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While his father, John Adams, often takes the spotlight when one examines early American history, John Quincy Adams was no slouch. The son of the second president had a long and storied political career that didnt end after he served as the sixth president of the United States. From diplomat to senator to the White House and the House of Representatives, John Quincy Adams built a reputation for himself that was not only separate from that of his father but even stood independently from party lines and the status quo.Who Was John Q?John Quincy Adams mother, Abigail, engraved by Christian Schussele, likely around 1856. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBorn in Braintree, Massachusetts, to John and Abigail Adams, John Quincy Adams was not the eldest child but the eldest son of his family. With that role came expectations, and Adams seemed to have no qualms about achieving those goals. He had an older sister, Abigail Nabby, and two younger brothers, Charles (three years younger) and Thomas (five years younger).Adams was born on July 11, 1767. His parents doted on their four children (they had two additional children who died in infancy) and ensured that they had access to the best educational opportunities. His father, the future second president of the United States, was involved in political activism since before Adams was born, and was often absent for long periods.Witness to RevolutionA scene from the Battle of Bunker Hill by artist John Trumbull. John Quincy Adams observed the battle as a boy. Source: Museum of Fine Arts Boston via Wikimedia CommonsThough John Quincy was just a boy when the American Revolution got into full swing, it was very impactful on his young life. He worried about his fathers safety, as the senior Adams was heavily involved in leading the Continental Congress and was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, both treasonous activities in the eye of the law at the time. John Quincy later recalled feeling responsible for his mother and siblings while his father traveled during the war. British soldiers were a common sight in their hometown, and he and his mother watched the Battle of Bunker Hill from a nearby ridge. The war was a reality for the young Adams, and it shaped his upbringing.John Adams in his official presidential portrait by John Trumbull. Source: White House via Wikimedia CommonsWhen he was 10 years old, Adams life took an exciting turn when his father was appointed as special envoy to Europe. When Adams senior left the country for Europe in 1778, he took his son with him. Over the next seven years, John Quincy Adams spent time in various European countries, including England, Sweden, Russia, France, and the Netherlands. He briefly served as a translator on a Russian trip with diplomat Francis Dana and worked as his fathers personal secretary during peace negotiations in Paris to end the Revolutionary War. In addition to traveling and meeting important figures from the world over, Adams attended schools in Europe and became fluent in French, Dutch, and German. He studied fencing, music, and art alongside Benjamin Franklins grandsons at the Passy Academy and Paris. He then attended Harvard on his return, where he completed his education. After passing the Massachusetts Bar in 1790, Adams began his career as a lawyer.John Quincy Adams as secretary of state. Source: US Department of State via Wikimedia CommonsFollowing in his fathers footsteps, Adams began a series of diplomatic posts, including positions in Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. He joined the Massachusetts state senate in 1802 before becoming a US senator the following year. President James Monroe brought him into his cabinet to serve as Secretary of State, where he would influence the creation of the Monroe Doctrine.In 1824, Adams decided to seek the presidency. The race quickly became a controversial one, involving four candidates: Adams, Henry Clay, Andrew Jackson, and William H. Crawford. None of the candidates received a majority in the traditional election. Therefore, the election was sent to the House of Representatives for a decision. Rather than continue his campaign, Clay decided to encourage his supporters to vote for Adams instead. The House decided that Adams would be the sixth president of the United States, and he ascended to the role in February 1825.Mr PresidentLouisa Catherine Johnson Adams in 1821. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia CommonsNot long after John Quincy Adams was elected, he made Henry Clay his secretary of state. Political enemies immediately began to shout about corruption, claiming that the move was part of a deal the two had made during the election to ensure Adams got the top job. No corruption was ever proven, but the appointment ensured that Adams presidency was off to a controversial start. The fact that he was the first president to be the son of a former president did little to protect Adams from personal and political attacks. His enemies saw him as a stuffy politician, referring to him as your excellency and criticizing him for having a foreign-born wife. In fact, his wife, Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams, whom he wed in 1797, had an American father, though she was born in London. Until Melania Trump in 2017, she was the only First Lady born outside of the United States. The pair had four children by the time Adams became president.Getting to WorkJohn Quincy Adams, president. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia CommonsAdams refused to let controversy dictate his presidency. Instead, he focused on making positive progress for the country in a number of areas. One of his chief areas of focus was infrastructure throughout the United States. The Erie Canal was completed during his presidency, linking the Atlantic markets with the Northwest United States. He supported the use of federal funds for roads and canals across the United States and ceremonially broke ground for the Chesapeake & Ohio (C&O) Canal in 1828. To further his economic goals, in 1827, Adams closed all US ports to Britain and its colonies. Ongoing disagreements with England over tariffs and duties contributed to the declaration and led to the cultivation of exclusive trading relationships with other countries.A lithograph featuring John Quincy Adams in his role as the sixth US president. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia CommonsIn addition to linking the states in terms of transportation and commerce, Adams focused on the arts and sciences. Several scientific expeditions took place under his watch, and he established a national observatory. A number of Americas founding fathers, including George Washington and Benjamin Rush, had touted the idea of a national university. Adams made one last attempt at creating such an institution, only to find himself blocked by Congress, some members of which believed the measure to be unconstitutional.John Quincy Adams by an unknown artist. Source: National Archives and Records Administration via Wikimedia CommonsThough Adams was intent on improving Americas culture, he also recognized the importance of the military to the fledgling country. Standardizing the US military was a chief concern of his administration, and he worked to integrate the federal army and state militias. In 1826, the Adams administration created military training manuals in an effort to improve organization, education, and efficiency among US forces. Though Adams would not see war during his presidency, he was left to deal with the consequences of the War of 1812. In 1826, he attended mediation with the British in order to finalize financial obligations that were left unresolved by the Treaty of Ghent that ended the war. Russian Czar Nicholas I mediated the proceedings, which resulted in a completed settlement.The End of a PresidentDepiction of a ball held by the president and Mrs Adams for Andrew Jackson in honor of the 10th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans in 1825. Source: First Ladies.org via Wikimedia CommonsAndrew Jacksons supporters, still bitter at their champions loss in the previous election, came after John Quincy Adams with renewed fervor in the 1828 election, propelling Jackson to victory. After his loss, Adams planned to return home to Massachusetts and enjoy retirement on his farm. However, those plans were changed when he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1830. He served in the House until his death, focusing on civil liberties as one of his pet causes. John Quincy Adams had a stroke on the House floor in 1848 and perished two days later.The Death of John Quincy Adams. Source: US Capitol via Wikimedia CommonsA man of worldly experience, John Quincy Adams brought a unique perspective to the United States presidency. With the influence of his fathers presidency coupled with a driven mindset, Adams was well-equipped to handle the tasks ahead. Moving through accusations with nary a concern, Adams attempted to toss aside politics to achieve his goals.John Quincy Adams may not be remembered today as frequently as his father, but his role in propelling the United States forward in spite of internal strife is worth recollection.

On December 2, 1823, US President James Monroe held his annual message to Congress. In his speech, he announced that the Western Hemisphere would be closed to further colonization by European powers. In exchange, the US would adopt a policy of non-intervention in the Old Worlds affairs. In the following decades, Monroes address became a cornerstone of American foreign policy, the so-called Monroe Doctrine. As the US became an international power, the Monroe Doctrine provided the ideological framework for US expansion, especially in Central and South America.The Origin of the Monroe DoctrineMap of the Spanish Nation in 1812. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), a series of conflicts between France and various alliances of European powers, briefly redrew Europes geopolitical landscape, leading to French hegemony over most of the continent. While the United States tried to maintain a neutral position regarding Europes affairs, the Napoleonic Wars also affected the status quo of the Americas.When Napoleons Continental System and Great Britains counterblockade damaged the United States maritime trade and rights, President Madison declared war on Britain in 1812. Meanwhile, Napoleons military successes against Spain gave several Mexican and South American Spanish colonies the opportunity to declare their independence. Between 1810 and 1822, fifteen colonial territories established autonomous governments. By 1826, all former colonies had severed their ties with Spain. The United States recognized their independence, starting a profitable commercial relationship with the newly formed republics.After Napoleons first abdication in 1814, his adversaries met at the Congress of Vienna to redraw the map of Europe to avoid future upheavals and conflicts. To secure the new order, the leaders gathered in Vienna sought to restore the rulers overthrown by Napoleon to their thrones. The European powers also saw this measure as a means to counteract the republican and liberal movements born from the French Revolution.First Chilean Navy Squadron Chilean Fleet by Thomas Somerscales. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Armada de ChileIn 1820, the Congress of Troppau, a meeting of the conservative Holy Alliance powers, reiterated the Russian tsar and the restored rulers commitment to fight the spread of the liberal forces and their demands for constitutional reforms. Three years later, in 1823, France invoked the Troppau protocol to overthrow Spains constitutional government and return Ferdinand VII to the throne.Secretary of State John Quincy Adams was skeptical about the feasibility of Holy Alliances conservative program, believing that the United States had set a fundamental historical precedent. The influence of our example has unsettled all the ancient governments of Europe. I hold this revolution to be as infallible as the earth will perform a revolution around the sun in a year, wrote Adams.Despite the secretary of states confident words, Frances involvement in Spains affairs had alarmed the US government, raising the suspicion that Spain and other European powers might try to restore their colonial empires overseas. In 1821, for example, Tsar Alexander I of Russia stated his claim on the Pacific Northwest, prohibiting foreign vessels from navigating near the coast.An American Cause: Creating the Monroe DoctrinePortrait of James Monroe by Gilbert Stuart, ca. 1820-1822. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkRussian expansionist ambitions on American territories had also alarmed Great Britain, whose government intended to prevent the Holy Alliance from re-colonizing Latin America, a move that would harm their trade interests.In 1823, British Foreign Minister George Canning approached his American counterpart to propose that the two chief commercial and maritime states of both worlds issue a joint statement prohibiting the European powers from colonizing Central and South America. At the same time, Canning requested that the US and Britain relinquish any future annexation in the same region.Before accepting Cannings proposal, James Monroe opted to seek advice from his cabinet as well as from former presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. While Jefferson considered Cuba the most interesting addition which could ever be made to our system of States, he argued in favor of accepting the British governments offer, pointing out that it was an opportunity to bring her [Britain] mighty weight into the scale of free government, and emancipate a continent at one stroke. Madison similarly affirmed that the US would benefit from the proposed partnership with Britain.Portrait of John Quincy Adams by Gilbert Stuart, 1818. Source: The White House Historical AssociationState Secretary John Quincy Adams did not share the views of the two former presidents. During the cabinet meetings in the autumn of 1823, he strongly opposed Cannings plan, declaring that the British governments real goal was to prevent the US from expanding in Latin America. Adams also feared cooperating with a more powerful maritime country might ultimately weaken the US position on the international stage. It would be more candid as well as more dignified, to avow our principles explicitly to Russia and France, than to come in as a cock-boat in the wake of the British man-of-war, argued Adams.Rather than agreeing to a joint statement, according to the state secretary, the United States should seek a policy of non-intervention regarding the European countries affairs, focusing on mak[ing] an American cause, and adher[ing] inflexibly to that.The Monroe DoctrineThe text of Monroes message to Congress, Washington Republican Extra, 1823. Source: The Gilder Lehmanns Institute of American HistoryIn the end, Adams opinion prevailed. On December 2, 1823, James Monroe included a unilateral declaration of foreign policy in his annual speech to Congress. Citing the differences underlying the political systems of the Old World and the New World, the US president outlined the vision of a globe divided into two spheres of influence.In particular, Monroe announced that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.After asserting the USs claims on the Western Hemisphere, the president warned the European powers that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere, as dangerous to our peace and safety.In exchange, Monroe declared that the United States would not intervene in the affairs of the European countries and their colonies. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defense, reiterated the president.In asserting the American governments neutrality toward European affairs, Monroe heeded George Washingtons warning to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.The Evolution of the Monroe DoctrineAmerican Progress by John Gast, 1872. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Autry Museum of the American WestWhen Monroe gave his speech, the United States lacked the military and naval power to enforce the newly announced policy throughout the Western Hemisphere. Indeed, in the following years, the US would largely rely on the powerful British navy to thwart the European countries forays into the New World. Thus, for much of the 19th century, the Monroe Doctrine mainly remained a patriotic message for the nation and a symbol of the US intention to eventually have a crucial role in the global arena.In 1833, for example, the American government did not implement Monroes threat of armed intervention when Britain asserted its claim on the Falkland Islands. Similarly, in 1845, the US did not react when France and Britain introduced a five-year naval blockade against Argentina.In the 1860s, the Civil War prevented the American government from effectively enforcing Monroes policy during the Second Franco-Mexican War. Only in 1867, after the end of the internal conflict, was Secretary of State William H. Steward able to invoke the Monroe Doctrine to secure Frances withdrawal from Mexico.A political cartoon depicting Uncle Sam standing between the European powers and Latin Americans, Victor Gillam, February 1896. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Library of Congress, Washington DCWhile the United States initially struggled to enforce Monroes principles in South America, the policy was successfully implemented in North America in the 1840s. Combined with Manifest Destiny, a belief that the US had the right to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions, the Monroe Doctrine became a powerful tool in the territorial expansions in North America.In 1845, for example, President James K. Polk directly referred to the principle avowed by Mr. Monroe to justify the United Statess claim over Mexico, Texas, the Yucatan Peninsula, and Oregon. No future European colony or dominion shall with our consent be planted or established on any part of the North American continent, declared Polk.Toward the end of the 19th century, as the United States became an international power, the Monroe Doctrine supported its involvement in Central and South America. In 1895, Secretary of State Richard Olney invoked Monroes policy to warn Britain against intervening in the dispute over Venezuela and British Guiana. The United States is practically sovereign on this continent, and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interpositions, wrote the secretary of state.The Roosevelt CorollaryUS President Theodore Roosevelt. Source: The White HouseAfter the end of the Civil War, the United States began to grow exponentially. As coal and steel rails production rose by 800 percent and 523 percent, respectively, by 1885, the USs manufacturing output had surpassed Great Britain. Immigration doubled its population. In the 1880s, the United States also expanded its navy, aiming to no longer rely on British fleets to keep the European powers out of South America.By the turn of the century, the US sought to translate its economic growth into a predominant role in the international arena. As a result, the American government began to claim its right to extend its hegemony in Latin America. In 1901, for example, the Platt Amendment bound the US withdrawal from Cuba with the islands agreement to let America intervene in its internal affairs. Among the amendments supporters was Theodore Roosevelt, whose presidential term began in the same year.In 1904, in his annual address to Congress, President Roosevelt formulated the biggest expansion of the Monroe Doctrine: the Roosevelt Corollary. In his speech, Roosevelt declared that chronic wrongdoing in the Western Hemisphere may force the United States, however reluctantly to the exercise of an international police power.Roosevelts strengthening of Monroes principles was caused by tensions between several Latin American and European nations. In 1902, for example, Germany, Britain, and Italy enforced a blockade of Venezuelas ports when the Venezuelan government stopped paying its debts. The blatant disregard of the Monroe Doctrine alarmed the US, prompting the cabinet to reinforce its claim on the region.In the following years, Roosevelts interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine, along with his big stick policy, justified the US military intervention into numerous Latin American countries, including Santo Domingo, Nicaragua, and Haiti.A Cornerstone of US Foreign PolicyHis Foresight, a political cartoon of the Monroe Doctrine in Puck magazine. Source: Friends of the Lincoln Collection/Library of Congress, Washington DCIn 1823, President Monroe and Secretary of State Adams had formulated their principle to respond to a particular geopolitical order. Over the following decades, the Monroe Doctrine became a key tenet of US foreign policy, informing Americas role in international affairs.Originally aimed at ending the European powers colonial claims in the Western Hemisphere, the Monroe Doctrine and its later expansions paradoxically became the ideological basis for the United States interference in the affairs of Central and South America.Let Sam Do It, cover of the April 5, 1911 issue of Puck magazine. Source: Friends of the Lincoln Collection/Library of Congress, Washington DCAfter coming into office in 1913, President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to thaw the effects of the Monroe Doctrine in Latin America, replacing the 1823 principle with the Good Neighbor policy, a strategy aimed at establishing cooperation with the Latin American countries. While the new policy reduced the United States intervention in Central and South America, the American government continued interfering in the affairs of its neighbors whenever deemed necessary.The Monroe Doctrine and its complicated legacy continued to affect the relationship between the United States and Latin America in the 21st century, when political leaders like Hugo Chvez and Nicolas Maduro won the support of their citizens by denouncing it as a tool of American imperialism.

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