New near-infrared observations by the James Webb Space Telescope highlight a tightly packed group of stars at the peculiar galaxy's center as well as dust on its outer fringes.

The Dangerous Reason This Store-Brand Marinara Sauce Was Recalled Will Leave You Stunned...

It is a type of shark.

There have been countless Crusades over the centuries. In todays world, the word crusade has been used several times by extremist groups who wish to profit from the emotion and extreme connections to that word. Read on to learn more about the battles of one particular crusade that have made it the most famous of all: the Third Crusade.Background on the CrusadesThe Crusaders Reach Jerusalem, designed by Domenico Paradisi, woven 1732-39. Source: The MET, New YorkFrom todays perspective, it is difficult to fully comprehend the Crusades impact on the world and the people of the Middle Ages. One way to grasp its significance is to liken it to some individuals fervor and dedication to their favorite celebrity. The appeal of the Crusades extended not only to nobles and kings but also to ordinary individuals who were driven by their passion to fight for Christ.Map: Third Crusade (1189-1192). Source: TheCollector.comJoining the Crusades meant that your earthly sins would be forgiven and your journey to Heaven would be easier. For many, this reason was enough to abandon their life and loved ones and travel thousands of miles away to join the cause.The purpose of the Third Crusade was to retake Jerusalem, which the Muslim ruler Saladin had recently conquered. Jerusalem held great importance to Christians as a pivotal location throughout Jesus Christs life. Now that it had been conquered by the enemies of God, convincing the masses to go and reconquer the city proved to be an easy task.1. The Siege of AcreRichard the Lionheart Embarks on the Third Crusade, by Glyn Warren Philpot, 1927. Source: Art UKAcre was a strategically vital port city along the Mediterranean coast, crucial to controlling access to the Holy Land. Two years before the Siege of Acre began, the Muslim leader Saladin had conquered Jerusalem and, as a result, conquered Acre and put his defenders around the city. The city of Acre was in desperate need of rescuing by Christians.The Siege of Acre began in 1189, led by the former King of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan. Unfortunately for Guy, he did not have a large garrison force to help him retake the city, and Saladin had thousands of soldiers at his disposal and was well-supplied, ensuring his forces could stay in position for a long time. Due to the small size of Guys army, the siege of Acre lasted two long years before reinforcements from the West began to arrive. Among the leaders from the West were King Richard I of England, Philip II of France, and Leopold V of Austria.The arrival of help from the West meant that the incoming ships could create a naval blockade of Acre, cutting off supplies and reinforcements to the city defenders and eventually weakening their forces. After two long years of siege, Acre finally fell to the Crusaders on July 12, 1191. The Crusaders were able to take large amounts of treasure and many Muslim prisoners.The capture of Acre gave the Crusaders another crucial foothold in the Holy Land, allowing them to continue reconquering it from Saladin. The capture also revitalized the Crusader cause, providing a much-needed success. However, the ultimate goal of recapturing Jerusalem still needed to be fulfilled.2. The Battle of ArsufBattle of Arsuf, by Gustave Dore, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Battle of Arsuf, fought on September 7th, 1191, was crucial during the Third Crusade. Following the capture of Acre in July of 1191, Richard the Lionheart started to advance his troops south along the coast to recapture the city of Jaffa, which would serve as a starting point for a future attack on Jerusalem. Arsuf was located between Acre and Jaffa, and this would be the point where Saladin began to confront Richards advancing army. This battle would be crucial as the victor could control the coast, which would secure the supply lines for the troops.Richard led an army of 10,000 soldiers, including heavy cavalry, infantry, and crossbowmen. They marched in a disciplined formation along the coast, with the sea and the Crusader fleet providing protection. Saladin, on the other hand, continuously bothered the Crusaders with light cavalry and skilled horse archers in an attempt to wear them down and demoralize them before a confrontation.Saladin hoped to lure Richard into a hasty attack or scatter his forces. However, Richard demonstrated patience and maintained strict discipline among his troops, holding them back until the time was right.Richard the Lionheart on a Medieval floor tile, 1250s. Source: The British MuseumFinally, after hours of enduring harassment from Saladins troops, Richard signaled for the attack to begin. Richards heavily armed knights quickly broke through Saladins lines, with Richard leading the charge. The shock of Richards forces proved too much for Saladins troops, who were swiftly routed. The victory at Arsuf uplifted the Crusaders morale and secured control of the coastal route to Jaffa. However, this would not be the end of Saladin, as his forces remained intact following their defeat at Arsuf. Saladin was able to avoid an absolute defeat by promptly retreating from Arsuf.The Battle of Arsuf is unique in that it was one of the few total victories for the Crusaders during the Third Crusade. It demonstrated the importance of maintaining discipline in the face of harassment and the effectiveness of heavy cavalry in medieval warfare.3. The Battle of JaffaSaladins Cavalry Charging the Crusaders, by Richard Canton Woodville, 1892. Source: Art UKAfter Richard and his troops had won the Battle of Arsuf, Richard led his troops to the coastal city of Jaffa and conquered it. However, the victory was short-lived when Saladin launched a surprise attack on Jaffa in July 1192.Saladins forces overwhelmed the citys defenses, and all that remained under Crusader control was a small garrison in the citadel. The Crusaders inside the citadel were able to hold off Saladins forces and send word to Richard, who was in Acre, to come and relieve them.Richard wasted no time answering the call of his fellow Crusaders in trouble. He hurried to Jaffa to assist in retaking the city despite his small army of just 2,000 men. Perhaps knowing the risk he was taking attacking Jaffa with just 2,000 men, Richard did something daring: he led his forces in an amphibious landing directly onto the beaches near Jaffa. Understandably surprised by this tactic, Saladins troops were caught off guard by this sudden appearance of Richard and his forces.Richard I at the Battle of Jaffa, 1873. Source: The British LibraryRichard led a fierce charge against Saladins forces, driving them back from the city and causing significant casualties. The heavily armored and disciplined Crusader knights broke through Saladins lines, ultimately forcing the Muslim forces to retreat. Much of the fighting occurred in the streets of Jaffa, where the Crusaders engaged in close-quarters combat and successfully reclaimed Jaffa under Crusader control. Realizing the difficulty of holding Jaffa against Richards determined assault, Saladin ordered a strategic retreat, withdrawing his forces smartly to avoid complete defeat.Although Jaffa was a significant victory for Richard, both rulers knew a decisive victory in the overall conflict was improbable. After all, they had both been fighting this conflict for five years, with neither side winning more than the other. Jaffas outcome led to subsequent negotiations between Richard and Saladin for peace. These talks would lead to the eventual Treaty of Jaffa.End of the Third Crusade: The Treaty of JaffaKing Richard I and Soldan Saladin, by Soloman Alexander Hart, 19th century. Source: Art UKTwo primary reasons for drafting the Treaty of Jaffa were stalemates and mutual exhaustion. It is a testament to both leaders, Richard and Saladin, that neither could totally defeat the other throughout the Third Crusade. When Richard won one battle, Saladin won another; on and on, this was the pattern. That pattern led both rulers to become exhausted with the entire conflict. Richard also faced problems back home in England while Saladins resources were stretched thin after years of continuous warfare.There were three terms to the Treaty of Jaffa:1.) The Status of JerusalemJerusalem would remain under Muslim control, but unarmed Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the city and other holy sites without harassment from Muslims.2.) Territorial ArrangementsThe Crusaders would keep their control over key cities along the coast, such as Acre. A neutral zone would be created between Jaffa and Jerusalem, and both Crusader and Muslim forces agreed not to occupy or fortify this area.3.) Truce and PeaceThe treaty established a three-year peace between the Crusaders and Muslims, which allowed both sides time to recover from the lengthy and costly conflict.With both Saladin and Richard agreeing to these terms, the Treaty of Jaffa was signed, and the Third Crusade ended. While the primary purpose of the Third Crusade was to retake Jerusalem from Saladin, Richard did get the next best thing: ensuring that Christian pilgrims had guaranteed safe passage throughout the Holy Land.

Athena, a goddess of wisdom and warfare and the patron goddess of Athens, was one of the most popular deities in the Greek pantheon. The Olympian goddess was frequently represented and associated with symbols drawn from her complex mythology. From the wise little owl to the terrifying Gorgoneion head of Medusa, Athenas symbols reveal much about her mythology and her importance in Greek religion.Symbols of Athena: The OwlStatue showing detail of owls on Athenas Corinthian helmet, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerhaps one of the most enduring symbols associated with Athena is the owl. It is unclear exactly where this connection originated, but a popular theory is that Athena has her origins in Minoan culture. In the early 20th century, Martin Persson Nilsson and David Kinsley suggested that Athenas roots go back to a Minoan palace goddess associated with birds. Meanwhile, Lithuanian archaeologist Marija Gimbutas suggested that Athena is descended from a European bird and snake goddess.It is also suggested that Athena may have actually been an owl, or just a bird in general, before shedding her avian form. In classical artwork, she was sometimes depicted with feathery wings.Silver coin featuring the owl of Athena, Athens, c. 6th/5th century BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of ArtWhile Athena is also associated with snakes, her association specifically with owls has generated other theories. Professor William Geoffrey Arnott suggested that the link was due to the high number of owls in Attica where Athens is situated.Whatever the reason for the association, Athena was and has always been associated with the little owl (Athene noctua), a small species of owl common to the temperate zones of Europe and Asia from Portugal to the Korean Peninsula.The little owl (Athene noctua). Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe little owl was adopted as the symbol of Athens to show the citys loyalty to its patron goddess. They often included owl imagery on coins, works of art, banners, and shields.As it does now, the owl is believed to have symbolized knowledge, wisdom, shrewdness, and insight, common motifs throughout Athenian society, and the perception the Athenians wanted to present.Athena and Her Symbols of WarAthena attacks the giant Enceladus, reproductive print, c. 1844-1861. Source: New York Public Library.As both a warrior goddess and a goddess of wisdom, Athena became associated with strategic warfare rather than the brute-force side of war represented by the god Ares. She was often depicted with a shield, a spear, and wearing a helm. Athena was thought of as a warrior goddess who accompanied soldiers and heroes in their combative pursuits.According to Greek mythology, Athena was born in full armor, ready for battle. She was the daughter of Zeus and Metis, an Oceanid, one of the 3,000 sea nymphs born to the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. Associated with wisdom and skill, Metis was an advisor and the first wife of Zeus.Zeus, fearful that his children born of Metis would become more powerful than their father, turned Metis into a fly and swallowed her whole while she was pregnant. Metis and her unborn daughter lived in Zeus mind, and gave him such a terrible headache that he asked Hermes for aid. Hermes instructed Hephaestus to split Zeus skull open to ease the pain. When Hephaestus struck, Athena sprang from Zeus skull, fully grown, wearing armor, and wielding a spear. Thus depicted, Athena was symbolically linked to resistance and victory, and not just physically. Born out of the mind of her father, her warrior element was linked to intellect.The symbolic effect of war and the philosophy behind it were part of ancient and classical Greek culture. While Ares symbolized brute force and bloodlust, Athena was symbolically linked to the intellectual and civilized aspects of war. Restraint, pragmatism, and good counsel were considered hallmarks of this aspect.Whatever aspect of war and combat she represented, however, Athena was often depicted with the gear of a soldier or a warrior, guiding combatants to victory, and providing protective aid.The Olive TreeThe sacred olive tree beside the temple of Erechtheion (Temple of Athena) atop the Acropolis of Athens. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn Greek mythology, when Athens was founded, Poseidon and Athena disputed who would be the citys patron god. They decided that whoever could provide the most useful gift would have the honor. Poseidon struck the ground of the acropolis with his trident, and a spring burst forth from the ground. The people of Athens were elated until they tasted the water. It was as salty as the ocean and completely useless.Athena then pierced a boulder with her spear, splitting it in two. From the rock sprouted a beautiful tree with silvery leaves. This was the first olive tree, and the Athenians found many uses for it. The olives were consumed, along with olive oil, which was also used for illumination and perfume amongst many other things. The wood was carved into votive statues.To add insult to Poseidons injury, the olive tree proved to be hardy and resistant to brackish water. Thus, Athena became the patron goddess of Athens and has been associated with the olive tree ever since.Today, there is an olive tree atop the Acropolis that is associated with the Athenian myth. It is said that this tree stands in roughly the same spot where the first olive tree, revered by the Athenians thousands of years ago, stood.The Head of MedusaModern statue of Athena with a shield featuring the head of Medusa at the Museumsberg, Flensburg. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the many symbols associated with Athena is the head of the gorgon, Medusa. The hero Perseus, in his quest to kill Medusa, turned to his half-sister, Athena, for aid. The goddess gave Perseus a finely polished shield that became instrumental in Medusas defeat. The gorgons powerful attribute was that she could turn anyone who looked upon her to stone. Athenas shield gave Perseus the opportunity to fight Medusa by looking at her reflection in the polished metal.Victorious, Perseus presented Medusas severed head to Athena, who attached it to her aegis. It is unclear what exactly an aegis is. It has been variously described as a breastplate, a cloak, or a shield. A shield is considered the most likely suggestion. Regardless, the aegis is a symbol of defense, and upon Athenas aegis is a symbol of Athenas power of victory and the destruction of her enemies.SnakesA statue of Athena with a snake, by Alessandro Algardi, c. 17th century. Source: Boncompagni Ludovisi CollectionMany depictions of Athena also include her accompanied by a snake, and her association with the serpent can be interpreted in many ways. One of the most common interpretations is that snakes symbolize rejuvenation and rebirth because they shed their skin and are symbolically reborn.The snake is a versatile symbol that can represent many things associated with Athena. Snakes were symbolic of cunning, an attribute represented in Athena. They also represented fertility in the earth, and because of their fangs and venom, were representative of danger, and were powerful symbols of protection.Other SymbolsMyrtle flowers. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMany other minor symbols have often appeared in depictions of Athena. Roosters, doves, and eagles have been associated with the goddess, but none of these birds are as ubiquitous as the little owl. Athena is also associated with the flute. In myth, it is said that she invented the flute but cast it aside because when played, it made her face look ugly.In addition to being the goddess of war and wisdom, Athena was also seen as a fierce protector of the earth and nature. As such, plants aside from the olive tree were associated with her. The acanthus, with its bristle-like blooms, was often seen as a symbol of protection, and thus, it became associated with Athena. Another plant is myrtle, which, above all things, is symbolic of love.Despite the association of Athena with martial prowess, and military matters, Athena was also the goddess of handicrafts, especially associated with weaving. In Greek mythology, according to the Roman poet Ovid, a woman named Arachne boasted that her weaving skill surpassed that of the goddess. Athena responded by challenging her to a weaving contest. When Athena could not find any fault with her opponents finished product, she became enraged and beat Arachne with a shuttle. Arachne hanged herself out of shame, but Athena took pity on her and transformed her into a spider so she could weave webs for all time.Colors of AthenaDetail from a statue of Athena in a Corinthian helmet, Greek, c. 180-190 CE. Source: Liebieghaus, FrankfurtApart from symbols that are depicted as tangible objects, there were also colors associated with Athena. She was often represented with yellow and gold, a common motif among the Greek gods. For the ancient Greeks, these colors symbolized the divine and the powerful brightness of the sun. Athena was also depicted with the color blue, which was associated with wisdom, purity, and divinity.Athena is one of the pre-eminent deities in Greek antiquity. Her symbolic significance and the objects associated with her were powerful symbols that formed part of her character and had a huge impact on the beliefs of the Greeks millennia ago.These symbols have not been forgotten. Just as she was in ancient times, Athena is a popular subject for artists, who use the same symbols and motifs to express the goddesss character and nature.

By the 1260s, the Mongols controlled most of China, except for the Song Dynasty in southern China. Korea (Goryeo) remained independent but as a vassal state. Now Kublai Khan looked to Imperial Japan which lay not far. Kublai sent six diplomatic missions between 1268 and 1273, demanding a relationship but threatening war. The Kamakura shogunate rebuffed each effort, even beheading several Mongols.This continual refusal to acknowledge Kublais authority attacked his prestige, a major insult for the worlds top power. Economically known for its gold and silver, Japan would benefit Kublais growing empire. Plus, Kublai sought to add Japan as a vassal state, viewing the island nation as a tributary state from the Chinese perspective.Angered by Japans non-responses to his overtures, Kublai Khan in 1273 decided to subjugate Japan. Yet preparations would be needed. Though masters of mobile warfare, the Mongols required ships and expertise that only the Khans vassals, China and Goryeo could provide.The Role of Korea and China in the Mongol InvasionsPortrait of Kublai Khan by court artist Araniko in the Album of Yuan Emperor Portraits, c. 1294. Source: Wikimedia Commons (National Palace Museum, Taipei)As subjugated nations, China and Korea had no options. Both supplied men, supplies, and ships for the invasion. Records indicate that many invading soldiers were conscripted soldiers, many reluctant. The Mongols chose Korea as the site for their initial invasion; only 124 miles of ocean separated the two nations. By late 1274, they had completed all preparations.Mongols First LandingMongols pursuing Seljuk troops at the Battle of Kse Da, from Fleur des histories dorient, by Hayton of Corycus, ca.1350. Source: National Library of FranceIn November 1274, the Mongols fleet appeared off Hakata, Japan. The Mongols first crushed samurai garrisons on the islands of Tsushima and Iki. Next, the 900 ships and 40,000 soldiers sailed for the mainland. The Kamakura Shoguns, anticipating the invasion at Hakata on Kyushu, added defenses. Samurai warriors also reinforced the local noble clans, adding thousands.Establishing a foothold, the Mongols overpowered the samurai with superior tactics and weaponry. The samurai counterattacked fiercely, but individually, not having yet mastered mass combat. Additionally, the Mongols employed exploding shells, poisoned arrows, and more effective tactics. Unable to push the Mongols and their vassals back into the sea, the samurai still inflicted heavy casualties.The samurai retreated, but the Mongol army halted, offering no pursuit. Reasons vary from a lack of arrows, combat losses, or the invasion being a test. The Mongols returned to their ships. That night, a typhoon struck, wiping out one-third of the fleet.Khans Reaction to the DefeatMongol horseman with bow and arrow. Source: Ars TechnicaDespite this setback, Kublai Khan remained determined to conquer Imperial Japan. He refused all advice regarding future invasions, remaining undaunted. Khan did dispatch more emissaries, seeking to bring Japan into the fold. As before, the Japanese executed or dismissed the envoys.Both sides knew a sequel was inevitable. By 1279, the Khans forces routed the Song Dynasty of Southern China. An anxious Japanese Shogunate built better defenses on Kyushu, close to the first attempt. The defenses included the Genko Borui, a 6-foot-high, thick wall running 12 miles.The Second Mongol InvasionMounted Japanese Samurai. Source: British MuseumIn June 1281, the Mongols launched a two-pronged attack. Hakata Bay bore the brunt of this attack for a second time. This armada dwarfed the first invasion, involving some 3,500 vessels and 140,000 troops. Sources on actual numbers vary wildly, however. Despite fierce fighting at Hakata, the Japanese halted the Mongols Eastern army. The stout Genko Borui blocked them. The Mongols withdrew to wait for the Southern Route army.Why Did Only One Mongol Army Attack?Chinese Junk Used by Mongols. Source: NPRThe landings at Hakata Bay came from the Eastern Route arm commanders impatience. Reinforced by the massive Southern Route force sailing from China, the Mongols struck again in July. Landing on Shikanoshima Island, the Mongols made no headway. Using night raids and guerrilla tactics, the samurai continually harassed the invaders.Despite a numerical advantage, the Mongols couldnt get a decisive win. The samurai refused open battle when possible. Hit-and-run attacks (on land and sea), defensive fortifications, and their superior hand-to-hand fighting abilities contributed to the stalemate. The fighting dragged on into August 1281.Why Did the Fighting End?Mongols at the walls of Vladimir 1238, the Mongol army besieges the city of Vladimir by Vassily Maximov, c. 1900. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Mongol invasion came to a sudden end on August 15, 1281. Again, Japans fate was determined by a chance typhoon. Anchored in Hakata Bay, this massive storm struck, wrecking the fleet and drowning thousands, upwards of half of all the invaders. Only a remnant of the Khans fleet returned to port. The samurai ruthlessly hunted down and exterminated the survivors. The surprised Japanese called these winds kamikaze or divine winds. Luckily for Japan, Kublai Khan turned his attentions elsewhere, ignoring Japan.

Belisarius was a renowned military commander with impressive battlefield achievements. Hampered by limited resources in both men and money, he spearheaded Emperor Justinians attempt to reconquer the key territories of the former Western Roman Empire: Africa, Hispania, Italy, and Gaul. Yet, no victory would be complete without Rome. King Theodoric the Great had been an effective ruler of the Gothic kingdom of Italy. When he died, Justinian saw an opportunity to reclaim Rome for the Byzantine Empire.Theodoric and the Kingdom of ItalyCoin depicting Flavius Theodoricus (Theodoric the Great), Roman Vassal and King of the Ostrogoths. Source: Collection of Italian numismatic Francesco GnecchiWhile many people characterize barbarians as pillaging hordes bent on destruction and death, the barbarian was simply a term that the ancient Romans and Greeks used to describe ethnic groups that did not observe the same laws or culture or speak the same language as they did.The Germanic Kingdoms and the Eastern Roman Empire in 526. Map from Shepherd, W. R. (1911) The Historical Atlas. Source: The University of Texas at AustinTheodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, was an intelligent, cultured ruler who not only expanded his kingdom of Italy but also produced great works of art and architecture that built on the legacy of the Western Roman Empire.By Roman standards, Theodoric was a civilized barbarian of the former Western Roman Empire. Despite being an Arian Christian, he did not try to convert or subvert Italys ingrained orthodox Roman populace. Later generations added Great to his name in honor of the prosperity of his kingdom. The Ostrogoths changed little of the Roman administration and demonstrated respect and esteem for the Roman way of life and civilization (Hughes, pg. 73).Theodorics tomb in Ravenna by Robert von Spalart, 1804-1811. Source: The Wellcome Collection, LondonThe death of Theodoric in 526 and the elevation of his ten-year-old grandson, Athalaric, set the stage for the Gothic War between Theodorics successors and Emperor Justinian. The appointment of Athalarics mother, Amalasuntha, as regent increased tensions. She was well-educated and spoke Latin, Greek, and Gothic. The Ostrogoth nobles not only objected to a woman having such power over their king but also opposed her pro-Byzantine policies. They insisted that Athalaric should be brought up as a proper Goth instead. The young man started drinking heavily, and it soon became evident that he would not match his grandfathers longevity.Queen Amalasuntha of the Ostrogoths, 1500-1850. Source: The Austrian National Library, ViennaAfter Athalarics death, Amalasuntha married her cousin Theodahad, and they became co-monarchs of the Ostrogoth Kingdom. Amalasuntha considered him easily controllable since he was more interested in academic pursuits than political affairs. However, Theodahad was a more dangerous adversary than she anticipated. He deposed Amalasuntha and exiled her to Martana, an island in Lake Vulsina. Knowing that his actions would attract a response from Justinian, Theodahad arranged Amalasunthas murder to prevent her raising a resistance against him.The Invasion of Italy Begins in EarnestEmperor Justinian and Members of His Court. Reproduction of 6th century CE mosaic. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkAt first, it seemed that all of Italy would fall into the hands of Justinian with no need for further bloodshed, but the Roman General Mundus, entrusted with the conquest of Salona on the Adriatic coast (present-day Solin, Croatia), came to a grisly end in the Balkans. During an encounter with the Goths, Mundus fell, leaving his army leaderless and depriving Justinian of a trusted and able general. The Roman army in Dalmatia was forced to retreat. Theodahad displayed an unexpected spark of courage. He withdrew his offer to surrender Italy for extensive estates and an annual income of just under 90,000 solidi.The military situation was going much better for Belisarius. Having conquered North Africa, he landed in Sicily in 535 and quickly secured the surrender of Theodahads son-in-law and his men on the island as well as the Goths who were supposed to be guarding the straits separating Sicily from the Italian peninsula. The Romans then slowly but surely moved up the boot of Italy to the fortified city of Neapolis (present-day Naples), and encountered their first serious resistance in Italy. Naples was the center of Gothic power in southern Italy and was defended by a strong garrison.Belisarius could not risk bypassing Neapolis. Therefore, he initiated a blockade of the citys walls from land and sea but realized he could not afford to besiege the city indefinitely and give the Goths time to raise reinforcements to destroy the Romans. Thankfully for Belisarius, Theodahad was indecisive and made no attempt to reinforce Neapolis. The fortifications would still be an immense challenge, making it nearly impossible to bring ships close enough to attack the city.Aqueduct Tunnels Beneath Naples. Source: The Hydria Virtual MuseumTwenty days passed, and several attempts were made to take the city by assaulting its walls. With no success and only further losses that the Romans could not sustain for long, in true Belisarius fashion, a brilliant stroke of luck would soon manifest in one of the Roman foederati (allies): an Isaurian who had climbed up a broken part of an aqueduct leading into Neapolis. Belisarius tried to get the garrison to surrender one last time, but they refused.After some initial difficulties, the troops exited the aqueduct tunnel. They ran to the northern walls, killing the sentinels in the two main towers and taking the Goths entirely by surprise (Jacobsen, p. 91). The defenders were shocked but managed to hold for a more extended period on the South Wall, but once the Romans attacked in the rear, they finally fled, and at last, the road to Rome lay open.Restoration of RomeThe Walls and Gates of Rome in the early 6th century. Source: 1919 Edition of Procopius History of the Wars translated by H. B. DewingBy 536 CE, Theodahad began contemplating his next move against Belisarius. He established a Goth garrison in Rome, but placing Gothic troops in the city set off rioting. When protests escalated, the nobles who had once supported Theodahad lost confidence in him. Citing his ineffective leadership and failure to protect major cities such as Neapolis, they removed him from power. In his place, they selected the warlord Vitigis, an experienced soldier, to be the new king. (Parnell, pg. 93). Theodahad soon fled for his life, but Vitigis and the nobles hunted him down and killed him near Ravenna.Vitigis returned to Rome and demanded that Pope Silverius swear an oath of loyalty to the Gothic cause. He demanded the same vow from the Senate and other leading citizens. Vitigis even held several senators hostage as a reminder of the consequences for betrayal. Despite his bravado, he avoided immediate confrontation with Belisarius. Instead, he placed 4,000 men in the garrison before departing for Ravenna to counter a Frankish threat to the Gothic heartlands in northern Italy. He was confident that the garrison could provide adequate protection until he returned with reinforcements.In Vitigis absence, Pope Silverius sent an envoy to Belisarius, urging him to march with all haste to Rome to take possession of the city. As the Roman expeditionary force advanced along the Via Appia, the Gothic garrison prudently chose to retreat. Belisarius led his men into the city via the Porta Asinaria without serious opposition. He sent the one remaining Gothic commander to Emperor Justinian with the keys to the city (Sarris, p. 227).The Gothic CounterattackKing Vitigis of the Ostrogoths, 17th century. Source: The Austrian National Library, ViennaBelisarius knew that the Goths would direct their vengeance against him sooner or later. Belisarius ordered a moat to be dug around the city walls of Rome, and for the areas of the walls that had deteriorated due to neglect to be repaired (Hughes, p. 133). Using Rome as his principal base, Belisarius also dispatched troops to take control of the surrounding countryside.Alongside the repairs to the walls, he stockpiled provisions for a siege, even though the citizens informed him that attempts to defend all of Romes walls were not possible. All able-bodied Roman males were signed up to protect the walls and free up Belisarius men for field duty in case they had to fight beyond the city walls of Rome. Belisarius reputation as a skilled military leader encouraged neighboring Gothic commanders to join his forces despite Vitigis foot soldiers and cavalry outnumbering the Roman army.Even with their significant numerical advantage, Vitigis could still not surround the citys complete circuit defenses when the Goths finally arrived. The King of the Goths also did not fully feel comfortable trying to take Rome by storm, which would inevitably bring significant casualties and could easily lead to a complete collapse in morale (Sarris, p. 228).As the siege tightened, Belisarius sent Justinian a letter imploring the emperor to provide reinforcements. Justinian ordered more men from Greece to Italy, but this proved painfully slow. Vitigis looked for any tactics to break the Romans determination. He ordered his troops to block the aqueducts leading into the city. He wanted Romes citizens to suffer for choosing the wrong master.Belisarius thwarted Vitigis vengeance with a clever solution. He showed the citizens that the Tiber River could provide both a natural defense and hydraulic power for the mills that made the citys flour. With this strategy, Belisarius prevented riots and increased support. He planned food rationing and organized shelters in the citys buildings.The Siege of Rome BeginsWalls of Rome: The Aurelian Wall. With the Pyramid of Cestius. Painting by Isaac Weld, 1818. Source: The Yale Center for British Art, ConnecticutDespite the initial indecisiveness about a direct assault on Rome, the Goths realized they could not afford an indefinite siege. Vitigis ordered the construction of great siege towers to breach the massive Aurelian Walls. The fighting was incredibly desperate as the Romans had to fight against two simultaneous attacks on the walls. Time after time, the enemy came within mere inches of overwhelming Belisarius men.Belisarius seemed to be everywhere at once, firing arrows and aiding his men in hacking away at the scaling ladders. Soon, 30,000 Goths lay dead or dying on the battlefield, and Vittigis was left with seemingly nothing but the ashes of the smoldering remains of his siege towers (Brownsworth, p. 94).Despite these early victories, Belisarius knew the siege would test the limits of his soldiers capabilities. Fortunately, he had capable officers and seasoned veterans at his disposal. Belisarius could trust his subordinates to execute orders and adapt to the changing conditions of the battlefield. Still, he understood that his mission required further reinforcements, so he asked Justinian for additional troops. The Emperor ignored Belisarius requests. If his most skilled general could deliver Africa with a mere handful of men, why should Italy be any different?Just as the Romans manpower was at a breaking point, Justinian relented and sent reinforcements. Within the Gothic camp, Vitigis forces grew impatient and weary. They were exposed to the elements, running short of food and trying to avoid sickness in unsanitary conditions. Vitigis knew he was fighting a losing battle. Even the land itself around Rome seemed utterly exhausted (Brownsworth, pg. 95).The Light of Rome Is Not Yet ExtinguishedMap of Europe in around 565 CE after Justianians reconquests. From A History of medieval and modern Europe from secondary schools by W. S. Davis and N. S. McKendrick, published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920. Source: The Library of Congress, Washington DCOnce Vittigis figured out that a Roman advance force had managed to slip out of Rome and capture the town of Rimini, only 33 miles from Ravenna, he realized there was no glory to be gained and cursed the winds that brought these Romans to his shores.He ordered his army to withdraw from Rome, and Belisarius ensured that the Goths would pay for their arrogance by inflicting a humiliating rout on them.With only a few thousand men, the Roman general had taken on the mighty Ostrogothic Kingdom and managed to cripple its fighting abilities within only two years (Brownsworth, p. 96). Having fallen to barbarians on several occasions over the previous centuries, the Eternal City of Rome now seemed secure under the firm protection of the empire, but would it stay that way?BibliographyBrownworth, L. (2009). Lost to the west. The forgotten Byzantine Empire that rescued Western Civilization. Three Rivers Press.Hughes, I. (2009). Belisarius: The Last Roman General. Westholme Publishing, LLC.Jacobsen, T. C. (2012). The Gothic War: Justinians Campaign to Reclaim Italy. Westholme Publishing, LLC.Parnell, D. (2023). Belisarius & Antonia: Love and War in the Age of Justinian. Oxford University Press.Sarris, P. (2023). Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. Basic Books.

What Is The Ocean's Longest Fish?When it comes to size, they can be just as diverse. While some measure just millimeters, others are aquatic giants that would make Shaquille O'Neal look small. Here are some of the biggest ocean-dwelling fish.Whale shark (Rhincodon typus)Whale SharkImage Credit: subphoto.com/Shutterstock.comThe top spot goes to the whale shark, which can reach lengths of 12...

Store-bought marinara can be a big help in the kitchen, but this jarred sauce is not immune to food-safety concerns. Let's revisit a major recall!

Weve seen the playbook so many times: Democrats accuse conservatives of fomenting violence, white supremacist action, and insurrection. While actual examples of the right-wing brutality