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After Commodore Matthew Perry visited Japan and cajoled the Tokugawa Shogunate to establish commercial and diplomatic relations, Japanese society was riven by divisions between modernizers and traditionalists. The modernizers eventually triumphed in the Meiji Restoration of 1868, after which Japan sought to create its own empire in Asia.Commodore Perrys Visit to JapanCeremonial dinner onboard the USS Powhatan during Commodore Perrys expedition to Japan, 1853. Source: nomunication.jpIn 1853, US Navy Commodore Matthew Perry set out on an expedition from the United States with the intention of visiting Japan and insisting that the reclusive country open its ports to trade with America. President Millard Filmores administration hoped to send a message to Europe that it was a force to be reckoned with by succeeding at a mission that European powers had failed in on several occasions. It also displayed the reach and influence of Americas new steam-powered warships.Up to this point, Japan had allowed the Dutch to maintain a port on an island off the city of Nagasaki. This was the only contact allowed between foreigners and Japan. Perry arrived in Edo Bay and landed a small force in July 1853. After delivering the administrations ultimatum, Perry departed with the aim of returning with a larger squadron to receive Japans answer. Japans shogun, Tokugawa Ieyoshi, was old and sick by the time Perry landed. His government had agreed to receive the letter, but was divided on how to respond to it.Japanese leaders had long sought to keep their nation from being exposed to outside influences due to a multitude of reasons. They feared allowing mass conversion to Christianity. They also feared that Japan could be at risk of being colonized by European powers. As a result, Japan maintained intense isolation from the outside world until Perrys squadron arrived. When Perrys squadron docked its ships in Edo Bay, Japanese people saw firsthand the technological superiority of Americas navy, something that they could not yet match.Terms of the Treaty of KanagawaArticles I and II of the Treaty of Kanagawa, 1854. Source: hiroshima-pows.orgWhen Perrys squadron returned, the Japanese government was in turmoil. Ieyoshi had died and was replaced by his son Tokugawa Iesada. The inexperienced shogun left power in the hands of the Council of Elders, headed by Abe Masahiro. Abe did not think that Japan was strong enough to hold off an attack by the Americans. He consulted Japans regional lords known as the daimy to determine what the response should be. An inconclusive result meant that Abe was able to convince other Elders to support his decision to accept Perrys terms.On March 31, 1854, Japan and the United States agreed to the Treaty of Kanagawa. Signed near the port of Yokohama, the treaty did not yet open trade with the US, but it granted the Americans numerous concessions. For instance, it allowed the US to open two coaling stations at the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate. It also ensured that American sailors shipwrecked on the Japanese coast could be rescued without fear of being imprisoned. Lastly, it allowed the United States to open a consulate at Shimoda, the first American diplomatic outpost on Japanese soil.Japan was not yet ready to open full trade and diplomatic relations with the United States when the treaty was signed. As a result, Perry agreed to put off an agreement with these conditions until a later date. Nonetheless, the Treaty of Kanagawa proved to be a seminal point in Japanese history. It led to Japans opening and the rise of its own imperial ambitions.The Harris TreatyUS Consul to Japan Townsend Harris, negotiator of the Harris Treaty, 1856. Source: Travels in ShizuokaIn 1856, Townsend Harris arrived in Japan to take up the post of Consul General. The diplomat hoped to sign a full trade agreement between the United States and Japan but lacked the support of a major military force such as Perrys squadron to back up his demands. It ultimately took him a longer time to get a treaty with the shogunate and he often faced challenges, not only from Japanese officials but also from European diplomats demanding favorable trade concessions of their own.By July 1858, Harris managed to obtain a treaty with the Japanese that expanded on the Treaty of Kanagawa. Several other ports were opened to trade with the United States. Additionally, foreign nationals accused of crimes would be tried by their own countries in consular courts instead of Japans legal system. This last point was because Harris believed that Japan went after foreigners disproportionately for crimes they were accused of. The Harris Treaty not only gave America extensive trading privileges with Japan, it also effectively reduced Japans sovereignty.Tokugawa Iesada agreed to sign the Harris Treaty against the wishes of Emperor Kmei because he feared that America would use force to get what it wanted. China had been attacked by the British and French in the Opium Wars and forced to sign unequal treaties. Japan hoped to avoid this outcome and was willing to give Harris what he wanted. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce became one of the first unequal treaties Japan signed with Western countries as the shogunate period came to a close.Establishing Ties With European PowersDrawing of the signing of the First Franco-Japanese Treaty, 1858. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOnce Japan and the United States signed a treaty, the way was open for other powers with a presence in the region to follow suit. Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom was eager to establish trade relations with Japan on favorable terms. Her High Commissioner for the Far East, Lord Elgin, went to Japan with the aim of securing similar terms to the Harris Treaty. Under the ensuing Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce, Britain was granted a diplomatic post in Edo and British ships were allowed to trade in three ports.France also desired a trade agreement with Japan. Its envoy to China, Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros, followed suit and obtained a treaty that copied the American one: a diplomatic post in Edo and access to five trading ports. While France did not have the same diplomatic leverage as Britain, it was still powerful enough to convince Japan to sign a treaty with them.During the 19th century, the Russian Empire turned its gaze eastwards. Russian settlements in the Far East expanded during the century, and Russian officials also sought influence in Japan. While Russia obtained its own treaty, Russo-Japanese ties would deteriorate quickly over the following decades as both powers contested for influence in Manchuria and Korea.The End of the ShogunatePainting of Saigo Takamoris revolt against the Meiji Restoration by Tsukioka Yushitoshi, 1877. Source: ThoughtCoThe treaties that the Shogunate signed with America and the Europeans exposed Japans weaknesses. If the country had really wanted to remain isolated, it would have developed the technology needed for its military to keep foreign ships away. It also would have ensured that it could attain technological parity with Western nations. On January 30, 1867, Emperor Kmei died and was replaced by his son, Meiji. He proceeded to strip Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu of his power and announced the restoration of imperial rule. This coincided with a drive by imperial ministers to modernize the nation.Meiji and his ministers sought to transform Japan into a nation capable of defending itself and providing effective social services. Massive industrialization took place, especially in the silk industry. Numerous castles associated with daimys loyal to the shogunate were destroyed and Shintoism became a state religion. Japans newly established trading relations allowed the country to import technology, allowing for greater industrial output. It also centralized authority by creating prefectures that consolidated imperial rule over all of the islands.Many Samurai were enraged with losing their power and the restructuring of the military. Repeated revolts took place against Meijis rule. In 1877, Saig Takamori, initially a supporter of Meiji, led the most persistent samurai rebellion during the restoration period. However, the imperial government had received assistance from Western advisors that professionalized the new Imperial Japanese Army. Mass conscription ensured that the government outnumbered the rebels. It also ensured that Japan had a military to work with when it set about building an empire.

Few historical events fascinate modern audiences as much as the Salem witch trials of 1692, which saw more than 200 people accused and 19 people executed for witchcraft. But what underlying factors allowed the witch trials to happen in 17th century Massachusetts, and can we empathize with the people who accused their friends and neighbors? Richard Marranca talks to Greg Houle about the factors that led to the witch trials in Salem and his recent book based on the experiences of his own family, the Putnams, as accusers during the panic.Greg Houle is a writer and storyteller living in Los Angeles. His work has appeared in numerous publications, and he is the creator and host of The Salem Witch Trials Podcast. He is a 7th generation member of the Putnam family of Salem. The Putnams of Salem is his first novel.RM: Hello, Greg. The last time I saw you was in that wonderful podcast from Danvers, MA. You and the panel offered a holistic portrait of Salem before, during, and after the Salem Witch Trials of 1692.The Witch, by Albrecht Drer, 1500. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtGH: One of the reasons Im drawn to the Salem witch crisis is because it encompasses so many feelings and emotions that are easily recognizable today. That panel in Danvers included three great experts on the witch hysteria in Salem in 1692: Emerson Baker, Rachel Christ-Doane, and Daniel Gagnon. I wanted them to discuss what makes this event so enduring and address why it happened in the first place. I think that by investigating these most basic questions, we can really get to the heart of why its so important.RM: You said that the devil was an existential threat.Can you reach back even further, not just at Salem but in Europe?GH: As you suggest, the notion of the devil or an evil figure has always been present in Christian thinking. The Malleus Maleficarum, or Hammer of Witches, was in many ways the Bible for witch hunts. It predates the Protestant Reformation, so the roots of this kind of paranoia stretch far beyond Puritanism.The idea of the witch, or the person who sells their soul to the devil, has been a part of Christianity for a very long time. But as the Protestant Calvinist belief system, from which Puritanism derived, eventually developed, the duality between good and evil, God and the devil, became much sharper. This evil now seemed to be more of an existential threat to those trying to live a Godly existence. The devil would interfere directly with ones life. You can imagine the paranoia that this sort of thing stoked among believers.El Aquelarre, by Francisco Goya, 1798. Source: Museo Lzaro Galdiano, MadridRM: For Salem, you discuss the atmosphere of fear, King Philips War, and the failures of the political-religious authorities. Civilization broke down, right? Is a changing, chaotic, fear-based society with huge convulsions more likely to have divisions and scapegoats?GH: Yes, absolutely. One of the most fascinating aspects about the Salem witch crisis is how a series of seemingly wide-ranging and not-obviously-connected events unfolded to provide the kindling for this tragedy. As our panel in Danvers discussed, trust in the system was eroding. The very royal charter that had awarded the Puritans their land in Massachusetts had been revoked a few years before the witch crisis. Two decades earlier, the indigenous peoples who had lived on that land for centuries started to change how they dealt with these settlers and were no longer content to allow them to steal it away from them. That shift created enormous conflict that helped to strike a great deal of fear among the Puritan settlers.Moreover, Salem itself had consistent difficulties with its church leadership for years, which certainly eroded confidence in spiritual matters. On top of all these things, changes were also happening in the economy: an ever-so-slight shift away from subsistence farming. The increasing population of European settlers in New England made land harder to come by and helped foment conflict among neighbors. More immediately, there had been a stretch of seriously cold weather that caused crop failures.Finally, there was a sense that three generations later, the Puritans were not living on a shining city upon a hill as they had expected. For many, the experience in New England had been a real struggle, and the Puritans were hardly a shining example of Christianity for all to see. Together, this created an atmosphere of friction, fear, and conflict that, in turn, created division. This allowed for scapegoating and cultivated the conditions for this horrible witch hunt.RM: Cotton Mather popped up in some of the podcasts and I recall, in your novel, The Putnams of Salem:A Novel of Power and Betrayal During the Time of the Salem Witch Trials. Who is he, and did he get pulled in two directions: status quo religion and the new science?Massachusetts Bay Colony Act recognizing the wrongful convictions and executions of Salem Witch Trial victims, 1713. Source: Library of CongressGH: Cotton Mather was a highly regarded Puritan clergy member in New England during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. His father, Increase Mather, was also very well-known and respected. Both played an important role in the witch crisis in Salem. In some ways, Cotton was a bridge between the first generation of Puritans in America and the newer generations, who were naturally veering off from the original course.As you say, he also considered himself a man of science. He lived during the dawn of the Enlightenment, and he truly embraced it. Im not sure he would view this as being different from being a man of God. Since the very early days of Christianity and other monotheistic religions, understanding the world through study seemed to go together with understanding God. I think Cotton Mather would have viewed science and religion in a similar vein.Most critically, the Mathers had initially supported the witch hunt in Salem, as well as the use of what is called spectral evidence against the accused. This was critical because spectral evidence was what those who claimed to be afflicted provided to the authorities, i.e., so-and-sos specter visited me or harmed me in some way. It was evidence that could not be corroborated by anyone else. Ultimately, Cotton Mather turned against the use of spectral evidence, perhaps because he saw how it was putting him on the wrong side of history.While Cotton Mather earns plenty of blame for his role in the Salem witch crisis, its also interesting to see how, ultimately, the Puritan clergy, including Cotton Mather, helped to shut down the hysteria in the end.RM: You mentioned hysteria or mass conversion disorder and collective anxiety. Did almost everyone get caught up in this, whether they took leading roles or remained quiet?Illustration of a courtroom scene in the Salem Witch Trials with an afflicted girl on the floor and the accused pointing upwards by O. C. Darley, William Shepard, and Granville Perkins, 1876. Source: University of Virginia LibraryGH: Conversion disorder, or what we used to call mass hysteria and what is now more commonly known as functional neurologic disorder, is a condition that many of the so-called afflicted people might have been experiencing in 1692. It wasnt something everyone in Salem experienced during the witch crisis. Essentially, its a condition that can cause people to manifest physical symptoms, such as vocal ticks, muscle spasms, and contortions. These symptoms are consistent with how those who claimed to be afflicted by witches were often described and cannot be explained by a physical disorder. Functional neurologic disorder often develops because of stress or psychological or physical trauma. Its very likely that some of the afflicted people were dealing with this, and there is precedent for this sort of thing, even in the modern day.RM: You mentioned that John Adams had even seen a hanging and Ben Franklins aunt was one of the accusers. Perhaps Hawthornes lineage was mentioned too. So, the witch trials had broad involvement from every walk of life, occupation, and turn of mind?GH: The most striking takeaway that I have from the experience of studying, talking about, and writing about the Salem witch trials is how many people living today have directly descended from somebody who was involved: accused, accuser, or both. When you think about it, it makes perfect sense from a practical point of view, but it also illustrates how enduring this moment in history is more than three centuries later. In addition, the powers that propelled the witch hunt are, sadly, human and very universal: fear, paranoia, and scapegoating.RM: In your novel and podcasts, you mentioned the brave souls who just didnt go along. Whydo those people, especially the old gentleman, stand against the witch trials? In fact, why do people go along with, or conversely go against, dumb shit?GH: I do not want to get political here, but the parallels with our own time are pretty striking. People have gone along with dumb shit for generations! But its important for us to keep in mind that in late 17th-century New England, the devil was very real to everyone. Witches were real and a legitimate threat, and everyone believed this. Also, in this largely pre-enlightened period, the devil was also how people explained unfortunate experiences. The fear and concern were palpable.With Salem specifically, it seemed that almost the entire region got caught up in the excitement in the beginning, but as our Danvers panelist and director of education at the Salem Witch Museum, Rachel Christ-Doane, says, there were a series of inflection points that helped turn people against the witch hunt: the initial execution of Bridget Bishop in early June, the flurry of executions over the rest of that summer, and the tortuous death of Giles Corey, who was an old man in his seventies. Eventually, people started to realize that the situation was getting out of control.RM: Can you mention a few of the well-known plays and movies about Salem? Are they accurate? Which do you like most?Scene from the 1996 film adaptation of The Crucible. Source: IMDbGH: By far, the best known is Arthur Millers The Crucible, which came out in the early 1950s and is often most peoples entry point into the Salem witch trials. Its a work of fiction, not unlike my own novel, but its also, of course, based on fact. The Crucible is an allegory about the Red Scare that happened when Miller wrote the play, and there are several liberties he took with the story, many of which, unfortunately, linger today.Take the story of Tituba, who was an enslaved woman in Reverend Samuel Parris household and one of the first women to be accused. Miller portrayed Tituba as a Black woman, but, in reality, she was Indigenous. He also makes it seem as if she were teaching the young girls of Salem about witchcraft when, in reality, there is no indication that was the case. These two inaccuracies are still commonly believed today but can be directly traced back to The Crucible.While it doesnt have anything to do with Salem, the 2015 film The Witch, which is about a tormented 17th-century New England family, provides a really good sense of what I imagine the fear and paranoia must have felt like to many in Salem in 1692.RM: How did Salem get so immersed in witch culture? You mentioned that a million people a year visit, especially in October. (We visit Salem most years, along with Concord, etc.) But the action happened in what is todays Danvers?Map of Salem Village during the witchcraft trials by W.P. Upham, 1866. Source: University of Virginia LibraryGH: Mostly, I think its a result of the name: we call them the Salem witch trails, therefore we go to Salem to connect with that event. There was a split between Salem Town and Salem Village, even in the 17th century. Eventually, Salem Village because Danvers and, as you mentioned, Salem Village is where most of the action took place.Most people who walk the streets of Salem, MA, today probably know very little about what actually happened nearby in 1692. Im not blaming them for that. It is what it is. Part of the reason I started my podcast was to provide a window into these remarkable eventswhy they happened and what they mean for us todaybecause I think the truth is actually more frightening.Over the last several decades, we seem to have conflated this historical event with modern notions of witchcraft, which often dilutes the actual history that took place. I also think that Salem has decided to embrace this for obvious reasons: it attracts people. I can hardly blame them for that.RM: Whats a good strategy for visiting Salem and Danvers? Walks, talks, museums, farms, and graveyards that one can visit? What architecture is left from that fateful era of 1692?GH: If youre really looking to explore the history, you should go to Danvers, formerly Salem Village. I would highly recommend doing a walking tour with Daniel Gagnon, who has been a guest on my show a few times. Hes from Danvers and is extraordinarily knowledgeable and thoughtful. You can trust what he says!The Rebecca Nurse Homestead is a great location to visit. She was one of the victims of the witch hunt, and its one of the few witch-hunt-era homes that you can tour. You can also see remnants of the parsonage where Reverend Parris and his family lived and where the afflictions began. You can see Ingersolls tavern, although it is a private home, so you cant go inside, which is where many of the early examinations of the accused took place.In Salem itself, the Salem Witch Museum does a very good job of outlining the history of the witch hunt and making it understandable. Its definitely worth a visit.I will also say DO NOT visit in October. Its just too busy at that time!Martha Corey, by John Ehninger, 1902. Source: Middle Tennessee State UniversityRM: If we journeyed back seven generations in a time machine, wed meet Thomas Putnam and his daughter Ann, your ancestors. Whats it like being related to them? How did that inspire you to write the novel? Did you have a eureka moment, or was this a slow evolution?GH: It was definitely a eureka moment for me!In spite of my lifelong passion for history and my familial connection to the events, I didnt have any particular interest in this moment in history until recently. Im not entirely sure why that was, but I think it had something to do with my preconceived notion about the Salem witch trials. To me, they seemed like the tragic result of some overzealous, misogynistic Puritan fanatics. It seemed like an embarrassing anomaly of history that wasnt worth the time.But when I happened to visit Salem during the summer of 2021 while back east to visit family, I suddenly became obsessed with the idea of what my ancestors must have been thinking during that intense year. What was going through their minds as they made these accusations? Why was Thomas so hell-bent on accusing his neighbors? And what was Ann suffering from? She must have been so frightened. What could have been going through her mind?These kinds of questions just kept coming up, and thats what led me to want to write the story from their perspective.RM: In the Authors Note, you wrote that you wanted to write a novel about why the Salem witch hysteria took place at all. You used many tools to understand the why. Do we know more over time, or is it still a mystery?GH: We will never know for certain why this tragedy happened. But my desire in telling this story, even as historical fiction, is to use Thomas and Ann as an entry point for understanding how something like this could happen in the first place. I also think its critical for us to understand the world they were living in: what drove them, what scared them, what were their hopes and concerns? I wanted to paint that picture for readers as well. And because its written in first person, the novel is somewhat myopic. Its not always easy for the reader to understand what is happening. That was intentional because Thomas and Ann were not all-knowing narrators. They are unreliable in many ways. Confusion, misunderstandings, and misinformation ran rampant.We tend to flatten out history as time goes on. We view Puritans, for example, as these staid, dower people. In actuality, they were dynamic and multifaceted, just like us. More than anything, I wanted to inject some human emotion into this moment. We cant simply say that all the accusers were lying or that they wanted to steal the land of those they were accusing. These answers are too simple and not correct. With this novel, I wanted to try to contribute to our understanding of the people involved in the witch hunt. I want to try to show them as dynamic, scared, flawed human beings with a wide range of emotions.RM: Can you tell us about Thomas and Ann, your ancestors, and the narrators of the novel? Between them, they accused 100 people of witchcraft. Did your family delve into this and tell stories about them and Salem? Was this part of a family or collective memory?House of Ann Putnam Jr in Danvers, c. 1891. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGH: The lore in my family existed, but it was very vague and much more connected to Ann than Thomas. Perhaps thats because Ann is the more sympathetic character. What I like about telling the story through their eyes is that they both represent different perspectives. Thomas is the third generation of his family to live in America. His grandfather and father, who was only a teenager at the time, immigrated to America from England in the 1630s. They were wildly successful, buying land and establishing themselves in Salem Village. By the time of the witch hunt, Thomas Putnam Jr. was a 40-year-old man of privilege, but he was clearly not doing nearly as well as his father and grandfather did. With more competition for land, its just not as easy for him as it was for them. Because of this, I chose to write Thomas as a desperate and fading patriarch, which, to me, seems very plausible given the circumstances.In Anns case, she is his eldest child. The fourth generation of Putnams in America. Her father holds their family in the highest regard, and so I saw him as putting pressure on Ann, wittingly or unwittingly, to be a good Puritan. Thats a lot for a twelve-year-old girl to handle. Moreover, Anns mother, Ann Senior, seemed to suffer from some psychological disorder, and that also created challenges for her. In many ways, Ann feels like this idealized Puritan who never had a chance to succeed because Puritanism was just a faade. She is an extraordinarily tragic figure. Both her parents died within two weeks of each other, seven years after the witch crisis. She was in her late teens and left to raise her siblings alone. She never married and likely died a bit of a pariah in the community.Tituba and the Children from A Popular History of the United States, 1878. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRM: In the novel, you wrote a bit about the hysterical girls and the enslaved Tituba and her husband, John Indian. What was their role in the witch trials? Is it too easy to scapegoat them, to blame them?GH: Im particularly fascinated by Tituba, an enslaved woman from Barbados living in this Puritan village in frigid Massachusetts. What must her life have been like? Its not surprising that she was viewed with suspicion.Titubas story is particularly pivotal because it was her testimony at the beginning of the witch hunt that ignited the flames. She explained that the devil had visited her and offered her nice things and that he told her there were several witches in Salem. Had she denied the accusations like the other two women who were first accused, who knows how the witch hunt would have developed? Why did she confess? Well never know for sure, but it was likely because she wanted to tell the authorities what they wanted to hear to get them off her back. Imagine how scared she must have been: an enslaved woman with no power or standing in the community being grilled by the authorities? It was a horrible situation for her to be in.Cover of Greg Houles The Putnams of SalemWhen it comes to the young people who claimed to be afflicted, I think its too simple to say they were all simply lying. Yes, in some cases, lies were certainly told. But, as I mentioned earlier, functional neurologic disorder was likely part of the equation as well because the fear that these children faced, whether it was real, imagined, or both, was extraordinarily frightening. Imagine for a moment the fridged darkness of a 17th-century New England village at night. Your pastor is constantly telling you that the devil is trying to deceive you, and youve heard frightening stories about natives attacking, killing, or stealing children. The fear was very palpable for them.Trial of George Jacobs, August 5, 1692, by Tompkins Harrison Matteson, 1855. Source: Peabody Essex Museum, SalemRM: As you said, we yearn for neat and tidy answers. But its much more layered. Your novel delves into the why. Did writing get you closer to that time and place, to the human condition in general? Is history a foreign country, or is it ever present? Is there anything youd like to add that we had to skip over? Any warnings?GH: Writing The Putnams of Salem reinforced my belief in the notion that people, whether they live now or lived centuries ago, are universal in so many ways. Then and now, we have hopes, fears, dreams, and concerns. We make mistakes, we triumph, we fail, we get jealous, and the list goes on and on. I tried to write Thomas and Ann with empathy. I dont wish to excuse the terrible role my ancestors played in this horrific moment in history, but I did want to try to understand it from their perspective. My biggest takeaway from this experience is that the human condition has remained pretty constant.

Hermes, known by his Roman name Mercury, is one of the most unconventional Olympian gods. As the god of shepherds, thieves, lies, commerce, and boundaries, he embodies a diverse range of human experiences. Considered a close friend to humanity, Hermes is credited with inventing fire, serving as the messenger of the gods, and guiding souls to the underworld. The Homeric Hymn to Hermes emphasizes his diverse nature and his ascent to godhood. Discover the captivating origin story of Hermes, an outsider among the gods and a trusted friend to humanity.Etymology of HermesHerm with an inscription linking it to the Hermes Propylaios, Alcamenes, 5th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSeveral etymologies have been suggested for the name Hermes. Some connect it to the Vedic Sarameya, derived from Sarama, the god of the storm or dawn, while others trace it to the word heruma (shelter), which comes from the verb heru (to protect). The earliest evidence for Hermess name predates the Greek language, appearing on the Mycenaean Greek Linear B tablets as e-ma-ha.However, most contemporary scholars believe that the name Hermes is tied to the ancient Greek word herma, meaning heap of stones, a monument that serves as a boundary marker. Travelers who passed by a herma would add a stone to these piles, which were typically located along significant boundary lines, such as those between homes, markets, and settlements. Over time, these stone piles evolved into wooden and stone pillars known as Herms, which featured a bust resembling early depictions of an older Hermes with an erect phallic display. While scholars continue to debate the origins of the term herma, many agree that the name Hermes is of pre-Greek origin.Depictions of HermesPhotograph of Hermes Ingenui, a Roman copy after a Greek original of the 5th-century statue by Marie-Lan Nguyen, 2009. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHermes is typically depicted as an athletic, beardless youth wearing his signature winged sandals and a petasos, a broad-brimmed sun hat. He is often shown naked or wearing a chiton (a short tunic) or a chlamys (a short robe).Regardless of his clothing, Hermes is easily recognized by his iconic heraldic staff, the kerykeion, also known by its Latin name, caduceus. This staff, made of solid gold and approximately the length of a mans arm, features two intertwining snakes that form a circle at the top, resembling horns. In ancient Greece, the kerykeion was used by heralds to symbolize their station and authority.Earlier depictions of Hermes differ significantly from the beardless youth most commonly associated with him today. Hermes is often portrayed as an older man, resembling a rural shepherd in these early representations. He typically wears a wide-brimmed, floppy hat and has a beard. This older portrayal of Hermes can be found on Herm busts, which scholars believe were connected to the god since his earliest origins.What Is Hermes the God Of?Mercury [Hermes], by Jonnard after William Blake Richmond, 1866. Source: Wellcome CollectionThe Greek god Hermes is often seen as an outsider among his fellow Olympian gods. Unlike the other Olympians, who tended to avoid humans, Hermes preferred to descend from the heavens and interact with mortals. Hermess strong connection to mortals is closely tied to the various domains he governed as a god. In fact, of all the Olympians, Hermess domain is most closely associated with the daily social functioning of human life.One of Hermess primary roles was as the messenger and herald of the gods, acting as an intermediary between the Olympians and the mortals who worshipped them. This function allowed Hermes to interact with humanity more than any other Olympian, which was reflected in the wide range of human-centered domains he oversaw.Hermes was the god of boundaries and exchanges, evident in his dominion over merchants, orators, thieves, commerce, travel, language, luck, lots, and even deception. He was also regarded as the god of shepherds and domestic animals; many attribute his association with theft to ancient stereotypes that portrayed all animal herders as notorious thieves.Souls on the Banks of the Acheron, by Adolf Hirmy-Hirschl, 1898. Source: The BelvedereGiven his roles as the god of shepherds, boundaries, and travel, it is not surprising that another significant aspect of Hermess function was as the Psychopompthe conductor of souls into the Underworld. Like a shepherd guiding their flock, Hermes led the souls of the dead from the land of the living to Charon, the ferryman of the dead, where they would begin their journey into the underworld.His connection to the underworld links him with Chthonic deities associated with the dead, such as Hades, Persephone, and the Furies. This relationship distinguishes him from his fellow Olympians, marking him as a deity that bridges the Chthonic and Olympian realms.Like many Chthonic deities, Hermes is associated with the Underworld and the earth, which granted him some influence over fertility. This connection is evident in the Herm pillars linked to him. These pillars, adorned with prominent phallic symbols and representing a powerful symbol of fertility, were positioned at significant social boundaries, such as homes, markets, and crossroads. They served to mark these spaces and act as protective wards.Outside homes, the pillars were believed to ward off evil and promote male fertility. At county borders and crossroads, they protected travelers and functioned as signposts, reflecting Hermess role as the god of travelers.Mercury, Bearer of Abundance on Earth, by Jean-Jacques Lagrene, 1781. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs the messenger and herald of the gods, Hermes was also recognized as the god of servants. He served as the patron god of cooks, artisans, teachers, and the Thetafree men who traveled the roads selling their labor for a wage.In the Odyssey, Odysseus claims Hermess patronage, boasting about his skills in domestic chores, such as tending the fire, cooking, carving meat, and pouring wine. As the patron of artisans, Hermes is credited with inventing several notable items, including a method for creating fire with fire sticks and sandals. He is also recognized for creating the lyre, a stringed musical instrument common in ancient Greece and more closely associated with the god Apollo.Photograph of lead curse tablet against Rhodin by Marie-Lan Nguyen, 2011. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHermes, often referred to as the bringer of dreams, could put people to sleep, which was famously illustrated in his encounter with Argus, the hundred-eyed giant.Although not as widely recognized as Hecate, the Greek goddess of magic, Hermes was commonly invoked in magical curses and spells. These curses were inscribed on lead curse tablets known as tabellae defixionis, designed to bind individuals to a Chthonic deity of the Underworld. Throughout history, Hermess connections to magic continued to evolve, culminating in the figure of Hermes Trismegistus, a syncretism of Hermes and the Egyptian god Thoth. This figure became associated with alchemy and mysticism and was particularly popular during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.The Hymn to Hermes: How a Newborn Became a GodPhotograph of a statue of Hermes wearing the petasus (round hat), a voyagers cloak, the caduceus, and a purse by Jastrow, 2006. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLike all Homeric hymns, the Hymn to Hermes celebrates the gods origins, functions, and worship. The Hymns often highlight a gods integration into the Olympian pantheon and, most importantly, how they acquired their unique powers and domains. Composed in the late 6th or early 5th century BCE, the hymn narrates the adventures and clever tricks of the newborn Hermes during the first few days of his life. According to the hymn, Hermes was born at dawn; by midday, he had invented the lyre, and by evening, he had stolen Apollos cattle.The Hymn to Hermes: The First DayAttic red-figure belly-amphora Hermes with his mother Maia, Nikoxenos Painter, 500 BCE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHermes was the son of Maia, one of the Pleiades Nymphs, and Zeus, the King of the gods. The hymn describes how Zeus would secretly leave his wife, Hera, while she was asleep at night to visit Maias cave on Mt. Cyllene and spend time with her. Because of the discreet nature of their affair, Hermess birth went unnoticed in Olympus, leaving his status as either a god or a mortal ambiguous.Not long after his birth, the precocious Hermes leaped out of his cradle and snuck out of his mothers cave to explore the world and establish his place among the gods. As he crossed the threshold of the cave into the outside world, baby Hermes discovered a tortoise. He was delighted by the creature, which inspired him to create something new and extraordinary.After praising the tortoise, Hermes took it back to his mothers cave, killed it, and used its shell, along with ox hide and reed stalks, to make the first lyre. He then attempted to compose a simple song honoring the gods using his new invention. However, he soon stopped playing as his thoughts turned to something elsehe was starving.Young Mercury Stealing Cattle from Apollos Herd, by Girolamo da Santacroce, 1540s. Source: RijksmuseumAs the sun set on his first day, Hermes waddled out of Maias cave, searching for food. As evening took over, Hermes spotted Apollos immortal cattle grazing near Pieria. Undeterred by the cattles owner, Hermes decided to steal 50 divine cows.True to his nature as a cunning trickster, he devised a clever plan to trick Apollo. He herded the cattle backward in a zig-zag pattern to confuse anyone trying to track their hoofprints. Hermes invented the first pair of sandals to conceal his tracks by weaving together young wood, tamarisk, and myrtle twigs and fastening them to his feet, completely disguising his footprints.While herding the cattle backward, Hermes encountered an older man, sometimes named Battus, tending his vineyard. He asked the man to pretend he had not seen him. Under the cover of night, Hermes secretly guided the cattle to a shed near the Alpheus River, where he fed and watered them. However, Hermess hunger was still intense, so he prepared a meal.He invented a new method of creating fire using laurel branches and dried wood, allowing him to produce a roaring blaze. Although Hephaestus is known as the god of fire, and Prometheus is credited with stealing fire from the gods and giving it to humanity, the Hymn to Hermes proudly asserts that Hermes was the one who first invented fire.Mercury and Battus, by Adam Elsheimer, 1676. Source: Stdel MuseumHermes set aside two of the oxen, expertly butchered the animals, and cooked the meat on a spit roast over the roaring fire. Once the delicious beef was ready, Hermes divided it into twelve equal portions and distributed them by lot among himself and the other Olympian gods.This division of meat into twelve equal portions established the first ritual sacrifices commonly practiced in ancient Greece. Twelve portions would be set aside for each Olympian during important religious rites and animal sacrifices. As the god associated with servants, domestic animals, lots, and inventions, it is fitting that Hermes would be the one to establish the method of ritual sacrifice.Mercury and Argus, by Jacob Jordaens, 1620. Source: RKD Netherlands Institute for Art HistoryDespite his rumbling stomach and the delicious food right before him, Hermes could not bring himself to eat it. The gods consumed only nectar and ambrosia, not meat. Consuming meat would jeopardize his chances of securing a place among the Olympians, especially since he had not been recognized by his father, Zeus. Frustrated by his predicament, Hermes quickly disposed of the evidence of his dilemma by throwing his sandals into the Alpheus River, burning the meat in the fire, and erasing all traces of the fire pit. As the dawn of his second day alive began, Hermes transformed into mist and sneaked back into his cradle in his mothers cave.Despite his cleverness and sneakiness, Hermess mother was aware that her son had been misbehaving and began to scold him. Hermes defended his actions and explained to his mother that if Zeus would not acknowledge him as his son and a god, then he would resort to trickery and theft, becoming the prince of thieves if it meant ensuring a better lifeaway from their gloomy cave, surrounded by divine riches, status, and plenty of food to eat.The Hymn to Hermes: The Second DayLandscape with Apollo and Mercury, by Claude Gelle, 1660. Source: The Wallace CollectionAs the sun rose on Hermess second day, Apollo descended from Olympus to check on his beloved cattle. To his dismay, most of the cows had disappeared. Apollo approached an older man who was tending to his vineyard and inquired about what had happened. The older man, disregarding Hermess warnings, recounted a scene that he could hardly believe: he had witnessed a baby with strange feet leading several cattle in a zig-zag path backward the day before.Apollo, the god of prophecy, observed a bird omen that revealed to him that the thief was a newborn child of Zeus. Struggling to follow the backward tracks, he was struck with fear and confusion by the strange, monstrous footprints of Hermess sandals. Eventually, Apollo managed to trace the tracks back to Maias cave.Upon entering the cave, Apollo found Hermes pretending to sleep in his cradle. This ruse did not fool Apollo, so he began searching Maias cupboards for evidence of the cattle theft. After failing to find any clues, Apollo warned Hermes to reveal the location of the cattle or face being thrown into Tartarus by him.Apollo and Mercury or Allegory of Air, by Francesco Albani, 1630. Source: Louvre MuseumThe future god of language and lies pretended to be ignorant and informed Apollo how absurd it was to accuse a child who had only been born yesterday of cattle theft. Hermes lied, claiming he did not even know what a cow was and had never left his cradle. Apollo almost believed Hermess story, but as the god of prophecy, he foresaw that Hermes would steal and guide others to steal for many nights to come, naming him the prince of thieves.Apollo then grabbed Hermes under his arm, intending to force him to reveal the location of the stolen cattle. However, Hermes was not as helpless as he appeared. While in Apollos grasp, he farted and sneezed, which Apollo misinterpreted as a divine omen directing him to the location of his cattle.Apollo dropped Hermes to investigate the smelly omen while Hermes continued to insist on his innocence. During this moment of distraction, Hermes persuaded Apollo to take him to Olympus so that Zeus could settle their dispute. Apollo agreed, and the two brothers soon arrived before Zeus for judgment.Apollo presented his accusations against young Hermes, who responded with clever lies and manipulative wordplay to avoid incriminating himself in front of the gods. Although many of the Olympians present believed Hermess story, Zeus saw through his sons cunning deceptions and found it quite amusing. He ordered the brothers to reconcile and instructed Hermes to show Apollo where he had hidden the cattle.The Hymn to Hermes: The Deal to GodhoodMercury Returning the Cattle of Admetus to Apollo, by Claude Gelle, 1600-1682. Source: SothebysThe two sons of Zeus complied, and Hermes led Apollo to where he had hidden the cattle near the Alpheus River. Apollo also noticed the remnants of Hermess sacrifices, along with an awkward attempt to eat meat.The remains of the butchered cattle made Apollo pause in fear. The fact that an infant less than a day old had the intelligence and strength to butcher two cattle was truly terrifying. Apollo confronted Hermes, telling the young child that he was too strong, crafty, and dangerous to be left alone. He then attempted to restrain him with magical vines.The god of thieves easily evaded the vines and instead bound Apollos cattle. Before Apollo could react, Hermes took out the lyre he had invented just the day before and began to play a beautiful song. This melody told the story of the gods origins, how they acquired their powers, and how they came to be part of the pantheon.Apollo, the god of music, was captivated by the instrument Hermes played. Eager to learn more about this marvelous music, Apollo sat down with Hermes, who offered Apollo an irresistible deal.Mercury Giving a Lyre to Apollo, by Carlo Cesio, 16th century. Source: Harvard Art MuseumsHermes offered to trade his lyre for Apollos cattle. Apollo agreed and made Hermes the keeper of herds, granting him dominion over domestic animals. Furthermore, under Zeuss instructions, Apollo appointed Hermes as the god of exchange, theft, and travel, gifting him the kerykeion. He also designated Hermes as the herald of the gods and the psychopomp, guiding the dead to the Underworld.In return, Hermes agreed to swear an oath to never steal from or deceive the immortals again. He was also granted dominion over the oracle of the Bee Maidens. This agreement was acknowledged by Zeus, who confirmed Hermess position as an Olympian who delights in consorting with both immortals and mortals alike.Hermes: Outsider and Friend of HumankindMercury and Jupiter in the House of Philemon and Baucis, Jacob van Oost, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHermes is often recognized as the god who brings joy to humanity and is considered a friend to mortals. He is a celebrated inventor, with his inventionsnotably fire and musical instrumentsgreatly enriching human life.What makes Hermes particularly interesting is his frequent interactions with mortals, which are characterized by a familiar, humorous, and casual tonea contrast to the more distant interactions of his fellow Olympians with humans. This close relationship is further demonstrated by how he is portrayed; he often becomes the butt of jokes. For example, in his hymn, he tricks his brother using a fart, an act that might be deemed sacrilegious if directed at many other Olympian gods.Unlike the other Olympian gods, Hermess realms of influence are entirely human-centric. He does not preside over natural forces or intense emotions; instead, he is the god of commerce, domestic work, artisans, and communication, rooted in human society and culture. This connection to humanity may contribute to his status as an outsider among the gods.Even within his own hymn, Hermes is depicted as an outsider who must take what he desires, which is a very human story. As the god of boundaries, he feels comfortable among the Olympians, humans, and the Chthonic gods of the dead, being accepted by all but never fully belonging to any particular group.