The solar eruptions around May 2024 affected Earth and even our missions on Mars.

There is an urgent need for more proactive public health surveillance and intervention efforts, argue scientists in a new paper.

A new study suggests that the bottom of the icy moons ocean doesnt have what it takes.

Across the United States, from New York to Los Angeles, many cities have unofficial names that are used by residents and non-residents alike. Some of these nicknames are fairly straightforward and have come to define the cities, while others are obscure and rooted in history. What are some of these names, and how did the cities get them?1. Los Angeles: The City of AngelsLos Angeles. Source: GoodFonA fairly uninspired nickname, the City of Angels gets its nickname from the fact that the English translation of the city named by the Spanish is literally The Angels. However, this isnt actually the citys full name.Officially, the city is named El Pueblo de Nuestra Seora la Reina de los ngeles del Ro de Porcincula, which is, for obvious reasons, truncated in modern parlance. The English translation is The Town of Our Lady the Queen of Angels of the Porcincula River.Founded on September 5, 1781, Los Angeles has grown over the centuries to become the second-biggest city in the United States, with a population of almost 13 million people in its metro area.Los Angeles is full of suburbs with their own nicknames, too. Beverly Hills is known as The City of Dreams due to its reputation for lavish lifestyles, while Hollywood is often referred to as Tinseltown or La-La Land in reference to the iconic movie industry that exists there. Glendale is sometimes referred to as The Hub due to its proximity to major highways, as well as being a central location for business and shopping. Meanwhile, Santa Monica has earned the nickname of Little Britain due to the high number of British expats living there.2. New York: The Big AppleThe Downtown Manhattan skyline of New York. Source: Fred Hsu/Wikimedia CommonsIn the 19th century, the term big apple was used to denote something as being the best of its kind, and a popular phrase was to wager or bet a big apple to indicate extreme confidence in something.The first recorded usage of the term to describe New York comes from a 1909 book, A Wayfarer in New York by Edward Martin, and the nickname was commonly used in the 1920s, especially regarding New Yorks horse racing circuit. By the end of the decade, the nickname was being used to describe the whole of New York, not just horse-racing. The name also became extremely popular within the jazz scene of the 1930s onwards.From the 1970s, a tourism campaign began to use the nickname, accompanied by the image of a big red apple, to promote the City of New York. So successful was this campaign that New York and The Big Apple have become almost inseparable, and trends indicate the nickname will be here for a long time.3. San Francisco: The Golden CitySunset over San Francisco. Source: Basil D Soufi/Wikimedia CommonsSymbolizing the allure of the city and the prospect of success, San Francisco takes its nickname from the Gold Rush that happened there in the 19th century. San Francisco was originally founded in 1776 and named Yerba Buena, which means Good Herb in English. It was part of California, which became part of Mexico, and in 1846 was annexed by the United States. Two years later, the huge event that garnered the city its nickname beganthe California Gold Rush.Massive migration took place. In fact, in the space of around a year, Californias non-native population rose from around 1,000 to over 100,000. These migrants were known as the 49ers, and this nickname is most famously associated with the NFL team, the San Francisco 49ers.Lending themselves to the moniker, the sunsets of San Francisco have also become iconic due to their golden hues that illuminate the Golden City at dusk.4. Chicago: The Windy CityAerial view of Chicago at night. Source: Mitch Kesler/PexelsThe most widely known nickname for Chicago, Americas third biggest city, is The Windy City. There are four main possibilities as to how Chicago acquired its nickname. The first goes back to the mid-19th century when Chicago was known as Porkopolis due to its widespread meat-packing industry, which became bigger than the industry in the citys rival, Cincinnati.The rivalry between the two cities was encapsulated in sporting events, especially baseball, and news from both cities dubbed Chicago as the Windy City. The term, however, spread beyond the world of sports and was used in the New York Sun when describing Chicagos bid to host the World Fair. New York journalists were also the source of derogatory remarks when describing politicians from Chicago as being full of wind or hot air in modern terminology.The most obvious link to why Chicago is called The Windy City is the actual wind. In reality, however, Chicago is not the windiest city in America. It doesnt even crack the top ten. That honor goes to Amarillo in Texas, while the windiest city in the world is reputed to be Wellington, the capital of New Zealand.5. Las Vegas: Sin CityLas Vegas at dusk. Source: Stephen Leonardi/PexelsLas Vegas is widely known for its liberal views on adult entertainment (if not legally, then socially), and this has garnered it the reputation as a city of sin where lustful vices are widespread, and are an iniquitous accompaniment to the gambling industry for which the city is also known.Officially founded in 1905 as a railroad stopover, Las Vegas grew rapidly due to the construction of the Hoover Dam. It gained the reputation of a place to have wild parties, and in 1931, gambling was legalized and offered mobsters the opportunity to legitimize their existing operations. Thus began decades of mafia control over Las Vegas, and the city gained a reputation as a place of vice. Throughout the 60s, 70s, and 80s, mob control declined, and by the end of the century, Las Vegas had largely gotten rid of its crimelords. Its reputation, however, stuck.Sin City isnt the only nickname Las Vegas has. The bright neon lights have earned it the nickname of City of Lights, and the nightlife has earned it the reputation of being The Entertainment Capital of the World. As the gambling capital of the world, Las Vegas has even been referred to as The City of Lost Wages!Despite all these names, the most common name used by residents and visitors to the city is probably just Vegas.6. Boston: BeantownSunset over Boston. Source: Mohan Nannapaneni/PexelsFor over a century, Boston has been known as Beantown because of its historical association with baked beans. Popular with the original Puritan settlers, baked beans were popularized further by the addition of molasses brought by the Triangular Trade. It was added to the recipe to make Bostons beans a unique subject matter for passing sailors and traders who stopped in Boston for a quick meal. By the 1880s, the city had a baseball team called the Boston Beaneaters, and the early 20th century saw the city advertised to tourists with the slogan You Dont Know Beans Until You Come to Boston. However, the history of sweet beans in Boston goes back even further. Native Americans in the area ate their legumes with a number of ingredients, including maple syrup.Beantown isnt the only nickname that Boston has. It is also referred to as the Hub, Athens of America, and the Cradle of Libertythe latter being a reference to the citys important role in the Revolutionary War.7. Miami: Magic CityMiami skyline. Source: Rob Olivera/Wikimedia CommonsMiami is the only major city in the United States to be founded by a woman. In 1896, when Julia Tuttle established the city, Miamis population was just 300. As the decades rolled on, the city would see unprecedented success and growth. The city experienced a population boom in the 1920s, which was tempered by the Great Depression. Miami, however, was in a prime location off Floridas coast. Not only was it an important staging point for Americas submarines in the Second World War, it also became a sunny destination popular with many visitors who decided to stay.Annual tourists commented how the city was growing every year, as if by magic, and the city quickly acquired the moniker of The Magic City. Today, the name also reflects the citys vibrant cultural scene, much of which is Hispanic, with a sizable number of people with Cuban roots.Miami is also known as The 305 in reference to the citys area code, and also as Vice City in reference to a video game of the same name, set in a city inspired by Miami in the 1980s. The latter is also influenced by the television series Miami Vice.Seattle, also known as The Emerald City. Source: Jeffery Hayes/Wikimedia CommonsWith over 340 million people and hundreds of cities, 50 of which have a population exceeding 1 million, the United States has nicknames for a huge list of places. New Orleans is known as The Big Easy, Salt Lake City is known as The City of Saints, and Seattle is officially nicknamed The Emerald City.There are, of course, many hundreds more, and as the nation evolves, some nicknames will disappear while others will be invented as cities grow and take on new characteristics.

We usually think of the Vikings sailing out of their Scandinavian homes to the British Isles, where they pillaged, stole, and massacred the local inhabitants. But in 1002 CE, the English turned the tables on the Vikings with a historic massacre known as the St Brices Day Massacre. Frustrated with recent events, King Aethelred ordered the deaths of all the Danes in England. But how successful were the Anglo-Saxons in dealing with the Viking threat?How Did the Danes Get to England?Gravestone marker from Lindisfarne showing men attacking with Viking-style swords, c. 900 CE. Source: English HeritageThe Vikings started to raid English shores in the last decade of the 8th century. When they raided Lindisfarne in 793 CE, they found a coastal monastery that was undefended and full of valuable treasures, including educated monks that could be sold as slaves. Soon, they discovered similarly vulnerable and lucrative targets, and their raids became increasingly frequent. These raids were principally but not exclusively conducted by Vikings from Denmark, so they were collectively known as Danes to the English.The small but frequent Viking raiding parties were an ongoing problem for the Anglo-Saxons living in England, but things became more serious when a large and coordinated Viking army landed in 865 CE. Known as the Great Heathen Army, they ostensibly arrived to avenge the death of Ragnar Lodbrok. However, the evidence suggests that they landed with families and supplies. They were looking to seize fertile lands for their own use.The Vikings established a base at York, possibly under the leadership of Ivar the Boneless, and then conquered and occupied large swathes of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia until only the Kingdom of Wessex resisted. Following years of conflict, a Wessex victory at the Battle of Edington in 878 CE gave King Alfred the Great of Wessex the leverage he needed to bring the Vikings to the treaty table.Map of Danelaw in 886 CE. Source: TheCollectorNevertheless, it was the Anglo-Saxons who made significant concessions. A boundary was created between Anglo-Saxon lands, mostly in Wessex, and what was now considered territory under Viking rule to the north of that border. This territory was more-or-less given to the Vikings to be governed by them under Danelaw. However, the treaty also agreed to a price to be paid for the wanton slaying of either Englishmen or Danes by the other side.This treaty only stood for around 50 years, as both sides continued to menace each other. But even as Erik Bloodaxe was driven out of York in 954, and Aethelflaed, the Lady of the Mercians, retook land, many Vikings remained in England, living relatively peacefully, with Danish jarls submitting to Anglo-Saxon rule.A Renewed Viking MenaceIllustration of the Vikings attacking a town, c. 12th century. Source: Morgan Library and MuseumAfter several generations of relatively peaceful cohabitation, Viking raids intensified again in the 980s. These were conducted by external Vikings who were not settled in England. This was around the same time Iceland was settled by Norwegian Vikings fleeing oppressive rule at home by Harald Fairhair. A similar consolidation of power in the hands of fewer, more powerful leaders may also have encouraged increased raiding activity in England.According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the future Norwegian king Olaf Tryggvason landed in England with 91 ships in 991 CE, resulting in the Battle of Maldon, a devastating defeat for the Anglo-Saxons. The English King Aethelred the Unready was convinced to pay the Vikings off with a bribe that would become known as Danegeld. He reportedly paid 10,000 Roman pounds of silver, which is around 3,300 kilograms or 7,275 lbs.This act inspired the much later Rudyard Kipling poem, Danegeld, in which he warns, Once you have paid him the Danegeld, you never get rid of the Dane, as the Vikings returned year after year to collect their tribute in return for not attacking.The Vikings seem to have been particularly heavy-handed in 1001, raiding through southern England and burning villages indiscriminately as they traveled. While Aethelred paid his Danegeld in 1001, by 1002, he seems to have had enough.Aethelred Orders the Massacre of the DanesAthelred the Unready, Illuminated manuscript, The Chronicle of Abindon, c. 1220. Source: The British LibraryBy 1002, Aethelred finally realized that his strategy of paying ransom was not working, and he chose to take drastic action. On 13 November 1002, St Brices Day, he ordered his army to slay all the Danes in England. It is unclear what exactly he meant by all the Danes. Did he mean just raiders and Viking mercenaries that he himself had hired from the raiding parties, Danes that had recently settled in Wessex territory, or Anglo-Danes beyond the old Danelaw border, many of whom had been established in England for generations? Was it just men, or also women and children?Archaeological evidence related to the massacre has been found at Oxford and Ridgeway Hill in the south, which suggests that the move was focused on male Danes in Wessex, but a mix of established settlers and new invaders.The most concrete evidence we have for the massacre comes from Oxford. Firstly, a royal charter from 1004 CE remarks on the most just extermination of the Vikings in Oxford. It describes how those targeted tried to take shelter in the church. When the Anglo-Saxons were unable to dislodge them, they burned the church with them inside. The writer notes that it is with Gods aid that he is currently rebuilding that very church.Bodies excavated at St John College, Oxford. Source: Museum of OxfordIn 2008, archaeological investigations at St Johns College discovered the bodies of 37 people who had been massacred. Researchers believe these bodies belonged to the Vikings who hid in the church on St Brices Day.The bodies include 35 males between the ages of 16 and 25 and two children of unknown gender. Many of the bodies show signs of old wounds that have healed, suggesting that they were warriors. Chemical analysis suggests that the bodies were of Norse origin and that they died between 960 and 1020 CE. The absence of women may reflect the fact that the Viking arrivals married local Anglo-Saxon women.Notably, the bodies are unarmed and show no defensive wounds. In addition, the death wounds they received were mostly from the back, suggesting that they were attacked while fleeing. This fits the scenario of the English soldiers falling on them unexpectedly and the victims then fleeing into or away from the burning church.Ridgeway Hill grave excavation, 2009. Source: Oxford ArchaeologyA group of 54 bodies found at Ridgeway Hill probably also relate to the St Brices Day Massacre. Ridgeway Hill is in the south of England in an area heavily targeted by the Vikings in the preceding decade and was a likely location for settlement.The mass grave contains 54 male bodies, which isotope analysis suggests belonged to Vikings and date to 970-1030 CE. All the bodies were beheaded, with the heads and bodies separated in the burial. Notably, three heads are missing, suggesting they may have belonged to important Vikings and were kept as trophies or proof of death.Viking RevengeA manuscript depiction of Danes landing from ships, c. 12th century. Source: Morgan Library, New YorkWhile Aethelred the Unready seemed satisfied with his brutal work in his 1004 charter, it would prove to be another misstep. According to tradition, Gunnhilde, the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, then the king of Denmark and Norway, was killed in the massacre along with her husband Pallig Tokesen. This may have given him the justification he needed to launch an aggressive assault on England. He also clearly had financial gain in mind as before launching his attack, he made arrangements to sell spoils from his planned raids to the Duke of Normandy, the father of Emma of Normandy, whom Aethelred married in 1002.Whatever his motivations, Sweyn Forkbeard led waves of invasions and pillaging across Aethelreds territory. His first series of raids was between 1003 and 1007, and he is known to have visited Oxford, suggesting that revenge was at least one of his purposes. In 1007, he was paid 36,000 pounds of silver to leave.The next raids happened between 1009 and 1012 and involved the Jomsvikings. This was an elite order of Viking mercenaries working out of a stronghold in northern Poland. They had strict rules for joining, including age and the recommendation of an existing member of the order. Once a member, they swore off women while also swearing loyalty to the order and never surrendering. While in England, they are said to have plundered and burned Canterbury Cathedral. They were paid off with 48,000 pounds of treasure in 1112.Manuscript image showing Sweyn Forkbeard riding a blue horse battling the Anglo-Saxon King Aethelred the Unready, c. 13th century. Source: Cambridge University LibrariesIn 1113, Sweyn Forkbeard took advantage of Aethelreds increasing weakness and launched a full-scale assault. He quickly forced Aethelred and his two sons into exile and made himself the king of England. He died just five weeks later in early 1014 and was succeeded by his son Cnut. While Aethelred and his sons would fight back, by 1019, Cnut was in full control of England, as well as Denmark, Norway, parts of Sweden, Pomerania, and Schleswig, making him Cnut the Great.However, Cnut also married Aethelreds widow, Emma of Normandy, and was succeeded by his son with her, Harthacnut. But when he died in 1042, his half-brother Edward the Confessor, the son of Aethelred and Emma, was called to England as its new king. Thus, the territory taken from Aethelred by the Vikings in vengeance was returned to his son.Consequences of the St Brices Day MassacreDetail from the Bayeux Tapestry, which depicts the Norman conquest of England, c. 1070s. Source: Oregon State UniversityWhile this might be a rather anticlimactic ending to the story, the massacre was seen by one side as the English finally fighting back against ruthless raiders and by the other side as the English proving themselves just as brutal as the rapidly Christianizing heathens they criticized.The aftermath of the massacre would also put in motion the events that would lead to the Norman Conquest in 1066. Edward the Confessor was childless and seems to have used the promise of succession as a negotiating tactic. He promised succession to his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, an important Anglo-Saxon nobleman, William the Duke of Normandy, and Harald Hardrada, king of Norway.When Edward died in 1066, he was succeeded by Godwinson. The new English king had to face attacks from Hardrada in the north, which he won, but which weakened his defenses against William in the south, resulting in the Norman Conquest.

One of the defining characteristics of JRPGs is the use of a fixed cast of characters. We rarely have agency over narrative outcomes and often act more like spectators to their adventures. Because of that, the RPG elements usually come from progression systems, leveling, exploration, and other details.

Nuclear power has a lot of potential, but many fear the dangers of nuclear meltdowns. Fortunately, some new reactors might make that possibility even slimmer.

Could Wyoming’s Dinosaur “Mummy Zone” Reveal A “Fleshed Out” T. Rex?Did you know that Wyoming is home to a dinosaur “mummy zone”? Here, scientists have been finding remarkably preserved dinosaurs since the early 20th century, and we just got two new carcasses that heralded a bunch of dinosaur firsts.The rest of this article is behind a paywall. Please sign in or subscribe to access the full...