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Born in 1807, Lees father was the famous Revolutionary War General Light-Horse Harry Lee. Lee Senior earned his rank and reputation serving George Washington in Americas War of Independence. Lee was the youngest son and fifth child.Lee graduated from the United States Military Academy, now known as West Point, in 1829, second in his class. He married Mary, with whom he had seven children. By then, Lees rank was lieutenant in the Engineer Corps. He earned a promotion to second lieutenant in 1833, and by 1838, Lee had become a captain with various postings along the East Coast. His typical assignments included planning the construction of fortifications or the procurement of supplies.How the Mexican-American War Shaped Robert E. Lee as a CommanderLighthorse Harry Lee. Source: Princeton University Art MuseumLees first exposure to combat came with his time during the 1848 Mexican-American War as an aide to the expeditions top general. Though he started as a captain, his bravery and skill earned him a brevet or temporary battlefield promotion to major. As the American army marched from the port city of Veracruz to attack Mexico City, Lee scouted ahead, often finding paths to attack the Mexicans considered unpassable.Lee fought in significant battles, including the Siege of Veracruz and the Battle of Chapultepec. His experience there taught him skills hed use during the American Civil War. Many contemporaries considered him an excellent leader and tactician.Why Robert E. Lee Rejected US Army Command to Fight for the SouthRobert E. Lee, 1861. Source: National Portrait Gallery / Smithsonian InstitutionThe 1850s were a difficult time in America, especially around the topic of slavery, and by 1861, the issue tore the country apart as the Civil War broke out. The bombing of Fort Sumter officially started the conflict, forcing difficult decisions. Lee declined US Army command, instead becoming a Confederate Army general. In his resignation letter, Lee stated he couldnt fight fellow Virginians.Inside the Brutal Victories and Crushing Defeats of the Army of Northern VirginiaConfederate dead, 1862. Source: Missouri History Museum / Wikimedia CommonsThe years of 1861 and 1862 were a mix of victories and defeats for Lee. His defense works were so thorough at Savannah, Georgia, that the port didnt fall for nearly three years. In early 1862, the Union Army fought hard, pushing back the Confederates until the front lines were only 20 miles outside the capital, Richmond.Recalled by Confederate President Davis, Lee renamed this force the Army of Northern Virginia on June 1, 1862. He then promptly attacked; the Union Army easily outnumbered his forces, but he defeated three Union armies and crushed another until the Confederates stopped 20 miles from Washington, DC. He took the fight to Maryland in this campaign, hoping to gain supplies or influence the elections. Lee next won the wars single bloodiest battle, the Battle of Antietam, on September 17, 1862.The Devastating Gamble at Gettysburg That Broke Robert E. Lees ArmyBattle of Gettysburg, by Thure de Thulstrup, 1887. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLee, despite the victories, knew the South still faced massive issues. The Unions industrial, population, and military advantages dwarfed the Confederacy. So he struck again, invading Pennsylvania to keep the Souths momentum going. He hoped to smash the Unions demoralized troops, pressure the Union to negotiate, win European recognition for the Confederacy, and protect Virginia.After crossing the Potomac River on July 1, the two armies clashed at Gettysburg. The Confederates captured the town. In three days of bloody fighting, Lees men penetrated Union defenses. Still, they lost so many men charging across open fields or uphill under enemy fire that the attacks couldnt be sustained. Unable to continue, Lee ordered a retreat back to Virginia. Out of 75,000 men, Lee lost over 22,000 killed in the fighting. The defeat proved permanent, as Lee never invaded again. However, the upcoming battles would demonstrate his defensive skills.How Ulysses S. Grant Finally Broke Robert E. Lees DefensesLee Surrenders to Grant in 1865, by Thomas Nast. Source: American History Central. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe most critical part of the Civil War started in 1864; the newly appointed Ulysses S. Grants armies faced the skillful Lees Confederate forces. Grant, equally relentless as Lee but with more men and resources, invaded Virginia by crossing the Rapidan River and beginning the Overland Campaign.Lee adroitly defended Virginia against Grants constant battering. He held off the Union Army with increasing difficulty each time. The Siege of Petersburg commenced the final Civil War campaign. For almost a year, Lee kept Grant buffeting against strong defenses he built around the city. Grant repeatedly tried to flank Lees army, but the wily Virginian matched him.The constant pressure finally broke Lees forces. He evacuated the capital, Richmond, and realized the cause was lost. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. He ordered all Confederate troops to stand down, thus preventing a guerrilla war and bloodshed. Without Robert E. Lees martial skills, the Confederate States existence would have been considerably shortened.

The Soviet Union regularly dealt with internal dissent and criticism through the use of brutal force. As a result, protests were not a regular feature of life in the Soviet Union. However, a number of key demonstrations did take place in the communist state. In this article, we explore key Soviet protest movements that occurred throughout the 20th century, each of which reflected peoples determination to oppose the state and alter the course of the Soviet Union.The 1962 Novocherkassk MassacreA plaque commemorating the victims of the Novocherkassk tragedy of 1962. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe June 1962 workers protest and subsequent massacre at Novocherkassk was a key moment in the movement for workers rights in the Soviet Union. The protest began when workers at the Novocherkassk Electric Locomotive Plant staged a walkout in frustration at a pay freeze that occurred during a steep rise in the cost of living. The protest quickly spiraled out of control as thousands of like-minded citizens joined the protest to demonstrate worsening living conditions and demand immediate economic relief.The local Soviet security forces reacted quickly and brutally to the protest. The Soviet Army, along with agents of the KGB, opened fire on a group of protesters, killing 36 people and wounding 87 more. Despite the heavy-handed reaction of the state security services, several hundred people came out in solidarity the following day, seeking immediate relief from rising food prices. Soviet security services again reacted swiftly to the protest and arrested most of the protesters, sentencing some to harsh prison sentences and others to the death penalty.While the 1962 Novocherkassk protest and massacre may have resulted in the needless deaths of Soviet citizens, the result was that the central government did begin to take their demands seriously. Moscow sent additional food supplies to the region and began a cover-up campaign that banned all mention of the events. The 1962 protest remained a state secret until 1992, when the collapse of the Soviet Union saw official documents relating to the massacre released to the public.The 1968 Red Square DemonstrationA burning Soviet tank during the Prague Spring, 1968. Source: CIA / Wikimedia CommonsOne of the most courageous protests to take place in the history of the Soviet Union occurred on August 25, 1968, in response to Moscows invasion of Czechoslovakia. Known as the Prague Spring, Soviet tanks brutally oppressed supporters of the Czechoslovakian government who had called for greater political autonomy and independence, an act which left many in the USSR profoundly troubled.In a display of solidarity, a small group of protesters stepped out onto Moscows Red Square and unfurled banners with slogans that supported the demonstrators in Czechoslovakia. The KGB soon swept into action and arrested the activists. Prominent Soviet dissidents Pavel Litvinov and Natalya Gorbanevskaya were among those arrested and subjected to harsh punishment under the Soviet legal system.Even though it was quickly suppressed by security forces, the Red Square demonstration became widely known among the general population, and information was distributed using the Samizdat underground printing networks. The protest highlighted the internal resistance to the Soviet Unions oppressive actions outside its borders and demonstrated that moral and political discontent could exist even at the geographical heart of the USSR. The protest also helped to strengthen domestic demands for human rights and struck a chord with activists from around the world.The Crimean Tatar Civil Rights MovementCrimean Tatars being forcibly relocated, 1944. Source: Archive photo, Public CrimeaDuring the 1940s, the oppressive regime of Joseph Stalin had deported huge groups of Crimean Tatars in the wake of World War II on the grounds that they had collaborated with invading Nazi forces. A completely made-up accusation. After they had been exiled to Central Asia and Siberia, these Crimean Tatars began the long process of petitioning the Soviet state for permission to return home. Throughout the 1960s, 70s, and 80s, numerous protests, hunger strikes, and petition drives took place in the Soviet Union in support of the plight of those forcibly removed from Crimea.In 1967, the Soviet government formally withdrew some of the charges brought against the Crimean Tatars during World War II. However, the regime did not take any meaningful steps to repatriate those forcibly removed from their homeland.Key figures in the movement such as Mustafa Dzhemilev, used hunger strikes to bring attention to the plight of his people and even conducted the longest recorded hunger strike in the history of civil rights movements to further the Crimean cause. During the late 1980s, greater political freedom was eventually granted to the Crimean Tatars under Mikhail Gorbachevs Perestroika policy, and the restriction on resettlement was eventually eased.The April 9 TragedySoviet troops during the April 9 crackdown, 1989. Source: Georgia TodayThe April 9th tragedy, also known as the massacre of Tbilisi, took place in the spring of 1989 in the Georgian capital, then a republic of the Soviet Union. The tragedy began as a peaceful protest took to the streets of Tbilisi in support of national independence and an end to Soviet rule. An estimated ten thousand Georgians gathered outside Tbilisis Government building and demanded freedom from the USSR.The response of the state security forces was one of the last brutal crackdowns in Soviet history. In the early hours of April 9, Soviet troops and riot police were ordered to disperse the protesters. Armed with batons, tear gas, and armored vehicles, the security forces moved quickly. The brutal nature of the crackdown led to the deaths of 21 people and left hundreds injured. The April 9 tragedy accelerated the Georgian movement for independence, which was officially declared two years later on the anniversary of the massacre.The Baikal Environmental MovementA postcard from Lake Baikal, 1950. Source: Public Domain / coberu.ruThe oldest and deepest freshwater lake in the world, Lake Baikal, was under threat throughout much of the mid-20th century from industrial pollution and illegal waste dumping. In response, the Soviet Unions first true environmental campaign began. The Baikal environmental movement, which began in the late 1950s and gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, was a symbol of the increasing awareness among the Soviet people of national environmental concerns.Concerned scientists, authors, and community leaders protested the environmental damage and organized a series of actions to save Lake Baikal. Through Samizdatself-published literaturethey spread pamphlets that reported on the ecological status of the lake and urged the government to enact stronger environmental regulations. A prominent leader of the movement was author Valentin Rasputin who was instrumental in promoting Lake Baikals preservation.The Jewish Refusenik MovementRonald Reagan meeting with Anatoly Shcharansky, 1986. Source: National ArchivesThe emigration of Jewish families from the Soviet Union to the state of Israel was a key demand of the Refusenik movement that came to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s. In the Soviet Union, a refusenik was an individual of Jewish ethnicity who was forbidden by state authorities from leaving the country. Serious consequences often resulted if a refusenik attempted to leave the Soviet Union in defiance of their status.With the support of Western nations and the international Jewish community, the movement put a great deal of pressure on the Soviet leadership. Well-known refuseniks such as Ida Nudel and Natan Sharansky came to represent the larger fight for freedom and human rights. They were both imprisoned for extended periods of time for their actions, a decision which sparked international condemnation.The Refusenik movement served as an example of how national dissent and international solidarity could coexist. Due to growing international pressure and Perestroika, the Soviet Union eventually loosened emigration regulations by the late 1980s and allowed a large number of Jews to emigrate to Israel.The Revolution on GraniteProtesters holding a sign which reads, Ukraine Leave The USSR, 1991. Source UNIAN via Kyiv PostThe Revolution on Granite was a noteworthy student protest movement that took place in Ukraine in October 1990 in response to the large Communist victory in the March 1990 Ukrainian parliamentary election. During the demonstration, students from Kyiv conducted a widespread hunger strike to demand political reforms and the resignation of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR, Vitaliy Masol. The movement gained its name from the large granite slabs that paved the ground where the students set up their protest camps on Kyivs main square.The wider Ukrainian public soon came to support the students, as their peaceful strategy struck a chord with citizens who had grown tired of political violence and struggle. Eventually, Masol was forced to leave his position and was replaced by Vitold Fokin. The 1991 declaration of Ukrainian independence was largely influenced by the success of the Revolution on Granite. It showed the government authorities that the youth of the nation yearned for change and were willing to use peaceful protest to achieve their goals.The 1986 Chernobyl ProtestsWe request a Nuremberg trial for Chernobyl, 1989. Source Igor Kostin, Chernobyl: Confessions of a Reporter; with Monument to Those Who Saved the World, 2022. Source: Robin GilhamThe devastating Chernobyl nuclear accident, which took place on April 26, 1986, sparked a wave of demonstrations across the Soviet Union in response to the regimes initial handling of the disaster. The magnitude of the incompetence and neglect of the state was exposed by the Chernobyl disaster, and many saw it as the final straw that must eventually lead to the end of the Soviet Union itself.Especially in the most affected areas of Belarus and Ukraine, protests broke out calling for greater environmental and health care protections as well as criticizing the regimes lack of transparency. The ecological movements of Ukraine, particularly Green World, greatly increased in popularity following the disaster. Eventually, a broader coalition of civil rights leaders marched in solidarity, calling for justice for the victims of Chernobyl as well as the end of the Soviet regime.The Baltic WayPhoto of the Baltic Way, published in Moteris Magazine, 1989. Source: Europe1989On August 23, 1989, across the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, approximately two million people joined hands across a distance of six hundred and ninety kilometers to form a human chain of solidarity. The protest known as the Baltic Way was organized to commemorate the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, an agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union that led to the annexation of the Baltic states by the USSR.The nonviolent protest of the Baltic Way attracted global attention to the Baltic states and their desire for independence from the Soviet Union. Eventually, in 1991, autonomy was granted, and the coming together of over two million people in a show of peaceful fraternity would go down in history as perhaps the greatest peaceful protest ever to take place in Europe.