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Nestor Makhno was one of the most eccentric revolutionaries during the Russian Civil War. He established a regime based on left-wing anarchist principles on the left bank of the Dnipro River in Ukraine and fought against both White and Red armies. Makhnos project was short-lived but provided inspiration for left-wing revolutionary movements in the following decades.Nestor Makhnos Revolutionary IdealsNestor Makhno and his allies at Huliaipole, 1919. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBorn on October 27, 1889 in the Ukrainian village of Huliaipole, Nestor Ivanovich Makhno grew up in a poor environment in which local peasants struggled to advance in society. His father died when he was very young and the conditions he and his family lived in radicalized him. In 1906, he joined a small anarchist cell plotting attacks on Russian policemen. He was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment in Butyrka prison in Moscow after killing a policeman in Huliaipole.He continued working on plans for an anarchist revolution from prison with his cellmate Peter Arshinov when he was released during the February Revolution in 1917. He immediately returned to Huliaipole hoping to organize workers in the village. Workers councils sprouted up all over the Russian Empire to promote nationalism, workers rights, and self-determination. Makhno ran one of these councils, known as soviets, in Huliaipole. The town proved receptive to the promises made by Makhnos soviet.Like the rest of the Russian Empire, Ukraine experienced rapid industrial development in the late 19th century, and workers in Ukrainian cities were exposed to left-wing socialist ideas. Makhnos soviet aimed to improve conditions for peasants in Huliaipole while redistributing land from wealthy families, especially the Mennonite community, in the region. He opposed Lenins revolutionary dictatorship but hoped to work with other revolutionaries. When the Central Powers invaded in 1918, his soviet organized resistance to their presence while he went to Moscow to gain support.Ukrainian IndependenceFirst General Secretariat of the Ukrainian Central Rada, 1917. Source: Euromaidan PressOutside of Huliaipole, major developments were underway in Ukraine. Years of underground organizing led to the creation of Ukraines national movement. In March 1917, Ukrainian delegates formed a regional congress known as the Central Rada and elected Mykhailo Hrushevsky, a historian and Ukrainian nationalist leader, as its head. Its members were divided on whether they wanted autonomy within a democratic Russia or full independence. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Central Rada declared full independence, establishing the Ukrainian Peoples Republic in the process.The Central Rada was composed of parties representing Ukrainian socialist movements, the Russian Social Democrats, Jewish parties of different backgrounds, and Polish representatives. They agreed to create a social democratic state with equal rights and universal suffrage. The Ukrainian language was rehabilitated and a new army was formed.The Bolsheviks were opposed to the calls for Ukrainian independence and ordered the Red Army to take Kyiv, the new capital. After a brief fight outside the city, the Central Rada fled along with the remnants of Ukraines army. They returned when the Austrian and German armies invaded Ukraine to keep it from falling to Bolshevik rule. However, the Central Powers wanted to rule Ukraine through a puppet and installed a regime called the Hetmanate, led by General Pavlo Skoropadsky. This led to an insurgency throughout Ukraine. Makhnos soviet organized peasant attacks on Austrian troops near Huliaipole. Skoropadsky was thrown out of power on April 29, 1918, by supporters of Symon Petliura. Ukraine subsequently collapsed into a civil war.The Formation of the MakhnovshchinaMap of the Makhnovshchinas furthest extent of control in 1919 found in Peter Arshinovs History of the Makhnovist Movement, 1921. Source: The Anarchist LibraryWhile the Russian Civil War raged around Eurasia, Nestor Makhno and his acolytes began putting their anarchist ideas into practice. It went beyond the village of Huliaipole; a large chunk of territory on the left bank of the Dnipro River came under Makhnovist control. With the help of men like Fedir Shchus, Volin (Vsevolod Eichenbaum), Vasyl Kurilenko, Peter Arshinov, and many others, they began implementing their plans of land distribution, the formation of peasant councils, and creating a militia called the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine. While they supported Ukrainian self-determination, they opposed Petliuras reestablishment of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic, believing it to be too bourgeois.When the November 1918 armistice went into effect, the Central Powers troops went home, leaving a power vacuum in Ukraine. The Makhnovists wanted to extend their control as far as possible and began to clash with both the Petliurists and Russian White Armies. Makhno, now nicknamed Batko (uncle), took advantage of peasant grievances to gain supporters. His military became reputable for its ability to seize towns through trickery. The Makhnovists also played different parties in the Russian Civil War against each other.The Makhnovshchina (i.e. the area under Makhnovs rule) was a multiethnic and multireligious territory that officially made no distinctions between people based on their background. Because of the presence of Jews in the Insurgent Army and Makhnovist leadership, there was little antisemitism. Russian anarchists were welcome too, even if the movement was mainly a Ukrainian one. The minority group targeted by the Makhnovists was the Mennonite community, a group of German and Dutch Anabaptist Christians who had been invited to the Russian Empire by Catherine the Great in the 18th century. Because many Mennonites were landowners, they were frequently attacked by Makhnos militia.Failed Alliance with Hryhoriv and the RedsNestor Makhno in Red Army uniform, 1919. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMakhnos Revolutionary Insurgent Army began fighting the Ukrainian Peoples Army and the White Russian Army once the Central Powers evacuated. Petliura could not bring Makhno under his wing and hostilities ensued. Makhnos forces outclassed the other Ukrainian troops and defeated them repeatedly. At the same time, the White Russian Army moved from areas of southern Russia into Ukraine with the aim of reconstructing the Russian Empire under former loyalists of the tsar. Makhno felt that he was being put in a vice and sought assistance from Red Army commander Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko and a warlord named Nykyfor Hryhoriv.The alliance with the Reds and Hryhorivs militia deteriorated as a result of repression from the Cheka, the Bolshevik secret police. Makhno and his allies opposed the establishment of the Soviet regime in Moscow, favoring libertarian socialism. They also opposed Hryhorivs antisemitism. In 1919, when the Makhnovshchina held a Regional Congress, the Bolsheviks announced that they were traitors. The White Army also broke through the Red Armys lines in Donbas and attacked the Makhnovshchina. Makhnos army came under attack from multiple directions and was forced to flee over the Dnipro River to Uman.The Makhnovists continued fighting even with the loss of their center of power. In July 1919, they assassinated Hryhoriv and briefly buried the hatchet with the Ukrainian Peoples Republic. Their alliance with Petliuras forces enabled them to prepare for a counterattack. Both armies assaulted the Whites on the left bank of the Dnipro River and the Makhnovists regained Huliaipole on November 11, 1919.Zenith of the MakhnovshchinaVolin (Vsevolod Mikhailovich Eichenbaum), Chairman of the Makhnovshchinas Military Revolutionary Council. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor a brief period at the end of 1919 and early 1920, the Makhnovshchina reached the high watermark of its territorial control. Anton Denikins Army of South Russia had been forced back out of most of Ukraine. All business enterprises were brought under worker or peasant control again and local soviets were reestablished. Volin, the chairman of the Military Revolutionary Council, advocated that every soviet in the region be given total autonomy, something opposed by other delegates to the Regional Congress. By December 1919, a typhus epidemic ravaged the Makhnovshchina, enabling the Reds to retake control of the area on the left bank of the Dnipro River down to Crimea.The implementation of the Red Terror by the Cheka enraged the Ukrainian peasantry, leading to additional fighting between the two. An estimated 200,000 Ukrainian peasants were killed during the Red Terror. Much of the progress made by Makhno and his allies was reversed. However, the Whites reared their head again, forcing the Reds and Makhnovists to put aside their differences once more. The Starobilsk Agreement led to another short-lived alliance between the two factions.As Baron Pyotr Wrangels White forces advanced and the Polish Army along with Petliuras forces marched on Kyiv in the west, the Revolutionary Insurgent Army joined the Red Army in driving back the White advance. Despite serious battle damage to the region, Wrangels withdrawal and the terms of the agreement enabled Makhno to set up his autonomous state again. They controlled everything between the Dnipro River and the Azov Sea.The End of the MakhnovshchinaMakhno and members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, 1920. Source: libcom.orgThe destruction of the remaining White armies meant that the Bolsheviks no longer required the assistance of the Makhnovists. Vladimir Lenin demanded that the Makhnovists join the Red Army in invading Poland, which Makhno and his supporters refused to do. The Cheka began to suppress many of the local soviets when they refused to recognize Moscows authority. The Revolutionary Insurgent Army tried to resist but lacked support and weapons. It was forced to retreat into western Ukraine.By this point, the peasants who lived in the Makhnovshchina were exhausted by years of war. They formed the main support base of Makhnos movement but had little left to offer. As a result, Makhno and his supporters went into exile, first fleeing to Romania and then on to France. While in Poland, Makhno was briefly arrested before being released. He later died in 1934 in Paris. The work he and his comrades did was undone by Bolshevik War Communism, in which resources from the countryside were plundered to feed the cities. Even Lenins more moderate New Economic Policy involved a greater degree of central control compared to Makhnos vision of localized socialism.The Makhnovschina had proven to be resilient and popular through several years of war. Peasants and workers living there embraced land reform and democratic freedoms that they lacked under tsarist or communist rule. However, the endless conflict on the territory took a heavy toll on the people. Without external assistance and recognition, the Makhnovshchina was doomed to fail. It was, however, an inspiration to other anarchist movements and not the last time anarchist leaders attempted to create a mass movement.

After more than two years of fighting on several fronts, the United States and Britain made peace with the Treaty of Ghent in December 1814, bringing an end to the War of 1812. While the agreement restored territory to the prewar status quo, both the United States and Britain experienced lasting political, economic, and military effects. While the War of 1812 fostered the development of a peaceful and harmonious relationship between the two leading belligerents, it had disastrous secondary effects for Britains Native American allies.The Treaty of GhentJohn Quincy Adams, lead American negotiator for the Treaty of Ghent, as drawn by Jacques Reich, 1899-1920. Source: Smithsonian InstitutionSigned on December 24, 1814, the Treaty of Ghent brought an end to hostilities between the United States and Britain. While each side agreed to return any occupied territories to their prewar owners, the agreement failed to address some of the most significant causes of the War of 1812: British impressment of American sailors and British interference in American trade with France. It did, however, have tangible results for each side.The Treaty of Ghent outlined the exchange of prisoners of war to their respective countries and established commissions to remedy border disputes between American and British territory, particularly in the Great Lakes and Niagara regions. On paper, the Treaty of Ghent stated that Native American lands captured during the war were to be restored and returned to their respective tribes, but American political and military leaders failed to extend this accommodation to tribal peoples after the war.Much like the inadequacies of the Treaty of Paris following the American Revolutionary War, resulting in the Jay Treaty one decade later, additional negotiations were introduced to remedy major shortcomings of the Treaty of Ghent. The 1817 Rush-Bagot Agreement limited naval armaments on Lake Champlain and the Great Lakes, reducing the prospect of further hostilities near a major area of contention during the war. The following year, the Convention of 1818 resolved territorial disputes between the United States and British Canada.Geopolitical Outcomes for the United StatesPresident James Monroe, whose 1817 visit to Boston inspired the first usage of the phrase Era of Good Feelings, as depicted by Goodman & Piggot, 1817. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian InstitutionFollowing the War of 1812, the United States experienced a decade-long period of national unity known as the Era of Good Feelings. Before the war, the Federalist Party opposed hostilities with England. A political faction that favored a strong national government, Federalist leaders included John Adams, John Jay, and Alexander Hamilton. After the war, the party lost its credibility and influence, resulting in a national one-party system under the Democratic-Republicans. However, the dominant party adopted many Federalist ideas including protective tariffs and infrastructure improvements that it had previously opposed.During this era of national confidence, the United States adopted an assertive foreign policy in the form of the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, which warned European powers from seeking to restore their colonial empires in the Americas. While the United States did not yet have the naval capacity to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, the close relationship with Britain after the War of 1812 ensured that the United States would have the backing of the Royal Navy.By 1819, the nation expanded to the south by acquiring the state of Florida from Spain through the Adams-Onis Treaty, and the United States continued its westward expansion driven by the Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark Expedition prior to the War of 1812. While the war and subsequent policy did remove British control and reduce Native American resistance, it did not negate tribal protections of their land west of the Appalachian Mountains in uncharted territories.Economic Outcomes for the United StatesDavy Crocketts 1837 Almanack of Wild Sports in the West, 1837. Source: Smithsonian InstitutionThe United States witnessed positive geopolitical outcomes of the War of 1812, but the economic impact was catastrophic. The War of 1812 additionally strained the American economy through disrupted trade and agricultural production, causing inflation and food shortages, with domestic prices of goods and services experiencing a 30% increase by 1815 as a result. The American government was on the brink of bankruptcy after the British sacked Washington, but the country rebounded quickly after the war.While the British blockade of international trade routes remained active during the War of 1812, barriers to trade reduced significantly after the Treaty of Ghent in accordance with a desire for improved relations between the historic enemies. The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 ended the British blockade of French trade and reduced the navys manpower requirement, effectively bringing an end to impressment of American sailors without a formal commitment to do so.By the 1820s, both the manufacturing and agrarian economy were gradually recovering from the wartime impact, but continued economic uncertainty encouraged westward expansionism. Settlers like Davy Crockett ventured west to seize new economic opportunities and better livelihoods than they had back in the east.The War of 1812 exposed systemic vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure like poorly constructed and defended government buildings which were set ablaze in Washington DC. After making peace with Britain, the United States had the opportunity to invest in infrastructure improvements. The 19th century saw the development of canals and railroads, as well as iron and steel production, textiles, and factory-based manufacturing.Geopolitical and Economic Outcomes for BritainNapoleon Bonaparte on horseback by Frederick Gleason, date unknown. Source: Smithsonian InstitutionWhile England suffered significant defeats in battle during the latter stages of the War of 1812, notably at Lake Erie and New Orleans, the conflict was not considered a priority during the Napoleonic Wars. A return to the status quo in Treaty of Ghent was interpreted as a favorable end to combat, and the freeing up of military assets in North America was crucial in Britains efforts to confront Napoleon after his return to power during the Hundred Days.While British Canada emerged intact from the War of 1812, their Native American allies were militarily and territorially weakened. The British were compelled to increase their defenses along the Canadian frontier to counter the potential of further American expansion to the north. Much like the United States, Britain experienced serious economic difficulties in wartime before enjoying a significant rebound. The country faced a sizable increase in its national debt and restricted international trade during simultaneous wars on two continents. However, Britain quickly recovered after 1815, witnessing major advances in industrialization and manufacturing. Most importantly, the War of 1812 significantly improved relations between Britain and the United States, which continues to this day.Native American OutcomesGeneral Andrew Jackson on horseback, artist unknown, 1832-1835. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian InstitutionOf all the parties involved in the War of 1812, Native American tribes suffered the most catastrophic outcomes by the conflicts end. After suffering considerable losses at the Battle of Tippecanoe and the Battle of Thames, Tecumsehs Confederacy effectively dissolved. Once a promising symbol of Native American autonomy and unity, the collective did not survive long after its charismatic leaders death in 1813. Consequently, the War of 1812 left many Native American tribes isolated from potential allies and unable to resist American expansionism.While the Treaty of Ghent called for the return of Native American lands to their rightful inhabitants, the United States was unwilling to give up its considerable territorial gains at the expense of Native American peoples. After being defeated by Andrew Jacksons forces, the Creek Indians were forced to give up over 20 million acres of land in the 1814 Treaty of Fort Jackson. Three years later, the Treaty of Fort Meigs ceded Shawnee and Wyandot lands in the Ohio Valley.By 1830, the continued expansion of American settlers into Native American lands in the wake of the War of 1812 led President Andrew Jackson to sign the Indian Removal Act. This controversial law opened the door for nearly two decades of forced removals of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands east of the Mississippi to present-day Oklahoma. Although Native American peoples like the Choctaw and factions of the Cherokee and Creek Indians were allies with the United States during the war, they were not spared from the trauma of the Trail of Tears.Lasting EffectsThe Star-Spangled Banner on display at the National Museum of American History. Source: American Battlefield TrustThe War of 1812 left both positive and negative lasting effects on the North American continent and Britain. For the United States, long-term consequences of the conflict included a strengthening of national identity and a sustained period of economic growth up to the American Civil War. Francis Scott Keys poem about the star-spangled banner that continued to fly amidst the bombardment of Fort McHenry at the Battle of Baltimore became a popular patriotic song before being adopted as the United States national anthem in 1931.For America and Britain, improved relations following the Treaty of Ghent has led to arguably one of the most significant alliances in recent history. During the 20th century, Britain and the United States were major Allied Powers in both World War I and World War II, and strong levels of economic and military cooperation continue into the 21st century. Without the War of 1812 to smooth out the remaining kinks from Americas initial struggle for independence, the Anglo-American special relationship might not be as close as it is today.Alongside these significant longstanding gains, the conflict also had major negative repercussions. Modern society recognizes the generational mistakes in how the United States treated Native American populations in the 19th century. While the War of 1812 was primarily intended to remedy the United States grievances with Britain, its outcomes were highly detrimental to the Native American tribes on both sides of the conflict. It is possible to conclude that while both Britain and the United States won the War of 1812, the Native Americans lost.

This Western languages rise started in the 18th century, reflecting Frances central position as the most powerful and centralized country. French culture also became emulated in other European courts. The rise coincided with King Louis XIVs reign, beginning around 1643. His court at Versailles was seen as the height of sophistication. For the aristocracy, French emerged as the language of refinement.Frenchs international lingua franca also emerged from international treaties and a colonial empire. The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which settled the War of the Spanish Succession and was written in French, is the first example. Next, as France expanded across the globe during the late 18th and 19th centuries, the languages popularity grew. This wouldnt change for decades.Representing Frances Political Power and PrestigeWorld Map Showing French-Speaking Countries. Source: WikimediaFrances political, cultural, and intellectual rise began in the 1600s. The infamous Cardinal Richelieu, under King Louis XIII, eliminated internal foes and centralized the government. Louis XIV (1643-1715) went further (I am the state), establishing Versailles as a cultural hotspot. He sponsored all manner of programs in art, culture, and science.Louis XIVs France participated in at least three aggressive and several smaller campaigns. Despite some setbacks, France came out as Europes dominant power. Negotiated in French, the treaties made it the premier international language.The standing of Latin and Spanish waned as France became the international lingua franca. Latin, as a functionally extinct language, became viewed as antiquated. Spanish was considered a Habsburg and an imperial influence. Next, add in Frances cultural influence, and French popularity only grew.French, Prestige, and The EnlightenmentVersailles Photocrom Print 1870. Source: Central Institute for Art History, GermanyLuckily for the French language, the Enlightenment roughly spanned 1688 to the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815). The Enlightenment, resulting from the earlier Scientific Revolution, proved a boon for French. By 1700, French was the preferred language across Europe. A Russian noble, an Ottoman diplomat, or an English ambassador all learned to speak fluent French.Many famous French thinkers, like Descartes, Montesquieu, and Voltaire, became known across Europe. Topics they took included human nature, reason, and liberty. French was now the language of debate. These debates often took place in noble salons or spaces where gossip, debate, and knowledge exchange occurred. And, of course, primarily spoken in French.A unique advantage French possessed came from the Acadmie Franaise, founded in 1635. This body codified French grammar and kept French pure. The Acadmie avoided unreasonably complex or lengthy sentences, preferring clarity. It promoted logical, concise sentences. Though more complicated than other languages, it avoided inconsistencies. German, for example, had little standardization, contained many regional dialects, and was harder to learn.18th Century Voltaire Portrait. Source: Library of CongressFrenchs prestige only grew across Europe. Whether by a cultural wave or emulation, the language became the standard for elegance and taste. Monarchs and nobles hired French tutors, read French books, or adopted French fashions. Elite schools also taught French, making it a common language among the nobility or ruling class.The Colonial and International Reach1856 Congress of Paris (Treaty) Ending the Crimean War. Source: Chateau De VersaillesFrance, like most of Europe, acquired colonies in Africa, the New World, and Asia. Naturally, the French imposed their own language. A French-speaking administrative and upper class emerged, like in Vietnam or Senegal. In other places, such as Haiti and Runion (in the Pacific Ocean), French became the dominant language through colonial rule and assimilation.International relations and negotiations reinforced Frenchs diplomatic hold into the 20th century. Already used for European treaties, numerous international treaties were written in French. Significant examples included the Convention of 1800 between the U.S. and France and the 1856 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Crimean War.A Prestigious Decline and Present StatusFrances Seat on the UN Security Council. Source: UN.orgThe 1918 Allied victory ended the Great War. Yet this victory weakened the French languages position. Americas gradual rise as a world power and equal partner slowly tilted the lingua franca to English. For example, the victors drafted the 1919 Treaty of Versailles in French, the enduring dominant diplomatic language. But it was also written in English.The interwar years saw Frenchs further displacement as Americas cultural, diplomatic, and economic power advanced. World War II saw Englishs almost complete replacement of French as the worlds lingua franca. The 1945 founding of the United Nations placed English alongside French (and four others) as an official language.Today, French remains an important language and still boasts 321 million speakers. Organizations like the International Court, NATO, and the European Union list French. And, for legal use, few match Frenchs nuance and precision.