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The government shutdown might be over, but the political and financial problems that dog Obamacare havent gone away.Congress is now debating a second extension of the temporary tax credits that have

NASA's SOFIA observatory captured a rare image of a glowing gas ring in Cygnus X a vast star-forming region 4,500 light-years away.

Japan during its Medieval Period was an especially war-torn place, with the nadir of unity taking place during the Sengoku Period. The samurai caste pledged their allegiance to daimyo, who in turn swore nominal fealty to the shogunate. This did not stop the various daimyo from warring with one another for greater power, land, access to resources, and other reasons. To protect themselves from each other and against peasants who might have gotten the idea to revolt, they constructed elaborate castles equipped with a variety of defensive measures.Where Were Japanese Castles Built?Osaka Castle, by Yoshida Hiroshi, 1935. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgThroughout history, warlords and nobles would have built their strongholds in locations that made them easy to defend and difficult to access. Japan is a very mountainous country, so the samurai took advantage of this fact. Many castles were built on mountaintops originally during the Sengoku and earlier periods. Having such a high vantage point would provide a complete view of the surrounding area. These mountain strongholds were called yamajiro (mountain castles). These castles were easy to defend, but the difficulty getting into the castle also meant difficulty getting out; therefore, it was hard to control the surrounding territory with this type of layout.Later on during the Edo Period (1603-1867 CE), the immediate need for defensive positions waned because warfare was largely a thing of the past since Japan had been unified. Therefore, daimyo could build castles on lower ground. These castles were called hirajiro (plains/flatland castle). They would be easier to access and act more as a symbol of the daimyos power and authority. They could also be a cultural and trade hub.A compromise between the two, called hirayamajiro (plain-mountain castle), was both militarily defensible and easy to use for governing the surrounding province. Castles built on waterways or by the ocean were called mizujiro, or water castles.Building MaterialsOne Hundred Views of Famous Places, Yatate-matsu Cedar, by Utagawa Hiroshige II. Source: Edo Tokyo MuseumJapan is a mostly resource-poor area, so people had to make do with the materials that were available. Being a heavily forested country, especially with bamboo, builders would use wood for the main structures and framework of the buildings. While wood is prone to catching fire, it is also comparatively light and easier to harvest and work with. More importantly, it is flexible; given the frequency of earthquakes in the area, having material that can flex under tension and compression is vital. The three main types of wood used to build castles were cypress, red pine, and cedar.Because castles were built on hills, they used the hill as the basis of the castle foundation. Rain, flooding, earthquakes, and the general effects of erosion could destabilize the castle foundation. To protect against this, stone was transported from quarries and piled around and atop the hill as reinforcement.One of the most visually distinctive features of a Japanese castle is the roof, which was constructed with interlocking shingles or tiles. They were originally made out of lacquered cypress tree bark, but wealthier daimyo would use ceramic tiles. The roofs curves and upward angles near the edges were designed to give the most protection to the building from rain, otherwise, the wood would rot. The roof being so large shielded the building from sunlight, making the interior dim. The upward curves at the edges allowed more sunlight to come in through the windows.DecorationTale of the Forty-Seven Ronin, by Utagawa Hiroshige. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgAlthough Japanese castles were built with practical concerns in mind as well as aesthetic ones, that didnt stop the builders from sometimes adding purely decorative elements. For example, atop the tenshu, which was the main keep and the tallest structure, there would often be sculptures of mythical creatures. The shachi, a dolphin-lion hybrid, was the one used most often because it was believed to possess powers over rain and would help to protect the castle from damage from storms. Builders would put one on each end of the roof, one male and one female. They were made of gold or wood plated with gold.Most rooms inside Japanese castles and buildings in general were built for design flexibility. Fusuma, screens that were decorated with artwork depicting scenes of nature or mythical beings, could be used as movable dividers between different rooms, allowing the interior of the castle to be reconfigured according to the needs of the inhabitants. They are similar to shoji, but where a fusuma completely blocks visibility, shoji screens allow diffused sunlight to pass through.Common Layout AspectsHikone Castle in the Early Summer, by Hagiwara Hideo, 1949. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgWhen approaching a Japanese castle, the first thing you would likely notice is the tenshu. This is the main keep and the heart of the castle, from which the surrounding countryside can be observed. The daimyo did not actually live in this portion in their daily life, but were able to retreat to it during a siege because it was heavily defended. Most tenshu are built to look like they have fewer stories externally than actually exist. Part of this is because of the Japanese aesthetic of asymmetry, and part is to confuse anyone who might have attempted to infiltrate the compound, or, for instance, to foil attacks through windows.At the corners of the outer walls and evenly spaced, you would see yagura, or watchtowers. These consisted of one or two stories and were used, as the name implies, for storing arrows for archers that would be posted on the wall. There could also be an astronomy tower for nighttime stargazing.The main gate on the other side of the moat from the main bridge would be narrow to limit the number of people who could enter at once. Immediately past the outer walls, once the gate is cleared, you would encounter a sharp right-angled turn to get into the outermost bailey courtyard, known as the sanno-maru, or third mound. Then, after navigating through mazes of corridors, the ni-no-maru second mound and the honmaru, which was the inner courtyard containing the tenshu. The labyrinthine design made it hard for any invaders to make their way to the main keep where the daimyo would be taking refuge if not engaged in combat. The narrow corridors also hampered any effort at cavalry assault.Below ground were basements used for fireproofed storage of food and other supplies to help last during a prolonged siege or during a famine.DefensesNagoya Castle, by Tsuchiya Koitsu, 1937. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgMany Japanese castles would have a wide moat, sometimes filled with water. This was rarer in Yamajiro because they would use the mountains natural topography as part of the defenses, and it was easier to maintain.Rather than having stone walls, many castles had stones stacked in an inward-angled pile, called ishigaki, as seen in the image above. It was used as a raised foundation that was, for practical purposes, the lower part of the wall, and to lessen the likelihood of damage during an earthquake, no mortar was used to hold the stones together. Instead, any gaps between the larger stones were filled with packed earth or smaller stones.Weve discussed the outer defenses of castles in Japan. If you were inside the buildings, there would be some cleverly hidden defensive mechanisms. For example, some sections of the floor are called usuigabari nightingale floors. They would make a distinctive squeak if stepped on, so it would be impossible for someone to pass through without being noticed.Should a shinobi be attempting to sneak through the castle, they would likely encounter rafters and similar surfaces adorned with caltrops and spikes to prevent climbing or having a safe surface to stand on.As the saying goes, a wall is only as strong as those defending it. The samurai themselves had various security protocols in place, such as passwords, signs/countersigns, and document requirements. If it came to open battle, the samurai would fire on the attackers through arrow slits in the yagura, or siege weapons could be mounted on the walls.Castles That Still StandHimeji Castle, by Tokuriki Tomikichiro, 1950s. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgDuring the Sengoku Period, hundreds of castles rose from the countryside, but most have been destroyed over the intervening centuries. Several castles that were designated as cultural treasures or important historical sites have been preserved and undergo restoration as needed.Osaka Castle, built in 1597, is Japans most well-known castle that still stands. Built in 1597 by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The tenshu has five stories, with three extra underground. Osaka Castle has been the target of many sieges, most notably the Siege of Osaka that cemented Tokugawa rule. The castle has been destroyed and rebuilt several times over the course of its history.Himeji Castle, located in Hyogo Prefecture, is the largest castle in Japan. It was originally a hilltop fort built in the 1300s, but it was later demolished and rebuilt, and expanded during the 1580s by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. This castle is named for having the appearance of a heron spreading its wings because of its curving walls and buildings painted completely white.In Nagano Prefecture (formerly Shinano, the home of Takeda Shingen), stands Matsumoto Castle, also called Karasu-jo. It gets this name from its resemblance to a crow due to the black-painted walls. Unlike many other castles in Japan, Matsumoto still has its original tenshu intact. The Meiji Restoration of 1867 caused the government and society to rapidly modernize, in the process demolishing many of the old castles or repurposing them into government buildings.Nijo Castle, located in Kyoto, was more a palace than a defensive castle, because, unlike the others weve listed, it was constructed after Tokugawa Ieyasu had unified Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate used it as a residence in Kyoto, even though the capital of the government was Edo; they still wanted to maintain a close watch on the Emperor.

With the loss of over 600,000 soldiers, the Battle of Stalingrad was an unmitigated disaster for the German war effort against the Soviets. With dwindling supplies, logistical nightmares, and an increasingly powerful enemy, the Germans recognized they needed to achieve a spectacular victory to prevent the Soviets from advancing westward. In June 1943, the Germans threw the dice and gathered all the forces they could muster and struck the Soviet line along the Kursk salient. Meeting them in combat was a determined and well-organized force that outnumbered them two to one. This was the Battle of Kursk, the largest tank battle in history.Background to the Battle of KurskThe situation around Kursk in the summer of 1943. Source: Emerson KentFighting on the front line in 1943 saw the development of a Russian salient, extending westwards around the city of Kursk. For the Germans, keeping their offensive alive was a desperate task after the crushing defeat at Stalingrad. The Germans devised Operation Citadel, a plan to enact a pincer movement. This push would involve advancing northward from Belgorod and southward from Orel to meet up in Kursk in the middle of a 160-mile stretch. This action would create a cauldron and cut off all the Soviet soldiers within it, forcing the surrender of a significant portion of the Soviet army.The Germans wanted to launch the offensive in April, but the terrible supply situation pushed this date back to July, when the Germans finally finished their preparations. They had, according to military historian David M. Glantz, amassed an army of 780,000 troops, 2,928 tanks, and 7,417 artillery pieces. These were arranged into a total of 37 infantry and panzer divisions and were supported by 1,800 aircraft.The plan for Operation Citadel, the German attempt to encircle the Soviets by capturing Kursk. Source: tarnmoorThe months of German buildup to the offensive gave the Soviets plenty of time to prepare, and they had a good idea of what the Germans were trying to do. While the Germans tried to cover their preparations with deceptions such as false troop movements, Soviet intelligence was mostly successful in uncovering these. They worked with the Lucy Ring, an anti-Nazi espionage operation headquartered in Switzerland and led by Rudolf Roessler, a German refugee. They transmitted many of the details of Operation Citadel to the Red Army.After ditching an idea for a pre-emptive attack, the Soviets prepared defensive fortifications and dug in. The Soviets laid minefields and built anti-tank ditches and bunkers. The density of mines was staggering, with up to 1500 anti-tank mines per square kilometer. They prepared for likely avenues of attack and created defenses to funnel the enemy into kill zones. They were planning an elastic defense strategy that would initially yield ground, drawing the Germans into Soviet territory before surrounding them. Engineers also constructed tens of thousands of kilometers of trenches and communications lines, ensuring the troops could move ad be resupplied under heavy fire.With all the defensive positions prepared and covered and with masses of reserves ready, the Soviets had almost two million soldiers, 5,000 tanks, 31,000 artillery pieces, and 3,500 aircraft to defend the salient.Both German and Soviet numbers would increase during the battle as more reserves arrived, boosting the strength of both armies.The Battle BeginsMarshals Konstantin Rokossovsky (left) and Georgy Zhukov (right), who led the Soviet efforts at Kursk. Source: russiainphoto.ruOn July 4, 1943, the German attack began in the south with efforts to capture the high ground. These actions were successful, and the Germans managed to establish artillery positions. Late in the evening, the Soviets launched a major artillery and rocket barrage of the German forward positions, focusing on the II SS Panzer Corps.In the north, a major artillery duel started, but the Soviets failed to completely disrupt the German forces, and after a particularly heavy artillery preparation, the Germans began their advance.The Soviet Air Force (VVS) launched a pre-emptive strike on the Luftwaffe airfields but failed to obtain any significant results. On the southern flank, the Luftwaffe had air superiority for several days after the initial start of the operation, while in the north, the air forces were evenly matched.The Battle DevelopsSoviet soldiers during the Battle of Kursk. Source: Moscow TimesOn the morning of July 5, the major offensive began. In the north, Field Marshal Walter Models 9th Army pushed southwards with ten divisions. Leading the advance were the unmatched and formidable Tiger tanks. The offensive also marked the combat debut of several new and highly anticipated German armored vehicles. The Panther tank, designed to counter the superior T-34 used by the Russians, boasted a powerful 7.5 cm KwK L/70 gun and thick frontal armor. Though they suffered from mechanical breakdowns early in the operation. Also present were the formidable Ferdinand (Elefant) heavy tank destroyers, armed with a long-barreled 8.8 cm Pak 43/2 L/71gun and boasting exceptionally thick armor, making them nearly impervious to Soviet frontal fire.Minefields slowed the advance, as did a Soviet counterattack, which was thoroughly defeated. The German attack penetrated about six miles before stalling. Soviet artillery bombardments and minefields slowed the German advance to a crawl. The Soviets adapted their tactics to these new armored threats. They often allowed the German tanks to bypass their forward infantry positions, then unleashed devastating anti-tank gun and artillery barrages from concealed positions. Infantry with anti-tank rifles and grenades also engaged in close-quarters combat, targeting the vulnerable sides and rear of the heavy German tanks.Panther Tank on the Eastern Front, 1944. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe following day, the Red Army counterattacked. Poor coordination, however, hampered the attempt, and of 200 Soviet tanks committed to the attack, the Germans knocked 69 of them out of action.The Germans then launched attacks of their own against Soviet troops at Olkhovatka and Ponyri, but the rugged defense forced the Germans back with heavy losses. Taking these towns, however, was vital for the German advance, and renewed efforts started on July 7. The Soviets, under Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky, viewed these settlements as equally vital, and forces were pulled from other areas to reinforce the defenses there.The battle for Ponyri went back and forth several times, with the Germans finally taking the town on July 10. Both sides suffered heavy losses.Heavy German attacks on Olkhovatka, however, failed. With high losses, the German command realized they lacked the necessary power to achieve a breakthrough. Field Marshal Gnther von Kluge decided to keep up the pressure to draw more Soviet defenses away from the southern front, where it was hoped a breakthrough could be achieved.The Voronezh FrontMembers of the SS Division Totenkopf during the Battle of Kursk, WWII. Source: Military Photo ArchiveOn July 5, at the same time as the advance in the north had commenced, the battle for the southern flank opened, with Field Marshal Von Manstein in command of the German forces. The Soviets were prepared, and opposing the Germans were three lines of defense that formed the Voronezh front.The Germans attacked along a two-mile front and quickly ran into trouble. The left wing of the attack comprised the Panzerfsilier Regiment, which ran into a minefield and stalled. Immobilized and subjected to severe artillery barrages, the regiment suffered heavy casualties. Engineers were brought up to clear a path through the minefield, and under heavy fire, the regiment managed to get going again, only to be bogged down again in marshy terrain south of the village of Gertsovka.On the right wing, the Grodeutschland Panzergrenadier regiment achieved much more success, pushing forward and supported by the Luftwaffe, which repulsed attempts by the VVS to slow down the advance. This success made it possible for other elements to advance, and Gertsovka, along with several other settlements, was captured as the Germans achieved a successful strategic wedge through the Soviet defenses.To the east of this advance, another penetration was made by three divisions of the II SS Panzer Corps. With strong support from the Luftwaffe, the SS Panzer spearhead achieved significant success and was followed by infantry ready to exploit the weakened Soviet defenses. The advance, however, slowed down as stiff resistance, difficult terrain, and bad weather hampered progress.An artists impression of Stuka dive bombers during the Battle of Kursk. Source: Smithsonian MagazineTo the southeast of this advance, the III Panzer Corps and Corps Raus launched their operation across the Donets River in support of the southern attack. The initial progress was slow, and bridges had to be built to support the weight of the heavy Tiger tanks. The Luftwaffes help was questionable and caused significant damage by accidentally bombing their own troops. Traffic jams, destroyed bridges, and Soviet artillery barrages added to the woes. Once across the river, however, the situation got better for the Germans. With two infantry divisions joining the fight, the Germans broke through the first line of defense and repelled a Soviet counterattack.The slow progress of this advance, however, allowed the Soviets to prepare significant resistance along the second line of defense.The accumulation of German forces along the Voronezh front prompted the Soviets to deploy virtually all their reserves to the area. The situation was critical for the Red Army.With all the airpower available on the Voronezh front, the Soviets launched a counterattack comprising almost 600 tanks and self-propelled guns. This massive attempt to stop the advance of the II SS Panzer Corps was poorly coordinated, and the elements arrived in a piecemeal fashion. Disaster ensued as the Soviet counterattack was destroyed by the German defense. Anti-tank guns and the Luftwaffe made short work of their enemies, inflicting massive casualties and destroying hundreds of tanks.The Battle of ProkhorovkaA destroyed T-34 and one of its unfortunate crewmen, WWII. Source: Military Photo ArchiveBy July 8, II Panzer Corps had broken through the second line of defense and advanced 18 miles since the start of the Battle of Kursk. They pushed straight for the key target of Prokhorovka, a town directly in front of them. The Soviets, anticipating this move, bolstered their defenses around the town and prepared to receive the attack from Germanys crack troops. They understood that if the II SS Panzer Corps and the 6th Panzer Division, which had seized a bridge across the Donets, were to link up, the Soviets would lose the 69th Army, and the battle would shift dramatically towards a German victory. Prokhorovka had to be defended at all costs.II Panzer Corps advanced, with plans to split and attack the flank of the Soviet defenses at Prokhorova before launching the main frontal assault. Before they could attack Prokhorova, however, the Soviets had moved into position and launched a counterattack. At 8:00 on the morning of July 12, the Soviet barrage began, and half an hour later, the rumble of tanks moved toward the II Panzer Corps. Five tank brigades smashed into the German defenses, and furious battles raged for the entire day. By nightfall, the Soviets had suffered grievous losses, but they had managed to slow II Panzer Corps down enough to stop the Germans from achieving a breakthrough.This was enough for Hitler to call an end to the offensive. Sicily had been invaded two days earlier, and forces needed to be transferred to Italy. The Allied landings in Sicily, launched as Operation Husky on July 10, put immense pressure on the Axis southern flank, threatening to knock Italy out of the war and force the diversion of German resources. Faced with the prospect of a collapsing Italian front and the need to reinforce his southern European defenses, Hitler made the fateful decision to terminate Operation Citadel, despite objections from his field commanders.The Soviets, however, were not finished with the Germans at Kursk.The Soviet Offensives: Operation Kutuzov and Operation RumyantsevMap of the Soviet offensives after the failure of Operation Citadel. Source: ResearchgateTaking full advantage of the stalled German offensive, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive that had been planned for the eventuality of a stalled German offensive in the Kursk salient.To the north of the Kursk salient was the Orel salient, held by the Germans. From the north, south, and east, Soviet attacks (Operation Kutuzov) struck at the German positions, threatening to encircle the German 9th Army. Completely overwhelmed, the German forces pulled back and went on the complete defensive.In the south, the main offensive (Operation Rumyantsev) planned for the summer operations took place. The Soviets launched diversionary attacks to tie down the German forces, which comprised the northern wing of Army Group South. The Soviet advance liberated Belgorod on August 5 and Kharkov (Kharkiv) by August 23.The Aftermath of the Battle of KurskSoviet troops inspecting a damaged Tiger, WWII. Source: Military Photo ArchiveThe Battle of Kursk broke the German offensive opportunities and forced the Germans into a defensive position along the entire Eastern Front. Beyond the staggering losses in men and artillery, the most significant outcome of Kursk was the reversible shift in strategic initiative on the Eastern Front. From this point forward, the Wehrmacht would largely fight a defensive war, constantly reacting to Soviet offensives and increasingly stretched thin across a vast front. The ambition of a decisive knockout blow against the Red Army was shattered, replaced by a desperate struggle for survival. For the Soviets, the victory at Kursk was not merely tactical; it was a profound psychological triumph, cementing their confidence and proving their ability to defeat the German war machine without the aid of winter.It is difficult to determine the exact losses of the Battle of Kursk, and the subject is argued over by many notable historians. A rough estimate puts the casualties at 200,000 German soldiers killed, wounded, or missing, while the Soviets suffered around four times that amount. In terms of armor, the Germans lost 1,200 tanks and assault guns, while the Soviets lost over 6,000.As the war continued, the effectiveness of the Soviet armies would improve, and the ratio would even out as Soviet soldiers and equipment achieved par with the Germans.Photograph of a T-34 tank. Source: Sputnik / Yuriy KaverThe Germans achieved nothing with the Kursk offensive. For the Soviets, while the casualties were high, they proved that they could defeat the Germans without the aid of the weather or any other external factors. It was, however, also a good opportunity to turn the victory into an exercise in propaganda to mobilize the Soviet people.The Germans remained on the defensive for the rest of the war on the Eastern Front, and slowly the Soviets whittled away at their enemy, finally achieving the breakthrough they needed to begin a full strategic offensive towards the heartland of Europe and their ultimate destiny.

As solid a sword as the katana is (it would not have been used for nearly 800 years otherwise), it does have weaknesses which weve covered elsewhere. It is also considered to be a work of art. However, many other countries have produced excellent swords of their own that are worthy of recognition. What were looking at specifically are curved swords, some of which can be mapped onto the Elmslie single-edged blade typology, a complement to the Oakeshott typology that categorizes straight double-edged swords. For now, lets leave Japan behind, journey to the west, and look at some swords from the rest of the world.Changdao (China)Master Wang Zhihai with miaodao, the successor to the changdao. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe dao, the archetypical single-edged curved sword of Chinese fencing, takes many forms. Most of them are one-handed, but the changdao is one of the rare two-handed variants. Its blade is slightly longer than that of the katana, but it is shaped almost identically to it, otherwise, to the point that it is easy to mistake the two at a glance.Because many Japanese swords were exported to other countries throughout East and Southeast Asia, the changdao could have potentially been influenced by the design of the katana and similar weapons like the no-dachi.The changdao originally appeared in the Tang Dynasty, referring to an extremely large anti-cavalry sword. It fell out of favor during the Yuan Dynasty, but reemerged during the Ming Dynasty, where it saw use during wokou raids from Japanese pirates. Many of these were ronin who, in the absence of a lord to serve and thus no other income, turned to banditry.As China experienced a surge of nationalist-inspired martial arts training during the early 1900s, the military adopted older weapons for melee fighting, renaming the chngdo in particular to the miaodao.Talwar (India)A Talwar. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe talwar, also spelled tulwar, originates from India during the period of the Mughal Empire, roughly contemporary with the Edo Period of Japan. At first glance, one will notice the talwar to have a distinct curve, more so than Japanese blades. This shape makes the talwar utterly ineffective for thrusting, so instead it exclusively requires draw-cutting techniques. It is a single-handed weapon with an intricately-shaped hilt made to perfectly fit the contours of the hand when held in a proper grip.The talwar has a wider blade profile toward the tip of the blade, giving it more momentum when swung at speed. Sometimes, this portion of the blade held a false edge, or the edge on the spine of the blade.The hilt of the talwar was made entirely of metal, with the crossguard integrated as a single piece. The extra weight helped to balance the sword, because otherwise it would be too heavy and unwieldy. Rather than a round or bell-shaped pommel, the talwar includes a wide disc-shaped pommel that forces the user to maintain the sword in optimal cutting position. Some also have sharpened spikes, making for a deadly punching weapon.Shamshir (Persia)Shamshir with scabbard, 1777-8 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe shamshir, meaning curved like the lions fang, is one of the most recognizable swords from Persia. Along with similar swords from the Arabian Peninsula, Europe was exposed to it during the Crusades as the weapon of Saracen infantry and cavalry. The word was anglicized into scimitar, which is mistakenly used to describe all curved swords from the SWANA (Southwest Asia/North Africa) region. It has a deep curve, even more pronounced than that of the talwar, and is a single-handed weapon. Its pommel was often hooked; this design helped a swordsman keep a tight grip on his weapon when galloping on horseback.The shamshir appeared starting around the 13th century. Its design was possibly influenced by the Turko-Mongol sabers that were predominant in the region, at least in its currently recognizable form. Because of the abundance of trade through the area and around the Silk Road, the shamshir influenced similar swords, including the saif, talwar, pulwar, and others.Yataghan (Turkey)Ottoman Turkish yataghan from the court of Sleyman the Magnificent, 1525-30. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe yataghan, a sword used in 15th-century Ottoman Turkey, is another well-known weapon. It is a one-handed blade, almost like a machete. Its shape and blade profile give some critical differences to the other swords weve listed. For example, the yataghan has a slight forward curve, which affects the balance and weight distribution of the weapon. Rather than its use focusing on draw cuts like other curved swords, it employs more of a chopping or hewing motion to deliver blows, though its edge can still slice. Some versions of the yataghan were forged with an S-shaped curve that pointed forward at the base and back toward the tip. This unorthodox shape, almost like the Egyptian khopesh, allowed it to be used to hook around an enemys sword or thrust inside their guard.Most of the time, the yataghan was not fitted with a handguard to allow the user to have more flexibility in the wrist. Because the weapon was single-handed, it was often paired with a shield, which made it less important to have a dedicated handguard and instead let the shield or armor do most of the work of defense.Originally, the yataghan was thought to be derived from a sort of utility knife like the machete, but it became the standard sidearm of the Janissaries, the elite guards and infantry of the Ottoman sultanate. Their main weapon would have been the earliest muskets during the 16th century.Messer (Germany)Kriegsmesser Reproduction. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough the longsword holds the distinction of being one of the most well-known weapons of medieval Germany, the messer is perhaps a close second. This is a single-handed blade with a full-width tang and a crossguard with a metal bar called the nagel (nail) protruding out to protect the knuckles. The messer was almost always paired with a buckler in the off-hand.A common misconception holds that the messer was specifically created as a weapon that peasants could carry to circumvent laws against owning swords, but it was more likely that knifemaking guilds were taking advantage of the laws about what was classified as a sword to compete with swordsmithing guilds. For a blade to be classified as a sword, its tang had to be fully covered.The Kriegsmesser, literally war knife pictured above, is a messer scaled up to two-handed sword length. Unlike most instances of the messer, it saw use as a dedicated military weapon, often in the hands of Landsknecht mercenaries in the 15th and 16th centuries. Many techniques that existed in longsword fighting systems translate easily to the kriegsmesser.Falchion (France)Venetian falchion, c. 15th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe falchion, derived from the Dacian falx, is a single-handed sword from medieval France that spread throughout Europe from the 13th through the 15th centuries. Light cavalry soldiers would frequently use the falchion, though it also expanded to the ranks of infantry who might have been too poor to afford a larger sword. In feudal societies, soldiers were expected to buy their own equipment, so they had to make do with what they could afford based on land income from peasants.As with the messer, some swordsmiths would add a short false edge at the tip. Earlier versions of the falchion have wider blades that make the sword look more like a cleaver. The lighter, thinner blades that came later made it possible to penetrate mail with the narrow point going through the rings.Like most swords, this weapon was used against lightly-armored or unarmored foes. It has a straighter profile than some of the other swords weve listed here, allowing the swordsman to use a variety of cut-and-thrust techniques. Even though the falchion makes appearances in art, few surviving examples have as yet been found.Cutlass (Nautical)Cutlass, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe cutlass, a broad, short, curved sword, saw most of its use aboard ships throughout most of Europes history. Whether it was for naval battles between enemy countries or a merchant ship defending itself against pirates, sword-to-sword fighting would happen in tight spaces. A short blade works best in this environment. The cutlass was fitted with a wrap-around guard that offered hand protection and grip security; the pitching motion of a ship at sea and the inherent chaos of armed combat dramatically increased the possibility of dropping ones sword or having it thrown overboard.The design of the cutlass draws inspiration from earlier swords, including the falchion and the messer. The thick, broad blade worked well, not only for fighting in close quarters, but also in cutting things like rope and canvas, which make up the rigging and sails of a ship, and thick vegetation on land. Whenever sailors landed on an island to restock supplies like wood, they would need to be able to carve through treacherous terrain. Part of this last use is thought to have influenced the modern machete.You may wonder why our list does not extend to the Americas. Although the culture and technology of the indigenous people in pre-Columbian America were far more advanced than is taught in many public schools, they never developed ironworking for use in utilitarian weapons like the Eurasian landmass did. The natural resources at hand had shown to be adequate to their needs, and they did not have access to coal or anything that would create a hot enough temperature to work iron. After European contact with the Americas, metal tools and weapons were introduced.

Yes, You Can Have Texas Roadhouse Rolls On Thanksgiving. Here's How For diehard fans of the franchise, one major way Texas Roadhouse beats Outback Steakhouse and Longhorn is the rolls. Warm and toasty and served with a side of honey cinnamon...

Star Citizen has earned itself a reputation over the years, and rightfully so. Not only is it one of the biggest space games in terms of in-world scale, but it's comfortably outpaced its rivals when it comes to budget, with its combined crowdfunding and sales passing the $800 million mark earlier this year. That makes it a particularly intriguing black box to peer into, but one that can also feel a little intimidating; now is the perfect time to try, however, as you can currently play Star Citizen for free with a gargantuan list of ships available for testing.Read the full story on PCGamesN: Star Citizen's biggest free trial is live now, with nearly 200 ships available for you to try