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The battles of Austerlitz and Waterloo are among the most important battles of the Napoleonic era. At Austerlitz in 1805, Napoleon defeated an Allied Austro-Russian army to bring an end to the War of the Third Coalition and strengthen his influence in central Europe. At Waterloo a decade later, Napoleon was defeated by Coalition armies led by the Duke of Wellington and Prussian Field Marshal Blcher. He was forced to abdicate for a second time and ended his days in exile on the remote island of Saint Helena.Diplomatic ContextThe Coronation of Napoleon by Jacques-Louis David, c. 1804. Source: Louvre, ParisThe Battle of Austerlitz was the decisive engagement of the War of the Third Coalition. The battle took place on December 2, 1805, the first anniversary of Napoleons coronation as emperor at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. The Third Coalition was organized by British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, who had returned to office in 1804 following the resumption of hostilities with France spring 1803. Napoleon was organizing a large army to cross the English Channel and invade Britain at an opportune moment, and Pitt was desperate to find allies on the continent.The monarchs of Europe had been appalled by Napoleons abduction and murder of the Duc dEnghien, a young French aristocrat linked to the deposed Bourbons. The Russian tsar and Austrian emperor were also affronted by Napoleons assumption of an imperial title in May 1804. The Habsburg Emperor Francis of Austria, who was also the Holy Roman Emperor, was afraid that Napoleon might use his increasing influence in western Germany to wrest the elective imperial crown from him.When Napoleon abandoned his invasion of England in August 1805 and marched his Grande Arme eastwards to confront the Austrians, part of the army violated neutral Prussian territory. The Third Coalition powers urged Prussia to join their alliance. In late November 1805, after Napoleon had marched down the Danube and occupied Vienna, he received a 30-day ultimatum from the Prussians to evacuate his forces. This encouraged Napoleon to seek a decisive battle at Austerlitz, and also led more belligerent Allied officers to take the offensive to deny the Prussians a share of the glory.Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819. Source: Lebendiges Museum Online, Deutsches Historisches MuseumThe diplomatic context for the Battle of Waterloo was very different to that of Austerlitz. After Napoleons disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, he had been defeated in Germany in 1813, and by April 1814 he was forced to abdicate after the Sixth Coalition allies occupied Paris. On February 26, 1815 Napoleon escaped from exile in Elba and was restored as emperor of the French within a month. The victorious allies, who had been involved in bitter disputes over the future of Europe at the Congress of Vienna, responded immediately by forming the Seventh Coalition.While Napoleon claimed that he had no aggressive intentions, the Seventh Coalition allies considered him an outlaw and were determined to depose him a second time. With the prospect of more than 600,000 enemy troops bearing down on France, in June 1815 Napoleon launched a pre-emptive strike against Wellingtons Anglo-Allied army and Blchers Prussians in the Low Countries, hoping to defeat them in battle and at the very least strengthen his negotiating hand before the large Austrian and Russian columns arrived from the east.ArmiesNapoleon distributing crosses of the Legion of Honor at the Camp of Boulogne by Philippe-Auguste Hennequin, c. 1804-1806. Source: Palace of Versailles, ParisThe Grande Arme that Napoleon commanded at Austerlitz had previously been earmarked for an invasion of England. Between 1803 and 1805, Napoleon had been organizing this invasion force and established a series of camps around Boulogne for his Army of England. The extended period at the Camp of Boulogne fostered an espirit de corps that encouraged the men to fight not only for themselves but for their comrades-in-arms during the 1805 campaign.A major factor in Napoleons success in 1805 was his army organization. Ably supported by his chief of staff Marshal Louis-Alexandre Berthier, Napoleon organized his army into corps of 20,000-30,000 men, each led by his marshals or divisional generals. By marching along separate routes, Napoleons men could move quicker compared to the Austrian and Russian armies who marched in large columns which experienced frequent bottlenecks and delays. Napoleons speed of march enabled him to surprise General Macks Austrians and force his surrender at Ulm in October.While individual Russian and Austrian units were as skilled and as brave as the French soldiers at Austerlitz, the unwieldy command structures prevented senior commanders from effectively communicating their orders. Several Allied commanders showed initiative at Austerlitz after the initial shock of Marshal Soults attack in the center, but their counterattacks were poorly coordinated and easily beaten back. Mutual suspicions between Austrians and Russian officers and men also undermined cooperation on the day of battle.The Duke of Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo by Robert Alexander Hillingford. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Arme du Nord that Napoleon commanded at Waterloo was a shadow of his Grande Arme of 1805. While there was a core of veterans who had rallied to him during the Hundred Days, many more men were raw recruits with limited battle experience. Likewise, Duke of Wellington was unimpressed with his multinational army at Waterloo including large contingents of Dutch and Belgians who had seen little action, while many of his veterans from the Peninsular War had been sent across the Atlantic to fight in the War of 1812, only to be defeated at the Battle of New Orleans. However, the Prussians had a large contingent of battle-hardened veterans from the 1813 and 1814 campaigns.By 1815, both Wellington and Blchers armies were organized into corps, negating the advantage that Napoleon had enjoyed in 1805. Improved organization allowed the Prussians to recover from defeat at Ligny on June 16 and maintain sufficient cohesion for Blcher to offer Wellington crucial aid at Waterloo on the afternoon of June 18.LeadershipNapoleon gives his orders to his marshals on the morning of the Battle of Austerlitz by Carle Vernet, 1808. Source: Palace of Versailles, ParisLeadership and generalship was one of the major factors that made the difference between victory and defeat on the battlefields of Austerlitz and Waterloo. In 1805, the 36-year-old Napoleon was at the summit of his military prowess. His success at Ulm had been an operational masterstroke, but the Russians and Austrians continued to underestimate him. At Austerlitz, Napoleon also had some of his best marshals with him, including Davout, Lannes, and Soult.After Macks surrender at Ulm, the main Allied force was commanded by Russian general Mikhail Kutuzov, who led a skillful fighting retreat back along the Danube to join up with Russian reinforcements in Moravia. However, after Kutuzov raised objections to the battle plan presented by Austrian chief of staff Franz Weyrother and endorsed by Tsar Alexander I, he was unceremoniously stripped of overall command.Weyrother envisaged attacking the weak French right and rolling up the flank with a large force, around half the Allied army. This plan of action looked good on paper but failed to appreciate the ability of Marshal Davout, perhaps the greatest defensive general of the age, or the prospect of a French counterattack in the center. The maneuver was entrusted to the Russian general Fyodor Buxhwden, who was allegedly drunk on the day of battle.Wellington and Blcher after the Battle of Waterloo (central section). Print by Charles William Sharpe after painting by Daniel Maclise in the Palace of Westminster, 1879. Source: Army and Navy ClubAt Waterloo, Napoleon was approaching his 45th birthday and had been suffering from various health issues. While he recaptured much of his earlier brilliance during his valiant 1814 campaign on French soil, he had shown uncharacteristic hesitation by failing to commit his Imperial Guard at the Battle of Borodino in 1812.Napoleon was also without his most talented marshals at Waterloo. Lannes had been killed in 1809, Massna was in disgrace, while Berthier refused to join Napoleon and died after falling out of a window on June 1, 1815. Napoleon left Davout as Minister of War in Paris and appointed Soult as his chief of staff. His chief subordinate, Marshal Ney, who was given tactical command for much of the day, was a brave commander who struggled to handle large armies. Likewise, the newly appointed Marshal Grouchy, who had been tasked with pursuing the Prussians or otherwise joining Napoleon at Waterloo, was an effective cavalry commander who lacked experience of more senior commands.While the Duke of Wellington was the same age as Napoleon and fought in inhospitable conditions in India earlier in his career, he did not have Napoleons political responsibilities and was in better shape by 1815. During the Peninsular War, Wellington had defeated some of Napoleons most talented marshals such as Massna and Soult but never faced Napoleon himself. The veteran Blcher was 72 and suffered from occasional bouts of insanity, but his boundless aggression and his desire to avenge the depredations Napoleon had inflicted on Prussia after 1807 meant that he was determined to join up with Wellington at Waterloo.Terrain and TacticsNapoleons camp on the eve of Austerlitz, December 1, 1805 by Louis-Franois Lejeune, 1808. Source: Palace of Versailles, ParisThe tactics at Austerlitz and Waterloo were determined by the battlefield terrain. The dominant feature of the Austerlitz battlefield was the gently sloping Pratzen Heights. In his efforts to secure a decisive battlefield victory, Napoleon abandoned the Pratzen to the enemy and took up his position behind the Goldbach stream facing eastwards, leaving his right flank deliberately weak. He anticipated that the Allies would weaken their center and tasked the 16,000 men of Marshal Soults IV Corps to take the Pratzen heights at the opportune moment.As mentioned above, the allies took the bait and decided to attack Napoleons right on December 2, failing to appreciate that Marshal Davout had force-marched his men to the villages of Sokolnitz and Telnitz overnight. With three allied columns engaged against Napoleons right and another beginning to join them, Napoleon ordered Soult to advance on the Pratzen. This bold tactical maneuver split the Coalition army into two, and the Allies never recovered.Map of the Battle of Waterloo. Source: Napoleon & EmpireThe battle of Waterloo was fought a few miles to the south of the town of Waterloo, where Wellington had spent the night before and after the battle. After receiving assurances that the Prussians had retreated north to Wavre, Wellington chose a low ridge line to block Napoleons advance on Brussels. In order to disrupt Napoleons attacks against his lines, Wellington deployed skirmishers at the farms of Hougoumont, La Haye Sainte, and Papelotte in front of his lines. Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte witnessed particularly intense fighting during the battle.While Napoleon successfully baited the Allies to attack him at Austerlitz, Wellington was far more prudent, and Napoleon had no choice but to go on the offensive if he hoped to defeat his enemy and break through to Brussels. By contrast to his tactical genius at Austerlitz, Napoleons tactics at Waterloo were uninspired. He began with a heavy bombardment to soften up Wellingtons lines, but the latter kept most of his army safe behind the reverse slope of the ridge. Throughout the day, the French launched several frontal assaults which came close to breaking Wellingtons line, but no attempt was made to outflank the British position. Instead, Napoleon himself faced a flank attack in mid-afternoon when the Prussian IV Corps under General Blow attacked his right at Plancenoit.WeatherThe Sun of Austerlitz. Color lithograph by Eugne Samuel Grasset, 1894. Source: Montreal Museum of Fine ArtsWeather conditions played a major role at both Austerlitz and Waterloo. At Austerlitz, the weather played to Napoleons advantage. Napoleons tactics at Austerlitz relied heavily on deception, and the morning mist shrouded large parts of Napoleons army as the Allies marched against his right flank. By the time the sun emerged to burn away the mist to reveal Soults men marching up the hill, it was too late for the Allied units to organize an effective resistance. Napoleons men came to regard the Sun of Austerlitz as an auspicious sign of their victory.The cold December morning also ensured that the Satschan ponds to the south of the battlefield were frozen. According to Napoleons official bulletin, as the Allied troops fled over the frozen lakes, French artillery broke the surface of the ice, condemning thousands of allied soldiers to an icy death. However, the tale appears to be exaggerated as no human remains were found after the ponds were drained.While Napoleon was helped by the weather at Austerlitz, at Waterloo the weather had a detrimental effect on his plans. The day before the battle had seen heavy rain as Napoleon and Wellingtons forces were engaged in a running fight along the road to Brussels. Napoleons decision to wait until the late morning to begin his attack at Waterloo has usually been ascribed to him allowing time for his powder to dry in order to carry out his artillery bombardment. However, the waterlogged ground meant that Napoleons army was not fully in position by 11 oclock on the 18th. The delay gave the Prussians crucial time to march towards the battlefield to support Wellington.OutcomeNapoleon Bonaparte on Saint Helena. Source: History ExtraAusterlitz and Waterloo marked major turning points in Napoleons career. After his victory in the War of the Third Coalition, Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine in western Germany in July 1806, prompting Emperor Francis to dissolve the Holy Roman Empire. In October 1806, Napoleon defeated the Prussians at Jena and Auerstedt in Saxony. The following June, Napoleon defeated Prussias Russian allies at Friedland, leaving him in effective control of western and central Europe following the Treaty of Tilsit.The Battle of Waterloo, on the other hand, marked the end of Napoleons military career. He abdicated for a second time on June 22 and sought to flee to North America. The blockade by the British navy and the threat of capture and execution by the Prussians ultimately forced Napoleon to surrender to the British. He was eventually exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died in 1821.King Louis XVIII was restored to the French throne for a second time, while Congress of Vienna had completed its business a few days before the Battle of Waterloo, and its provisions were subsequently implemented. Despite the fraught negotiations, the peace agreement prevented further hostilities between the major European powers until the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The Medieval Church was the cornerstone of European society, shaping nearly every aspect of life from the 5th to the 15th centuries. It went far beyond the religious sphere, making its presence felt in the social, political, cultural, educational, and economic arenas. It is hard to imagine a part of life that the Church did not directly or indirectly impact. The Church was the glue that kept Medieval society together and shaped its future. From there, the spread of Western culture resulted in the Church having a worldwide impact centuries later, even though it was indirect.The Religious RoleOld Saint Peters, 1450, by Henry William Brewer, 1891. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe primary role of the Church was religious. The Church was the mediator of religion to a largely illiterate populace. They administered the sacraments, which the Church at that time, as some still do, considered essential for salvation. At the beginning of the Medieval Period, only baptism and the Eucharist were considered sacraments. During the Middle Ages, the theology of the seven sacraments developed, and the original two saw confirmation, penance (confession), anointing of the sick, holy orders, and matrimony added to their ranks.Similarly, the Church defined orthodoxy and combated heresy, establishing spiritual and social order within the Church. At times, the methods the Church used to eradicate doctrine that did not align with their own saw groups like the Albigenses, Cathars, and Waldensians persecuted and, in some instances, almost annihilated. These actions would sow the seeds for the Reformation at the end of the Medieval Period.The Church was instrumental in establishing and ordering spiritual and monastic life. The Church formed Benedictine, Cistercian, Franciscan, Dominican, Carthusian, Augustinian, and Poor Clare orders. The Church established many monasteries that became centers for prayer, scholarship, and asceticism. These establishments preserved religious traditions and fostered spiritual discipline.The Political RoleA depiction of the 11th-century Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and his family barefoot before Pope Gregory VII at Canossa Castle, 1570 CE. Source: Cambridge UniversityDuring the latter part of the Medieval Period, the Church wielded significant political power. The Church and secular powers clashed when they impeded each others domain. The Investiture Controversy (10751122 CE) was one such instance.The Holy Roman Emperor claimed the authority to appoint (invest) bishops and other church officials. That was a right the Church believed it alone had. Pope Gregory VII issued the Dictatus Papae, a collection of 27 statements asserting the powers and authority of the pope. It asserted papal supremacy, including the right to depose emperors, which the pope used in 1076 when the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV, defied him. It famously resulted in the penance at Canossa, where Henry stood barefoot in the snow, seeking the popes forgiveness. Papal primacy, however, was not fully settled. Later, Pope Innocent III (11981216 CE) asserted the right to intervene in secular affairs, arguing that spiritual power superseded temporal power. The Churchs ability to excommunicate even kings gave it considerable political influence, which it regularly used.Pope Innocent III, fresco, mid 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Medieval Church was fully integrated with the feudal system and became one of the largest landowners in Europe. As such, it increased their political sway because the bishops and abbots managing these estates could mobilize resources to influence local lords and leaders.Because of its political clout, the Church could play a significant role in medieval diplomacy. Church leaders, at times, mediated conflicts and promoted Christian unity. An example is the Peace and Truce of God movements of the 10th to 11th centuries. The Church was, however, also the impetus behind wars like the Crusades. They mobilized European powers to reclaim the Holy Land.Papal power was significant enough that the Church operated a legal system, based on canon law, distinct from civil law. They operated Canon Law courts that offered, in some instances, an alternative to secular justice. This authority further blurred the lines between the spiritual and secular powers of the Church.The Social RoleTwo lepers are denied entry into the city, miniature from a manuscript by Vincent of Beauvais, 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Church was the primary social institution in medieval Europe. It had a unifying influence in a society divided by class, geography, and language. It provided a structure within which opposite ends of the social spectrum, from peasants to nobles, shared some values and beliefs.Religious gatherings, such as those held on Sundays, religious festivals, and saints feast days, fostered a sense of community and even identity. The Church became the primary provider of charity to the poor, sick, and orphaned, which they regarded as their religious duty. The Benedictine Monasteries deserve special mention for providing refuge and hospitality, offering food and shelter to travelers and pilgrims. Other monastic houses often ran hospitals, cared for lepers, and provided care for the needy.The Economic RoleSiege of Damascus, second crusade, by Sbastien Mamerot, 1474 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBecause of the Churchs large property holdings, it was already a significant economic power, raising taxes and benefiting from fiefs working the land. It also benefited from donations, taxes on income, and monasteries that became hubs for trade and agriculture. The Knights Templar played a significant role in developing banking and facilitating transactions.The Church was also the source of new developments, which bolstered their economic power, such as the Cistercians, who pioneered advanced farming techniques that increased production. Their financial might enshrined the Churchs place as one of the mightiest institutions of the Middle Ages.The Cultural RoleCathedral Notre Dame de Paris, West view, Paris, France. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Churchs influence on Medieval culture is undeniable. It impacted art, music, literature, and architecture, even shaping festivals and celebrations.Religious themes dominated art during the Middle Ages. It primarily depicted biblical narratives or martyrs and saints, serving educational purposes to the illiterate masses. The artworks took the form of sculptures, paintings, tapestries, and stained-glass windows, among other things.One of the most notable influences the Church had on music, which endures to this day, was the Gregorian Chant, named in honor of Pope Gregory I (r. 590604 CE). It developed from earlier Roman and Gallican chants and added a unique flavor to sacred music. Initially, it was monophonic, but during the 12th and 13th centuries, polyphony (multiple independent lines) began to develop in cathedral schools like Notre-Dame in Paris.The Church was instrumental in the development of musical notation. Notation was a significant advancement that allowed complex music to be recorded and transmitted. Musical notation started in the 9th century, and the Church, as the primary commissioner and preserver of music, had schools where clergy learned to chant using the new notation systems.Due to the influence of the Church, Latin was the dominant language of the age. Most written works were theological, devotional, or moralistic and included genres like hagiography, allegory, and mystical writings, among others. Monks copied and preserved these texts, making the Church a guardian of Western literary heritage.Church buildings were the places where these different art forms came together. It is not surprising that cathedrals and Church structures became works of architectural art in and of themselves. The change in architecture from Romanesque to Gothic styles provides insight into the levels of artisanship during the Medieval Period. Cathedrals still in use today showcase the apex of architectural innovation and the immense wealth of the Medieval Church.The City of Prague Museum, Room of Medieval art, holds many samples of the Christian nature of these art pieces. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNotre-Dame de Paris in France is arguably the most notable structure the Church erected during the Middle Ages. Construction began in 1163 and lasted until 1260, with modifications continuing into the 14th century. It is a masterpiece of Gothic engineering and artistry.Some festivals, like Easter, Christmas, Lent, Advent, and Pentecost, predate the Medieval Period. The Church, however, added several festivals and celebratory days to the Christian calendar. Pope Gregory III formalized All Saints Day (1st of November) in the 8th century. The monastery at Cluny introduced All Souls Day (2nd of November), a celebration for the dead, in the 10th century. Both festivals emphasize prayer, purgatory, and remembrance. Today, western culture relates to these two festive days by celebrating Halloween, named for the eve before the two festivals, on the evening of October 31st.In addition, Corpus Christi, celebrating the Eucharist outside of Lent, originated with Pope Urban IV in 1264. Local and national saint cults and major pilgrimage festivals were established and celebrated with distinctly medieval scope and spectacle.The Educational RoleTheology course at the Sorbonne, illumination from the late 15th century. Source: Library of TroyesIlliteracy was widespread in Medieval times. The Church became the keeper of knowledge. It preserved, copied, and studied sacred texts and provided education to the clergy and lay elites, teaching them to read and write with special emphasis on theology, which shaped the study of subjects like mathematics, astronomy, and science.Latin, as the liturgical and scholarly language of the Church, allowed for a universal medium for communication among the educated. By the 12th century, universities, which were often connected to, if not controlled by, the Church, sprang up all over Europe. These institutions allowed the Church access to the students in many fields, such as clerics, lawyers, and physicians. The Church mostly had a monopoly on education, which increased their power and influence on society and allowed them to shape knowledge and thought among the intellectual elite to suit their purposes.It would be impossible to separate Western culture from the influence the Church had on it during the Medieval Period. The Church, therefore, largely shaped Western society.

Before Europeans spread their influence across the Western Hemisphere, the Americas were a place with vibrant cultures stretching from the frigid north and south to the temperate zones and the tropics. The land offered its bounty, and great civilizations rose and fell long before Columbus made his voyage west.These civilizations built towns and cities, with great construction works and wonders, some of which have been lost to the steady march of history.Here are 4 of the biggest cities that existed in the Americas before colonization (in no particular order).Cahokia: The Center of the Mississippian CultureCahokia. Michael Hampshire for the Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrom 800 CE to 1600 CE, a collection of Native American societies flourished in the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. Of the Mississippian Cultures settlements, Cahokia, believed to be a major religious center, was the largest. It was also likely the largest pre-Columbian/precolonial city north of Mexico.Cahokia lasted from around 1050 CE to 1350 CE, and at its height in 1100 CE, it is estimated to have been the dwelling place of around 15,000 to 20,000 people, living in an area that covered 40,000 acres. New evidence uncovered in the 21st century suggests the population may have been as high as 40,000, making it larger than contemporaneous European cities like London and Paris.Although named Cahokia, there is no record of what the inhabitants actually called their city. The Cahokia tribe were the people who lived in the area during the 17th century when French explorers discovered the site.An artistic reconstruction of what Cahokia looked like. Source: Wikimedia CommonsArchaeological evidence shows that Cahokia was a complex and well-organized city in which urban planning was evident, with the city divided into residential, public, and specialized zones. Feeding such a large population required food, and Cahokia was blessed by being surrounded by fertile land. It is believed that much of this land was used for farming corn.The society of Cahokia was likely hierarchical in nature, and highly religious. Large mounds played home to religious rites performed by a ruling class of priests. Like many other large societies in pre-Columbian America, these rites included human sacrifice, which was most likely theatrical as well.The remnants of this great city reside in Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site, eight miles northeast of St. Louis, Missouri. The site contains 51 mounds and partial reconstruction of the citys palisade. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.Teotihuacan: Ancient and MysteriousThe view of the Avenue of the Dead from the Pyramid of the Moon. Source: MIKHEIL/Wikimedia CommonsDespite being situated just 25 miles northeast of Mexico City, a site associated with the Aztec Empire, Teotihuacan predates the Aztecs by around 1,500 years. Although the area was settled from around 400 BCE, it was three centuries later that the site underwent massive change with megaprojects being built, transforming the site into an awe-inspiring city filled with structural wonders.At its height from around 1 CE to 500 CE, Teotihuacan was the biggest city in the Americas, with a population of 25,000 people, although some estimates claim the city may have been home to as many as 125,000 people. The city was dotted with temples and plazas and had a canal that served as a source of water. Bisecting Teotihuacan was the Avenue of the Dead. This road was 1.5 miles long, and 130 feet wide, and terminated at its north end by the magnificent Pyramid of the Moon. An even bigger pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, lay on its eastern side.A ceramic bird from Teotihuacan in the National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTeotihuacan was a massive and powerful trade metropolis at the time, and likely had a monopoly on the obsidian trade, which was extremely important. Other goods such as cotton, cacao, ceramics, and feathers were also likely traded in significant quantities.Knowledge on who built the city is left to theories and conjecture, but there was possible reciprocal influence, as common design features from past, present, and future civilizations in Central America can be found in Teotihuacan. No one knows who really built the city, and it is very much a subject of archaeological and historical debate.No one is sure what happened when the city fell either. What is known is that there was a great fire. It has been suggested that there was an uprising against the ruling elite, or that the city was sacked by invaders. Whatever the cause, however, by the middle of the 8th century CE, the city had been abandoned.Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, Teotihuacan covers 32 square miles (83 square kilometers) and is one of the most visited sites in Mexico.Chan Chan: A Desert MetropolisThe entrance to the Tschudi palace in Chan Chan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe largest city in South America during the pre-Columbian era, Chan Chan was the capital of the Chimor Kingdom, which rose around 900 CE and which was conquered by the Incas in 1470 CE.Chan Chan is thought to have been built around the middle of the 9th century CE, reaching its peak around 1000 CE. Situated in the arid desert coastal plain of the Pacific, the city was built at the mouth of the Moche River, fed by a glacial lake high up in the Andes. At its height, Chan Chan held an estimated population of between 40,000 and 60,000 people.The vast ruins span 14 square miles (36 square km) and are remarkably well-preserved due to the dry desert climate in which they are situated. As such, much of the adobe constructions and their details have been preserved. Recent climatic changes and El Nio have threatened the preservation of the city, and some efforts have been made to restore some of the damage. Chan Chan represents the biggest adobe city ever built.Carved adobe decoration from Chan Chan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe city reflected the hierarchical nature of the society, and the center of the city consists of several walled citadels with plazas, gardens, reservoirs, pyramidal temples, cemeteries, and living spaces for the aristocracy, while the rest of the population lived in much smaller dwellings outside of the city center.After the Chimor Kingdom was conquered by the Incas, the societal structure of Chan Chan broke down, and the city went into decline. It suffered further when the Spanish established the city of Trujillo 3 miles east of Chan Chan, further diminishing its importance. Soon after, the Spanish looted Chan Chan, and thereafter, its ruins stood abandoned.It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.Tenochtitlan: The Famed City of the AztecsPainting of Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco on Lake Texcoco. Source: Aztec (Mexica) Gallery, INAH, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City via Wikimedia CommonsAround 1325, the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was established on an island near the western coast of Lake Texcoco. The site was chosen according to a prophecy from the war god Huitzilopochtli, who had directed the Aztecs to build a city where they saw an eagle perched on a cactus, eating a snake.Tenochtitlan grew quickly. A breakaway city Tlatelolco, was established on the north of the island, but was conquered and absorbed into Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs, through alliances and conquests, quickly established dominance in the region, and Tenochtitlan grew to house between 200,000 and 400,000 people. In Europe, only Paris, Venice, and Constantinople were comparable in size at the time.An illustration of the temple complex at the heart of Tenochtitlan attributed to Diego Rivera, 1900. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTenochtitlan was a city of immense grandeur with many religious structures and towering pyramids. The greatest of these was the Templo Mayor, a pyramidal temple dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, and the rain god, Tlaloc. Famously, or perhaps infamously, the religious rites performed at this site were particularly gruesome.Marvels of engineering, the city was connected to the mainland via causeways built of stone, with wooden bridges that could be raised to facilitate water traffic through the water zones.Tenochtitlans story came to an end in 1521 with the arrival of the Spanish and a subsequent siege. Conquistadors, allied with the Tlaxcalan people, razed the city after a 75-day siege. Today, Lake Texcoco has disappeared, and upon it, and the rubble of Tenochtitlan, lies the sprawling metropolis of Mexico City.

Although the longsword and katana are often compared to one another in hypothetical debates about which sword is better, some commentators point out that the longsword may not be the most apt weapon to compare to the katana because it is too different mechanically. How true that is lies outside the scope of this piece; instead, were going to compare the katana to similar cutting blades of various traditions, collectively called sabers.A caveat: we arent attempting to decide which sword is inherently better. Every weapon created is intended for use in its specific context. Where one sword might excel, another may fall short, and vice versa. This is simply an analysis of the katana as it compares to the saber.Katana OverviewKatana, c. 1500. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe katana has existed in one form or another since the late 13th century and was in military use until World War II. It is a refinement of earlier swords such as the tachi. It is 36 inches long, and roughly 28 inches of that is the blade.The weapon has a gentle curvature that lends itself well to drawing and cutting, and once out, it can be used in one or two hands. However, most ryuha (Japanese fencing styles) teach the use of both hands for most situations; the extra length of the hilt grants extra leverage. One aspect that singles out the katana is its distinctive hilt: it is constructed of wood and made to hold the tang of the blade with friction and retaining pins. Atop the wooden core of the hilt, a fishskin wrapping and a flat cotton or silk wrapping make the katana easy to grip, both from the contours of the wrap and the materials absorbency.The handguard, or tsuba, is an iron or brass disc or square that offers only slight protection for the hands, mainly being used to keep the swordsman from sliding his own hand up onto the blade inadvertently. However, the comparative lack of protection gave the ability to quickly grasp the hilt and be ready for action.Although it only weighs a kilogram on average, the lack of a pommel and the relatively thick blade make the katana a slightly tip-heavy sword. Its blade profile is larger than the saber, with the wedge-like curved structure making it suited for fast, powerful blows driven by hip rotation.Saber OverviewBritish military saber, 1796. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe saber, a single-edged, one-handed sword, was originally the chief close-combat weapon of the various nomadic tribes of 5th-century Eurasia, such as the Avars, Magyars, Huns, and others. These tribes fought mostly from horseback. Cutting downward from such a height advantage and the momentum from a galloping horse with a curved blade like the saber is devastating to the victim. Different variants of the saber had their own curvature. Through the centuries, the saber became the adopted weapon for cavalry and infantry officers, eventually becoming the close-quarters sidearm until swords were phased out of military action altogether because of the bayonet.Unlike the katana, it is not possible to use the saber in two hands because there is not enough room on the hilt. Also, many saber hilts have a knuckle bow or similar guard that wraps around the hand, so it could be used as a sort of brass knucklestyle implement. The saber weighs about the same as the katana, with some variation. Both the distal and profile cross-sections are thinner, creating a nimble sword that can be used to make cuts from the wrist as well as the elbow.How Were They Wielded?Taiheiki Eiyu-den, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1849. Source: Japanese PrintsSchools of Japanese fencing teach that the katana be held with the smallest and ring fingers gripping the hilt, a moderate grip with the middle finger, and the index finger and thumb barely touching. Cuts mostly receive their power through a step that drives hip and torso movement. The arms and hands naturally follow. The most common targets are the crown of the head, throat, collarbones, torso, wrists, and the insides of the thighs.The saber tended to be wielded with more emphasis on motions driven from the elbow and wrist. Cuts occurred along diagonal and horizontal lines, with wrist rotations called moulinets aiding in transition from one angle to another. The left hand often rested on the hip to act as an aid in supporting the swordsmans upright posture.What Societal Role Did These Swords Have?American Civil War cavalry officer at the Battle of Hanover. Source: Gettysburg DailyTo fully compare the katana and the saber, it is also important to consider their social context. The katana was, in addition to being a battlefield backup weapon, the everyday carry weapon for samurai. After the Great Sword Hunt of 1588, ordered by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, only samurai were legally permitted to own a katana or any other weapons, as a means of quelling peasant unrest. Samurai wore it and the wakizashi as a pair called daisho, which served as a samurais signifier of social status. Even if they were not master swordsmen, they were expected to have at least a basic skill in handling the weapon. Numerous schools of fencing developed in the Sengoku and Edo periods.The saber was also a military sidearm worn by the officer class in the military, but unlike the katana, there were fewer legal restrictions on its ownership. Of course, Japan is a single country, while various European countries over the medieval, Renaissance, and Early Modern periods used them to various degrees. That being said, swords were far too expensive to afford for most people and had little practical purpose outside warfare. Wealthy civilians in many European countries in the 17th through 19th centuries would instead use a smallsword or a pistol for dueling or self-defense.Did Katana and Saber Designs Draw From One Another?Kyu-gunto (bottom) and shin-gunto (top) on a sword rack. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor most of its history, Japan had little to no contact with the various European nations except for Portugal and the Netherlands. When Commodore Matthew Perry landed in Tokyo Harbor in 1854, Japan was forced for the first time in over two centuries to open its ports to the outside world. The exposure to modernized technology drove the Japanese to aggressively pursue a program of modernization and emulation of the Western world. The samurai class was abolished and prohibited from wearing swords.As Japan developed a nationalized military, they equipped their officers with sabers at first; then merged the design elements with traditional katana. The resulting sword was called the kyu-gunto. It had a closed handguard and shorter grip, as well as a shorter blade. Kyu-gunto and other military swords post-Meiji were made on an industrial scale for equipping officers, gradually replaced by shin-gunto, which more closely resembled a traditional katana. Some officers who came from samurai families would bring their family katana into battle.There is little to no evidence of the katanas design influencing Western swords on a widespread scale, although individual swordsmiths may have incorporated aspects they found appealing.