as a humanitarian organization devoted to international charity work, the reason for its founding in the 11th century.

The Musket Wars, which occurred from the early 1800s to the 1840s, brought about a significant transformation in Mori society and warfare. This four-decades-long conflict was characterized by the widespread use of muskets, which had been introduced (both willingly and unwillingly) by European traders.Violence raged across the South and North Islands, including archipelagos such as the Chatham Islands. It affected civilians and warriors alike. After 40 years of conflict, the power dynamics among Mori tribes had been permanently altered. Tribal borders were redefined, and entire tribes were devastated. Some groups, such as the Moriori, were almost wiped out.Muskets and LandMembers of the Ngti Koata, Ngti Toa, and Ngti Kuia tribes, 1916. Source: Nelson Provincial MuseumThe years between 1807 and 1840 were marked by extensive inter-tribal warfare. For the first decade, that is, between 1807 and 1818, Mori warriors relied mainly on traditional weapons, such as stone or wood tools, as well as hand-to-hand combats. In 1821, however, Chief Hongi Hika of the Ngpuhi tribe (the Mori term for tribe is iwi) returned from Sydney with over 300 muskets.Muskets, long-barrelled muzzle-loaded shoulder firearms, could fire lead balls at what was back then a considerable distance, physically removing killers from their victims and increasing the surprise element.The bloodiest tribal battles took place between 1818 and 1840, although intertribal warfare involving muskets continued, to a lesser degree, after 1840. In most colonial countries, warfare was primarily caused by land issues, land ownership, land management, and land theft. This was true for Aotearoa (New Zealand) too.Flintlock muskets made of walnut wood. Source: Royal Museums GreenwichIn her A Concise History of New Zealand, historian Philippa Mein Smith writes that the musket wars, as they became known, could just as well be called land wars because so much territory changed hands in their wake. However, the Musket Wars were as much about manathe typical Mori concept of prestige, political status, and honoras they were about land.Inter-tribal conflicts were not new in Mori society, but the Musket Wars represented a catastrophe. Battles and outbursts of violence raged across the entirety of Aotearoa/New Zealand, from the South Island to the North Island. In a way, despite being fought primarily among Mori tribes, the Musket Wars were a colonial product, triggered and fueled by new colonial dynamics. The European newcomers, the Pkeh, had recently destabilized Mori society.The (Mori) Man Who Introduced Muskets to the MoriChiefs Waikato and Hongi Hika with missionary Thomas Kendall in England, by James Barry, 1820. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThree warrior chiefs emerged during the Musket Wars. One was Te Wherowhero (1770-1860) of the Waikato iwi (tribe), based in the western central region of the North Island. He took the name Ptatau after becoming the first Mori king in 1858. Te Rauparaha (1768-1849), the other important warlord during the Musket Wars, was chief of the Ngti Toa tribe. He was a descendant of Hoturoa of the Tainui waka (canoe) who, according to Mori tradition, had arrived from Polynesia to the North Island around 1400.The most important figure of the Musket Wars was, however, Hongi Hika (1772-1828), rangatira (chief) of the Ngpuhi people. His tribe occupied the Northland regions of the North Island, including the Bay of Islands (named by Captain Cook in 1769 and the first area in New Zealand to be permanently settled by Europeans), the Hokianga region, and Whangrei.Mori men and women performing haka, the traditional Mori war dance, painting by Joseph Jenner Merrett, 1845. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSome historians note that the Musket Wars would have happened regardless of European presence on the South and North Islands. While this might be true, the availability of European technology made the conflict bloodier and possibly more prolonged. Hongi Hika was instrumental in this. Before his 1821 journey to Sydney, his tribe already possessed (and knew how to use) muskets, but the incredible number of musketsat least 300that Hongi Hika brought from mainland Australia marked a turning point in Mori history.During his 1820 journey to England, Hongi Hika was also gifted a suit of armor, which he used during his campaigns to demoralize his enemies. Over the next few years, Hongi Hika and his warriors led one successful attack after the other. They attacked the Ngti Maru and Waikato tribes in 1822, then the Te Arawa on Mokoia Island in Lake Rotorua in 1823, and finally the Ngti Whtua at Kaipara.A Mori p (village), 1880s. Source: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa TongarewaThey defeated all of them. Captives were put to work on potato crops. Hongi Hika eventually died of the same firepower that had sealed his success his mana. In 1827 he was shot during a battle in northern Hokianga. He passed from his bullet wound on March 3, 1828, at Whangaroa, in the northern part of the North Island, and his bones were buried in a secret location.Without their leader, the Ngpuhi lost most of their power. By the early 1830s, they were no longer a force to be reckoned with. The widespread use of muskets had already triggered a massive redistribution of population, especially in the North Island.What Are the Three Phases of the Musket Wars?Death of Tempsky, painting by Kennett Watkins, 1868. Source: National Army Museum Te Mata ToaScholars divide the Musket Wars into three phases, with each phase dominated by the evolving relationship between warriors and muskets and the increased availability of muskets. During the first phase, muskets were limited in number, old, and of poor quality. Mori warriors were also inexperienced in the use of muskets. Muskets-owning tribes were feared by their enemies, but the actual impact of muskets in warfare was limited. Warfare usually took place in the summer months to not impact the growing of kumara, the sweet potato introduced by the Europeans which Mori people often traded or sold in exchange for muskets.Some historians believe that the Musket Wars were triggered by the kidnapping (and subsequent killing) of high-ranking Ngpuhi women by a group of escaped convicts from Van Diemens Land, present-day Tasmania. The women were closely related to Chief Hongi Hika and his kin and ally, Te Morenga (1760-1834).Taranaki, home to the Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama tribes, in the North Island, photograph by Yoann Laheurte, 2019. Source: UnsplashWar began in the northern regions of the North Island and soon spread to the rest of Aotearoa/New Zealand, to the South Island as well as to the Chatham Islands, an archipelago east of South Island inhabited by the Moriori.The second phase began around 1821 when Hongi Hika returned from Sydney with his 300 muskets. The Ngpuhi quickly became the most powerful, well-equipped, and feared tribe in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Other tribes left the region of present-day Auckland, fearing raids from the Ngpuhi.In 1822, Hongi Hika and his men launched a massive attack against the Waikato-Tainui tribe, the tangata whenua, that is, the people of the land, of the Waikato region, in the northern part of North Island. The arms race had begun. In 1824, Te Pehi Kupe (1795-1828), leader of the Ngti Toa tribe (and uncle of feared leader Te Rauparaha), understood they needed more muskets.Mori Girl Learning the haka, by Gottfried Lindauer, 1907. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHe traveled first to England, then to Sydney, where he traded the gifts he had received and amassed in Europe, for muskets. His tribe was now ready to invade the South Island. During this phase, muskets continued to be extremely expensive.In the summer of 1827-1828, Te Rauparaha invaded the South Island. Their occupation and warfare lasted six years. The bloodshed was immense. Traditional weapons could do nothing against the force of the muskets. By 1827, the Ngpuhi and the Waikato tribes had the same amount of muskets.Many Mori p (traditional villages) became known as gunfighters or musket p, that is, villages designed for musket fighting, reinforced with stockades, firing parapets, angling slopes, and trenches, to better protect against the power of muskets. The final phase of the Musket Wars saw Mori warriors become experts in the use of muskets. Women typically helped them reload.European InterventionSouth Sea Whalers Boiling Blubber/Boats Preparing to get a Whale Alongside, by Sir Oswald Walters Brierly, 1876. Source: Hudson River Maritime MuseumWhile inter-tribal fighting was widespread among the Mori long before the coming of the Europeans, British captains, sailors, and whalers took advantage of it for economic reasons. In at least two (reported) instances, the violence of the Musket Wars was heightened by the presence of the Europeans.In 1830, Ngti Toa leader Te Rauparaha sought the assistance of Captain William Stewart (1776-1851) to restore his authority over southern tribes. He wanted to avenge the killing (and eating) of several Ngti Toa chiefs, including Te Pehi Kupe, that had occurred in 1829. The one responsible was Te Maiharanui (also known as Tama-i-hara-nui), chief and hereditary spiritual leader of the Ngti Rakimoa, an important hap of the Ngi Tahu tribe.Mori carvings, 1880s, Pulman & Son. Source: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa TongarewaCaptain Stewart agreed to help in exchange for 50 tons of dressed flax. On October 29, 1830, Te Rauparahas warriors left Kapiti Island aboard Stewarts ship. When the Elizabeth finally anchored in Akaroa Harbour, Stewart contacted Te Maiharanui and convinced him to come aboard with the promise of trading guns for flax. Te Maiharanui met with him, followed by his wife and daughter.As soon as he stepped into the captains cabin, Te Rauparahas warriors seized him and handcuffed him. They went ashore and killed many of the Mori men and women living in the nearby village (p) of Takapneke. Dozens were enslaved and many women were raped. Te Maiharanui died a slow, painful death, tortured, according to some accounts, by the widows of the Ngti Toa chiefs killed at Kaiapoi.Chatham Islands, photograph by Mark Thompson, 2020. Source: UnsplashStewart was put on trial in Sydney as an accomplice to murder but escaped justice because there were no witnesses. In 1830s New Zealand, Mori men and women did not count as witnesses, because they were deemed too savage.The Europeans involvement in the second instance was completely involuntary. In 1835, two tribes from Taranaki, in the west of North Island, the Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama, migrated to Wellington, where they seized a brig and kidnapped its captain.With the newly acquired ship, they invaded the Chatham Islands, known among the Mori as Wharekauri. Its inhabitants, the Moriori, called them Rkohu, which translates as Misty Sun. The Moriori were a splinter group of the Mori and had inhabited the Chathams since the 1500s. They were mainly sedentary hunter-gatherers, who lived in a peaceful, non-violent society, drastically opposed to that of the Mori.The last Moriori woman, front row, second from left, photograph by E. Cornford, 1900. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen they formed a peace council to discuss the arrival of the 900 Mori invaders, the Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama mistook it for a war council. The Mori launched an indiscriminate attack on the Moriori and nearly exterminated them. According to Philippa Mein Smith, the Moriori population numbered 1660 in 1835, and 101 by 1862. Hundreds of men and women were enslaved. Up until 1863 when slavery was abolished, Mori kept Moriori slaves and forced Moriori women to have children with their Mori masters.After the Musket WarsMori family in front of their p in Masterton, photograph by James Bragge, 1875. Source: Te Papa Tongarewa Museum of New ZealandThe Musket Wars had a profound impact on Mori society, affecting the entire population, warriors and civilians alike. Although the actual number of casualties is impossible to determine, historians estimate that around 20,000 people died over the course of four decades, with some groups, like the Moriori, nearly exterminated.Large areas, even entire districts across the North and South Islands, were depopulated or left sparsely settled as Mori men and women fled their homes and villages, either willingly or unwillingly. The displacement of thousands of people led some Mori tribes to seek assistance from the Europeans. This was seen as an opportunity for the Europeans to acquire the disputed land and the newly free regions, now open for future settlement. While some tribes lost power and prestige, others, such as the Ngpuhi in the North and the Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama from Taranaki, gained mana.Mori girls in their traditional clothes, 1905. Source: Te Papa Tongarewa Museum of New ZealandThe wars caused tribal boundaries to be redrawn. Decimated tribes were forced to intermarry to survive. The end of the Musket Wars is interlinked with the spread of Christianity across Aotearoa/New Zealand. In 1814, Samuel Marsden (1765-1838), a chaplain from New South Wales, established the first mission, known as the Church Missionary Society mission, at the Bay of Islands, under the protection of Hongi Hika, who benefited from the protection and trade opportunities with missionaries and European traders. Missionaries, however, always refused to repair the Moris muskets, let alone trade in them. Thousands of Mori men, women, and children freely converted to Christianity in the 1830s and 1840s.Auckland from Takarunga/Mount Victoria, the highest volcano on the North Shore, photograph by Kirsten Dew, 2017. Source: UnsplashP. M. Smith also notes that the wars had the long-lasting effect of creating a large body of strategists with decades of expertise with guns and the know-how to employ European technology against Europeans, which heavily influenced the wars against colonialists that followed.The Musket Wars revolutionized traditional Mori warfare and society. They also proved the determination of the Mori people to adapt and embrace new, although deadly, technologies. A determination that continues today.

Nestled in the Nazca desert in southern Peru, the group of geoglyphs popularly called the Nazca Lines fascinates history enthusiasts worldwide. Displaying geometric, animal, and humanoid forms, these glyphs stand out among other archaeological finds due to their sophisticated design and the technological skills needed to create them. While the purpose of the lines is not yet completely clear to scholars, the meaning behind these glyphs seems to range from astronomical markers to symbols of life and fertility in the harsh desert environment.The Nazca Lines: What Do They Mean?Aerial view of the Nazca Lines region, 2018. Source: Joseph JancukIn 1940, American historian Paul Kosok was studying the ancient irrigation systems of pre-Columbian Peruvian societies when he came to an unexpected conclusion: the glyph he was studying had the shape of a bird. Upon closer examination, Kosok came across another intriguing aspect: its lines converged on the horizon at the southern hemispheres winter solstice.Kosok is credited as the first scholar to deeply study the Nazca lines. His work opened the doors for other researchers, including historians, archaeologists, and mathematicians, who have been deeply engaged in analyzing their peculiar shapes and intriguing symbolism ever since. Although understanding their purpose is a challenging task, recent conclusions point toward the use of the lines as astronomical markers intended to mark the position of the sun and other celestial bodies on significant dates.But the meaning of some of the most peculiar shapes is still debatable. Whether the glyphs displayed particular astronomical alignments or represented figures of ceremonial or religious importance, the lines offer clues to the Nazca peoples complex worldview, reflecting the relationship between their civilization and the environment. Often displaying animals that are not typical of the desert environment, the lines potentially hint at the connection of the Nazca people with other surrounding civilizations. Or perhaps there is a symbolic meaning to the animal and humanoid figures drawn in the sand.1. The SpiderAerial photograph of The Spider geoglyph, Paul Williams, 2008. Source: FlickrThe Spider geoglyph measures about 46 meters (151 feet) in length and displays an impressively precise design and almost perfect symmetry. A constant distance is maintained between its concentric lines, connecting to form a web-like pattern and hinting at the impressive technical, mathematical, and geometric skills of the ancient Nazca people.The meaning of the glyph is still debated. The spider was often associated with fertility and water in ancient Andean cultures, as they are often seen near rivers and water sources. In an arid environment such as the Nazca desert, the representation of this symbol could have been created as a way to attract fertility to the harsh landscape.Astronomer Phyllis Pitluga discovered through a series of computer-aided studies of star alignments that the Spider is a perfect anamorphic diagram of the constellation Orion. The straight lines of the figure seem to follow the changing declination of the stars in Orions Belt, meaning that the glyph could have been used as an astronomical marker.2. The TreeAerial photograph of the Tree geoglyph, by Diego Celso, 2015. Source: WikidataThe Tree geoglyph stands out due to its relatively simple but powerful form, possibly representing themes such as life, growth, or the connection between earth and sky. It is considered by some researchers one of the most visually captivating and symbolically intriguing Nazca lines.Trees, though scarce in the desert region, are found in cultures worldwide as a symbol of vitality and natures cycles. In the arid Nazca environment, the Tree may have symbolized the hope for rainfall or been a representation of the underground aquifers that were critical for surviving in the desert. It is a connection between the spiritual and physical world, representing the ideas of life itself, growth, and regeneration.3. The AstronautAerial photograph of The Astronaut geoglyph, by PsmatheM, 2019. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Astronaut geoglyph is one of the most enigmatic and controversial figures among the Nazca lines. Unlike many of the other animal and geometric designs, this glyph features a humanoid figure with a large head, round eyes, and what appears to be an outstretched arm. The name comes from the fact that it resembles a figure wearing a helmet, leading to various theories and interpretations about its origin and meaning, which often rely on pseudo-scientific research.The glyph is about 32 meters (105 feet) long and is carved on the side of a hill. Unlike many of the other lineswhich are best viewed from abovethe Astronaut can be seen from a lower vantage point. Its particular location also makes this glyph unique.Theories on the meaning of the Astronaut range from astronomical interpretations to religious figures. It is thought to represent a shaman or priest who is capable of acting as an intermediary between humans and the divine and connect with the spiritual world. This would explain the Astronauts apparent otherwordly aspect.4. The DogAerial photograph of The Dog geoglyph. Source: SA VacationsWith straight and parallel legs, wide-open mouth, and upright ears and tail, the Dog glyph is one of the lesser-known figures among the Nazca lineswhich does not make it less intriguing. About 50 meters (164 feet) long, the glyph is one of the smallest of the lines, but its form is immediately recognizable.What makes this figure particularly interesting is that, at this time, there was only one native breed of dog in Peru: the Peruvian Hairless dog. As the shape of the Dog glyph is distinctive from this native breed, it necessarily represents either an earlier breedan ancestor of the Peruvian Hairless, for exampleor a dog found among neighboring civilizations. Whether this glyph represents a remembered ancient dog breed or is another indication of the contact between the Nazca people and other societies is still unclear.5. The WhaleAerial photograph of The Whale geoglyph, by Diego Celso, 2015. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe depiction of a marine creature makes the Whale one of Nazcas most unusual designs, in stark contrast with the arid environment. Measuring approximately 65 meters (213 feet) in length, the figure appears to show the distinctive shape of the killer whale (Orca): long body, prominent head, and dorsal fin.Despite being located far from the coast, the Nazca people likely had contact with the ocean through trade routes or travel. Therefore, the placement of this particular design in the desert could symbolize a connection between land and sea. Given the symbolic role that animals played in Nazca rituals, the Whale may have been a sacred figure in ceremonies. It could also potentially represent a mythical creature associated with the gods or part of water-related fertility rites.6. The MonkeyAerial photograph of The Monkey geoglyph, photograph of Festa do Divino, a popular expression of folk Christianism, by Diego Celso, 2015. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKnown for its playful and exaggerated design, the Monkey geoglyph is one of the most iconic Nazca lines. It measures an impressive 90 meters (295 feet) in length, which also makes it one of the largest of the lines. Featuring a peculiarly detailed form with a coiled tail, the Monkey stands out due to its highly stylized body, with exaggerated long arms and wide, playful eyes.Monkeys are not native species of the Nazca desert, but rather common in the tropical rainforests and inland Peruvian jungles. This suggests that the Nazca people were potentially in contact with distant regions, possibly through trade or travel.In some cultures, monkeys are a symbol of mischief and cleverness, which might explain the exaggerated and almost whimsical design of the Monkey geoglyph. In fact, it is a popular belief that the Monkeys playful posture was a representation of lighthearted moments, fun, and laughter.The meaning of its spiral tail is intriguing, as scholars debate whether it could symbolize the movement of celestial bodies such as the sun or the stars. Like other lines, the positioning of the Monkey aligns with important astronomical events like solstices or equinoxes, which were crucial for agricultural planning. In fact, the spiraling pattern is one of the inspirations for Perus official logo, with the spiraling letter P.7. The CondorAerial photograph of The Condor geoglyph, by Paul Williams, 2008. Source: FlickrOne of the largest and most majestic of the Nazca lines is the Condor. Roughly 135 meters (443 feet) in length, this geoglyph depicts a soaring bird with widespread wings and long lines that create the illusion of flight. The impressive details of the Condor make it stand out as one of the most elaborate of the Nazca lines, which again reveals the sophisticated skills of the Nazca people.The condor is a powerful symbol in Andean cultures, recognized for its strength, size, and link to the sky and the spirit world. The flight of the condor can be seen as a symbolic connection between earth and sky, associating it with the sun, the mountains, and the afterlife. In Nazca, the creation of this geoglyph may have been part of rituals related to spiritual journeys or prayers to the gods.In Archaeoastronomical interpretations, the elongation of the condor, as well as the lines on its wings, are suggested to have been tools to track the movement of the sun and stars for agricultural and ceremonial purposes.8. The HummingbirdAerial photograph of the Hummingbird geoglyph, by Diego Delso, 2015. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Hummingbird geoglyph is one of the most iconic and finely detailed designs among the Nazca lines. About 93 meters (305 feet) in length, this geoglyph captures the delicate form of a flying hummingbird, standing out among the hundreds of geoglyphs in the southern Peruvian desert.In many cultures, the hummingbirds incredible speed and agility make it a symbol of vitality and energy. The Nazca people may have chosen to display this animal as a representation of these aspects. As creatures that feed on nectar, these birds are linked to plants and the cycles of growth and renewal, crucial for the arid desert environment. The Hummingbird geoglyph may have been created as part of fertility rituals aimed at ensuring the health of crops and successful harvests.Puzzling Out the Nazca LinesJust a few of the hundreds of new glyphs discovered by researchers using AI. Sakai, M., Sakurai, A., Lu, S., Olano, J., Albrecht, C. M., Hamann, H. F., & Freitag, M. (2024). AI-accelerated Nazca survey nearly doubles the number of known figurative geoglyphs and sheds light on their purpose. Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of SciencesWhether the lines are purely an expression of the Nazca peoples worldview or if they served as star-tracking tools and astronomical markers, one thing is certain: determining the meaning and purpose of these glyphs is a challenging task.As puzzling as they are fascinating, the Nazca lines serve as a reminder of the richness of those who created them. Their complex, often symmetrical designs display the advanced technological sophistication and geometrical skills of the ancient Nazca civilization, and are a must-see for enthusiasts of South American history and archaeology.

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With Borderlands 4 just one month away now, Gearbox lifts the lid on the design of its playable exo-soldier Rafa, revealing that his look ended up being contentious as the team tried to split the difference between expressiveness and looking cool. The former Tediore soldier can stride into the action with dual-wielded arc knives like a Destiny 2 Hunter, obliterate foes from long range with his Apophis Lance, or become a one-man army with the help of automated Peacebreaker Cannons. But just like how he plays, his appearance is also up to you. Continue reading Borderlands 4's exo-soldier Rafa had a "contentious" design, Gearbox revealsMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Borderlands 4 legendary weapons, Borderlands 4 characters, Borderlands 4 system requirements

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