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Arriving as raiders in the late 8th century, Vikings from Norway came to Ireland to raid for loot and captives. Vikings in Ireland intensified their attacks over the 9th and 10th centuries, and the newcomers found themselves fighting alongside, against, and for the native Irish kings.While the role that the Vikings played in Irish politics changed between the 8th and 12th centuries, they were to have a profound impact on Irelands socio-economic and cultural makeup. Throughout this period they were known as foreigners, heathens, and, increasingly, Hiberno-Norse (Irish-Norse), or Gall-Gaedhil. The change in terminology is significant, for it points to a cultural fusion almost unparalleled in importance.The Arrival of the VikingsA modern reconstruction of Skuldelev 2, a Viking ship built in Ireland in the 11th century and sunk in Roskilde harbor. Source: VikingeskibsmuseetThe first Viking raid in Ireland is recorded by the Annals of Ulster under the year 795, just two years after their debut raid on Lindisfarne in Anglo-Saxon Northumbria. The Annals record The burning of Rechru by the heathens and that Sc was overwhelmed and laid waste. It is generally agreed that Rechru refers to Rathlin Island, off the north coast of Ireland, which the Vikings had clearly hit in conjunction with churches and settlements on the Isle of Skye.From this point, annals record periodic raids on settlements and churches on the Irish coast. These early raids seem to have been on a fairly small scale, perhaps consisting of groups of no more than a few ships. When intercepted by Irish kings, as they were in 811 and 812 in Ulster and Munster respectively, these raiding parties were defeated and driven off with relative ease.The Tara Brooch, 7th-8th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe target of these raids, initially, seems to have been the moveable wealth stored in Irish monasteries. There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Irish metalwork found its way to Scandinavia. One such case is an ornamental bronze bucket which could have been made in Ireland or Scotland and was found in a Viking-age grave in northern Norway. Another example is a bronze mount, made in Ireland, which was found in a grave containing the remains of a woman in Denmark. The mount may have been part of a reliquary, and we know from the Annals of Ulster that these precious objects were indeed a target for Viking raiders, who broke into the monastery of Bangor in 824 and shook the relics of Comgall from their shrine.Significantly, both of these objects were made of bronze, an alloy that would have been quite pointless to melt down. Any silver objects looted by the Vikings most likely were melted down soon thereafter and recast into coins, ingots, or jewelry of Scandinavian design. Since silver coinage was absent from pre-Viking Ireland, and indeed silver was reserved only for very high-status items such as the Tara Brooch, it may be that the Vikings found relatively slim pickings in this regard.From Raiding to WarfareThe Oseberg Ship, surviving Viking ship burial. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe years after 821 saw a palpable intensification of Viking activity in Ireland. This is reflected chiefly in the raids carried out on larger, more organized churches with their own militias, such as at Bangor in 824 and Armagh in 832, which they plundered three times in one month.In 837, two fleets of 60 ships appeared on the rivers Boyne and Liffey and defeated the U Nill kings, among the most powerful potentates in Ireland, in a battle in which an uncounted number were killed. The penetration of Viking fleets along Irelands major riverine routes suggests a greater level of organization and the presence of more powerful leaders than during earlier Viking raids.These more formidable Viking fleets were accompanied by a concomitant mutation in the nature of the economic activity underpinning Viking raids. The Vikings no longer seem to have been so interested in looting moveable wealth from Irish churches, but rather in slave-taking. The Annals of Ulster records under the year 836 that The first prey was taken by the heathens from southern Brega, and that the Vikings led away very many captive.Viking slave exhibit, Dublinia, photo by Szarles. Source: FlickrRaiding and trading formed a uniquely symbiotic relationship in the Viking-age psyche. One of the most famous travelers from the Islamic world, Ibn Fadlan, writing in the early 10th century, describes seeing the Varangian Rus (another word for Swedish Vikings) in the east, on the Volga selling slaves. These were in all likelihood procured from the subject peoples of the Rus. We also have evidence from the early 11th century Warner of Rouen, who wrote a cautionary tale about an immoral Irish poet called Moriuht, who is captured by Vikings and sold as a slave around the British Isles and the Rhineland.Finds of iron chains from the Viking Age corroborate these sobering textual references to slave trading. It is not unlikely that slaves taken in raids on monasteries and towns in Ireland found themselves some months later serving masters in the Islamic east, or throughout central Europe.The Establishment of Longphuirt in IrelandDublin as a longphort. Source: VikingeskibsmuseetThe year 841 is perhaps one of the most important in the history of Ireland, although few would recognize it as such. Under this year, the Annals of Ulster recount that There was a naval camp at Duiblinn from which the Laigin and the U Nill were plundered, both states and churches, as far as Sliab Bladma. This Duiblinn, situated on the river Liffey at or near the site of modern Dublin, was established initially as a longphort (pl. longphuirt), or a base for staying over the winter in preparation for the next years campaigning.Several other longphuirt were established over the course of the 9th and 10th centuries, notably at the sites of the later towns of Waterford and Limerick. There were also other longphuirt founded at sites that have all but faded into obscurity, such as the one at Linn Duachaill, near the modern village of Annagassan.The establishment of permanent footholds on Irish soil raised the question of political organization. Although there had been powerful fleets of Vikings in Ireland since the 830s, the establishment of longphuirt seems to have been carried out by individual bands of Vikings with diverse origins.The Annals of Ulster recount, under the year 849, how A naval expedition of seven score ships of adherents of the king of the foreigners came to exact obedience from the foreigners who were in Ireland before them, and afterwards they caused confusion in the whole country. A further entry, under 851, further describes how The dark heathens came to th Cliath (Dublin), made a great slaughter of the fair-haired foreigners, and plundered the naval encampment, both people and property.Viking battle attire, photo by Hans Splinter. Source: FlickrIrish annals are notoriously difficult to deal with, and there is thus a degree of ambiguity as to who the various groups of Vikings at play here were. The term dark heathens, Dubgaill, presumably refers to a group of Danish Vikings, latecomers to the Irish political scene. The fair-haired foreigners, or Finngenti, are almost certainly Vikings from Norway, or from the Norse polities in the western Isles.The most likely interpretation is that the king of the foreigners, often interpreted as a Norse king based in the western seaboard of Scotland, attempted to establish a measure of authority over the disparate Viking groups in Ireland with a large force. A second group of Vikings with Danish origins then supplanted the Hiberno-Norse kings representatives a mere two years later.It is shortly after this point that we get the first references to a Viking leader whose descendants were to dominate the Irish seaboard for the next 300 years. mar, who may or may not have been identical to the quasi-historical Ivar the Boneless, appears in the Norse sagas as the son of Ragnar Lothbrok, and arrived with or shortly after his brother Amlab, who is described by the Annals of Ulster as the son of the king of Lochlann. Their arrival seems to have constituted the consolidation of political authority under one dynasty. It seems that these men were from the ranks of the Finngenti. However, since the term Lochlann can refer in the Irish annals either to Scandinavia or to the Vikings on the western seaboard of Scotland, who faced their own internal struggles, it is difficult to know with certainty to which ethnic group that dynasty belonged.A family tree of the early U mar. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe establishment of longphuirt, and the consolidation of political authority in the hands of a single group of Vikings, went hand in hand with efforts by the Vikings to carve out their own polities within Ireland. Viking leaders often had to ally themselves with other Irish kings, usually ambitious sub-kings who wished to rid themselves of their overlord, in order to face down the powerful native Irish potentates.The Annals of Ulster recounts how, in the year 861, Mide was invaded by ed son of Niall with foreigners. ed Findliath, king of the northern U Nill, sought to claim the kingship of Tara from the Irish High King, Mel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, and it is likely that the Vikings of Dublin and other longphuirt across Ireland joined with him to gain some recognition of their territorial claims.By the end of the 9th century, it appears that the Vikings were able to establish several settlements on the site of what had been temporary bases known as longphuirt. Viking kings carved out territories around their settlements, the most important of which was Fine Gall, the hinterland surrounding Dublin. These served to supply the burgeoning Norse settlements which were to become the first towns in Ireland during the following century.Viking-Age DublinThe Cuerdale Hoard, 10th century. Source: The British MuseumAlthough technically founded in 841, the Hiberno-Norse were not to found a town, as such, at Dublin for almost another century. Although united under the leadership of mar and his brother Amlab for a time, the ruling dynasty was wracked after their deaths in 873 and 874 by internecine disputes that enabled the native Irish, under the leadership of the kings of Brega and the Laigin (Leinster), to drive the Vikings out of Dublin in 902.The Cuerdale Hoard, the most magnificent Viking Age treasure ever discovered, is usually dated to this period. Buried in Lancashire, facing Dublin from across the Irish Sea, it perhaps represents all or part of the moveable wealth that fleeing Vikings were able to save from the settlement as it was overrun by native Irish levies. The hoard consists of more than 8,000 items and comprises coins, ingots, and hack silver. Even if this were taken to be the entire wealth of the Dublin Vikings, it attests to burgeoning trade that caused a major capital inflow of silver to Ireland.The Vikings of Dublin were to fight across northern England, the Scottish lowlands, and Man until in 917. Ragnall, one of the grandsons of mar, returned with his kinsman Sihtric Cech to Ireland, whereupon they attacked the Norse settlement at Waterford and the coast of Leinster. Ragnalls arrival on the Irish political scene, incidentally, was to set up a new political axis across the Irish Sea, encompassing both the Viking settlements in Ireland and the kingdom of York.The re-establishment of Dublin, and its development into a more defensible and permanent settlement, can also be dated to this period.Silver penny, minted in Dublin, reign Sihtric III (d. 1042). Source: The British MuseumExcavations at Wood Quay and Fishamble Street have uncovered the remains of what seems to have been a dense settlement pattern in Viking Age Dublin. Houses were of regular size and shape, consisting in the case of the so-called Fishamble Street Type 1 dwellings of a central aisle that contained the hearth, with areas on either side for housework and sleeping. Significantly, longhouses of the type which are so characteristic of high-status settlements and central places in Scandinavia are totally absent from Dublin, and indeed from all other Viking towns in Ireland.There is also evidence of earthwork defenses around the inland perimeter of the town, dating from the Viking Age. Regular planning and defensive fortifications are good incidental evidence of a high level of political organization since Dublins rulers were able to dictate the layout of the city and marshal the labor necessary to embark on large-scale building projects.Dublin also seems to have been a significant center for manufacturing goods. Excavations from the city show that the area around modern-day Essex Street was a particular center for manufacturing, and evidence has been found for work in bone, antler and ivory, metalworking, leatherworking, shipbuilding, and textile production.The city was home to a mint from around 997, set up under the auspices of the king of Dublin at the time, Sihtric Silkbeard. Coins bearing his name, and copying exemplars from Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Danish England, are found in increasing numbers from this date.Dalkey Island, photo by Majestic Lukas. Source: UnsplashReferences to it in the written and material records suggest that slave trading may have been one of the most important economic activities in Dublin during the 9th and 10th centuries. The Hiberno-Norse of Dublin raided for slaves on both sides of the Irish Sea littoral, and there is evidence to suggest that Dalkey Island, some 10 miles south of Dublin, was used as a holding compound for slaves. The Annals of the Four Masters describe how, in 938, an Irish abbot was drowned here by the Vikings whilst trying to escape captivity with the treasures of his church.By the end of the 10th century, Dublin had become an established Viking town. The development of manufacturing, a regular street pattern, and its incorporation within a lucrative long-distance trade network, while hardly making Dublin a truly urban settlement in the modern sense of the word, certainly marked it out from the agrarian, cattle-based society around it.The distinctiveness of Dublin, as well as its rival Viking towns in Waterford and Limerick, made it a target for native Irish kings who would ultimately be responsible for integrating these urban islands into the political community at large.The U mar, the Irish and the Anglo-SaxonsA map of Irish kingdoms c. 900. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe first half of the 10th century saw the Hiberno-Norse of Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick insert themselves into Irish politics much as they had during the preceding century. They met with immediate success in 919 when, according to the Annals of Ulster, they defeated the king of Tara, Niall Glndub, in battle and slew him. They were also active in Ulster during the 920s, conducting systematic raids and attempting to establish a Viking kingdom there before being defeated in 926 by Muirchertach mac Nill, king of Aileach.The 930s saw Gofraid and his son Amlab busying themselves with political events on both sides of the Irish Sea. Amlab fought and defeated the rival Limerick dynasty who sought to supplant him in Dublin. He was to have less success against the Anglo-Saxons at the famous Battle of Brunanburh in 937, at which Amlab, allied with the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde, was defeated by King thelstan.Amlab mac Gofraid, and his kinsman and successor Amlab Cuarn, would contest the kingship of York with the Anglo-Saxon kings for several years thereafter until the Hiberno-Norse were expelled from Northumbria for good in 952.Unifier of England, Aethelstan, presenting a book to Saint Cuthbert, c. 930. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFar from a source of strength, it could be argued that the Dublin-York axis served to weaken the Norse kings of Dublin. While resources from Dublin helped them to stake a claim in Northumbria, the determination of thelstan and his heirs to keep the U mar out of England meant that they could establish no firm foothold there.Their absence from Ireland, however, would sap the strength of the U Imars hold on Dublin and prove damaging to their fortunes. Not only were the rival Limerick dynasty able to briefly occupy the city in the 930s, but the U Nill under Congalach, king of Tara, was able to plunder Dublin in 944 during one of Amlab Cuarns brief reigns as king in York.From 953, however, the attention of the U mar was fully focused on Ireland. They were able to score some notable victories in the late 970s, killing the son of Domnall ua Nill, king of Tara, in 978, and the king of Laigin in the following year. A final showdown between Amlab Cuarn and the king of Meath, Mel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, at the Battle of Tara in 980 was one of few battles in medieval Irish history that was truly decisive. Had Amlab succeeded he may have struck at the very heart of U Nills power in the midlands, and established a Viking polity unrivaled in extent and power by the remaining native Irish kingdoms.As it was, despite the presence of mercenaries from the Norse settlements in the western isles among Amlabs troops, Mel Sechnaill roundly defeated Amlab, who died a broken man in 981, after retiring to the monastery of Iona.Statue of Mel Sechnaill mac Domnaill in Trim, Co. Meath. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMel Sechnaills victory irreversibly changed the positioning of the Hiberno-Norse and their settlements within the political configuration of Ireland. Instead of becoming territorial kings whose power would rival or even overawe the native Irish kings, the U mar were relegated to a position of vassalage, serving whichever native Irish dynasty was in the ascendancy at any one time.The Hiberno-Norse After 980Battle of Clontarf, by Hugh Frazer, 1826. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIreland between 980 and the arrival of the Normans in 1171, arguably came as close as it ever would to unification under its own rulers. A succession of powerful kings from a new dynasty in Munster, in the southwest, would use the resources of Viking Limerick as a springboard to political power in the rest of Ireland.The most famous member of the dynasty known as Dl gCais, Brian Boru, asserted his authority over Munster, Leinster, Dublin, and the kingdoms in the north. He would marshal the resources of Dublin and the other Hiberno-Norse towns in Ireland to project power across both Leth Cuinn and Leth Moga, the two halves of Ireland, as high king of Ireland.Sihtric Silkbeard, king of Dublin, who had witnessed the plundering of his city by Brian Boru, was eventually to rise up against Brian alongside the king of Leinster in 1014 at the Battle of Clontarf, which was a victory for Brian Boru at the cost of his own life. The defeat of Sihtric was to bring the brief Indian summer of Hiberno-Norse political agency in Ireland to a definitive close.Alleged banner of Brian Boru. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSubsequent kings fixated on Dublin as a source of men, ships, and money. This was particularly the case for Diarmait mac Mel na mBo, of the Leinster U Cheinnselaig dynasty, who for the first time assumed direct control of Dublin, expelling the U mar altogether, in 1052.Muirchertach Ua Briain, Brians great-grandson, and his rival Toirdelbach Ua Conchobair, from Connacht, continued to make extensive use of the resources of the Hiberno-Norse towns, particularly Dublin, to establish and maintain their respective positions as high king of Ireland in the later 11th and 12th centuries.During this time, the fleets of Dublin sailed further afield to war than they ever had previously. Several scions of the Godwine family, including Harold, returned to England from exile in 1052 with the help of ships and men from Dublin, while Muirchertach Ua Briain seems to have sent a Hiberno-Norse fleet to support his son-in-law, Arnulf de Montgomery, during the rebellion of the Bellme family against Henry I in 1101-2.As the sphere of political action for the Hiberno-Norse shrank, that of native Irish potentates expanded. The latter were drawn into an increasingly interconnected political community with the powerful kingdom of Englandwhose centripetal orbit expanded outward to encompass the Irish Seaat its heart.A fragment of the Cogad Gedel re Gallaib in the Book of Leinster, c. 1160. Source: Irish Script on ScreenThe most important written evidence of the relationship between the native Irish kings and their Hiberno-Norse dependents is the text known as the Cogadh Gedel re Gallaib (The War of the Irish with the Foreigners). Commissioned in the early 12th century by Muirchertach Ua Briain, it tells the story of Brian Borus defeat of the Limerick Vikings in the late 10th century and is plainly a piece of political propaganda glorifying the Dl gCais Dynasty, to which Muirchertach belonged as a great-grandson of Brian.The Norse, as such, are demonized as oppressors, to the extent that none of the men of Erinn (Ireland) had power to give even the milk of his cow, nor as much as the clutch of eggs of one hen in succour or in kindness to an aged man. On the other hand, the Norse clearly offered enticing economic advantages to the native Irish kings.Upon Brians defeat of mar of Limerick and the sacking of the town, the Cogadh describes how the Irish carried off their jewels and their best property, and their saddles beautiful and foreign; their gold and their silver; their beautifully woven cloth of all colours and of all kinds; their satins and silken cloth, pleasing and variegated, both scarlet and green, and all sorts of cloth in like manner.The Marriage of Strongbow and Aoife, by Daniel Maclise, 1854. Source: National Gallery of IrelandNo text could better encapsulate how the Hiberno-Norse were perceived by the native Irish in the years following the defeat at Tara in 980. Native Irish kings could use the Hiberno-Norse as a convenient scapegoat for the state of political dismemberment of Ireland that had existed before their own time, without referencing an innate instability that was the norm since the early Christian period and before.At the same time, ambitious kings were able to use the vast wealth of the Norse towns in Ireland, as well as their fleets, to subdue rivals and in fact to come closer to political unification than they had at any point prior to the arrival of the Vikings in the late 8th and 9th centuries.The Norman Invasion of Ireland in 1171 would ultimately scupper any hopes of a native dynasty establishing any lasting authority over the entire island. Yet it was arguably the Norse, through their seafaring and membership of a wider diasporic network, who had played the decisive role in bringing Ireland, one of the most insular of all political communities, into a wider European world.Aside from giving Ireland her principal towns, most of which were founded over the course of the 9th and 10th centuries, the Vikings also left their mark on the Irish genome. A study of modern DNA in the British Isles found that, of all areas analyzed, Ireland was second only to Orkney in the number of Norwegian haplotypes observed among the population samples that they took.Few would contest the notion that the Vikings in Anglo-Saxon England have captured the modern popular imagination to a greater degree than their counterparts in Ireland. Yet the Norse period in Irish history played host to a narrative no less thrilling. And it was one that ultimately, perhaps, left a more enduring legacy.

Richard the Lionheart, also known as Richard I, was a crusader king and the son of King Henry II and Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine. He spent most of his reign away from England, focusing on military campaigns in the Holy Land and Europe. His relationship with his brother, King John, was marked by conflicts over power, and he also clashed with his father, King Henry II, for control within the Angevin Empire. These events shaped his legacy as a formidable historical figure.1. He Was His Mothers Favorite SonEleanor of Aquitaine, by Frederick Sandy, 1858. Source: National Museum of WalesRichard the Lionheart was a mighty warrior king who deeply loved and respected his mother. He was the third eldest surviving son of Henry II and his queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine.Eleanor of Aquitaine was among the most intriguing women in the European Middle Ages. Her life story is filled with intrigue, scandal, and betrayal. Eleanor was the Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right; her father had no surviving sons when he died so Eleanor inherited her fathers vast duchy. Immediately following her fathers death, Eleanor was married at 15 years old to the future Louis VII of France. Its been suggested that these two had very different personalities that clashed often. After 15 years of marriage that produced only two daughters, Eleanor and Louis annulled their marriage.A short time later, two months after the annulment, Eleanor married the young Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy who would become King Henry II of England. Henry and Eleanor would have at least eight children, five sons, and three daughters; Richard was Eleanors favorite child.Why was Richard Eleanors favorite son? Perhaps he complained less as a child during nap time. Or, perhaps even when he was a young child, Eleanor knew that Richard would grow to be a legendary individual. Whatever the reasons were, Richard was selected to take over Eleanors powerful duchy of Aquitaine after she died.Richard I, by Merry-Joseph Blondel, 1841. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen Richard was still a child, Eleanor took him to Aquitaine to begin his training as overlord of the great Duchy of Aquitaine. Richard took on the responsibility of his mothers duchy with great care and reverenceafter all, the duchy controlled a significantly large portion of France, even more than the French king.Throughout Richards reign as king, Eleanor often served as Regent of England for him while he was away fighting the Crusades. Eleanor also played a crucial role in fundraising the kings ransom when Richard was imprisoned on his way back from the Crusades. Richards mother even went to Navarre to fetch his future wife, Berengaria, and brought her to Richard so that the two could be married while Richard was fighting on the Crusades.It was Eleanor, not Berengaria, who was by Richards side as he lay dying from an arrow wound. Eleanor would outlive almost all of her children, including her favorite son Richard the Lionheart.2. He Was Friends With Philip II Until He REALLY WasntPhilippe II Augustus, 1800-1900. Source: The LouvreWhile still the Duke of Aquitaine, Richard formed a strong friendship with the newly crowned king of France, Philip II, also known as Philip Augustus. The two men were effectively family; Richards mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, was once married to Philips father, Louis VII; Philip of course was born to another of Louis VIIs wives. The connections did not stop there; Richard was engaged to Philips sister, Alys for many years; to Philips annoyance, however, the union was never completed. It was not just the maternal side that had connections either, the young mens fathers, Henry II and Louis VII were also connected in various ways. The most prominent would be that both kings had married the same woman, Eleanor; and both men controlled vast tracts of territory in France.Despite, or perhaps because of these close family ties, Philip and Richard essentially grew up together. Both men had mutual respect for one another, both personally and in battle.However, this friendship spectacularly fell apart during their joint effort in the Third Crusade.Richard I and Philip II receiving the keys of Acre, from Grandes Chroniques de France, 1375-80. Source: BnFRichard was a big, brash individual who took after his father in his decisive battle strategies, and a tendency to show off toward others. Like his father before him, Philip II did not find this behavior appealing; he found it annoying. This annoyance would soon develop into personal rivalries and political disagreements that would destroy their friendship for good.Philips jealousy of Richards success during the crusade, along with Richards natural charisma and popularity with the soldiers, planted the seeds for their rivalries. Throughout the Third Crusade, Philip dealt with Richards boarish behavior for years. Richard always seemed to steal the spotlight away from Philip, and after a while, Philip was ready to leave.After falling ill, Philip decided he had had enough and was ready to return to France. However, he had an alternative motive. Philip began scheming with Richards younger brother, John, when he returned to France. Together, they divided up the Plantagenet Empire, which Richard and Johns father had worked a lifetime to build and control. Once Richard learned of what was happening to his kingdom, he raced home, or tried to, before he was imprisoned by Duke Leopold of Austria for a year or so.After Richard was back in England, he spent the rest of his reign reconquering his French lands from Philip and his brother John. This was no small feat as John had practically given away a large portion of the family empire to Philip. This type of betrayal from Philip severed the bond that he and Richard shared and caused continual upheaval between France and England for centuries.3. His Brother John Almost Cost Richard His KingdomKing John on a stag hunt, 14th century. Source: The British LibraryThe name King John is synonymous with words such as, coward, untrustworthy, careless, and terrible. King John may be one of the worst rulers of England, but he may also be one of the best known. John was the youngest son of Queen Eleanor and King Henry II. Despite his reputation, John was still considered the favorite son of King Henry II while he was alive.Johns true colors would show after the old kings death. John was known for his sneaky and untrustworthy ways; he was arrogant and power-hungry, and as his brother, Richard knew this. Therefore, when Richard departed for the Third Crusade, he entrusted the governance of England not to his brother John but to William Longchamp, who served as the chancellor and regent, ensuring that John did not wield power while Richard was away. Talk about trust issues.The Angevin Empire in France in 1154. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNevertheless, Johns lust for power and control led him to undermine Richards authority during the kings absence. Johns treacherous move was to align with Philip II of France once the French king returned from the Third Crusade. This strategic maneuver led to the partition of the Plantagenet Empire, ultimately resulting in a substantial portion of the empire falling under French control, and leading to centuries of land disputes between the two countries.Upon his return to England, Richard devoted the remainder of his reign to the arduous task of reclaiming and restoring the lands that John had bestowed upon his allies and supporters during Richards absence. Richard forgave John for his betrayal, but only because Richard knew how weak-willed his brother was. Richard essentially told John it wasnt his fault because he was a child that no one was looking after and forgave him primarily because he knew that John was weak. Little did Richard know what John would become once he inherited the English crown.4. He Had a Strained Relationship With His Father, King Henry IIKing Henry II and his children, 1301-40. Source: The British LibraryHenry II is known for many of his accomplishments, qualities, and actions, including his creation of the Plantagenet Empire, his creation of a council of ordinary men to combat the nobles, and his dealings with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Beckett. He was also known for his qualities such as decisiveness, boldness, and leadership. However, a quality that Henry II is not known for is fatherhood.While Henry certainly fathered many children during his life, when it came to raising children, this was a task that Henry was not involved in. Henry was cold and calculating towards his children; he used them as bargaining chips for his power games across Europe. This control reached over to Eleanors Duchy of Aquitaine. Even though it was technically under her control, Henry was the one who handled everything, much to Eleanor and soon Richards annoyance.Effigies of Henry II and Eleanor, Fontevraud Abbey, France, 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsA few years after Eleanor had taken young Richard in order to train him to take over Aquitaine, mother and son learned that Henry had done something unforgivable: Henry had sold part of Aquitaine without consulting either Eleanor or Richard, to strengthen a political alliance. Richard expected to have the entire duchy under his control once his mother passed and was furious that Henry had given away part of his inheritance without consulting him.When he learned of his fathers actions, Richard was outraged. He was determined to seek revenge, which may be why he joined his brothers in revolt against their father in 1173-1174. This first rebellion of fathers against sons was known as The War Without Love.Fast-forward a few years, and in the late 1180s, Richard once again rebelled against his father, this time with Philip IIs help. The reason for this rebellion was Henrys reluctance to name an heir to the kingdom. Henry had just two sons alive, Richard and John. Richard was concerned that Henry would choose his favorite son, John, as his heir, and this was something that Richard could not abide by. So Richard again went to war with his father.This last rebellion took its toll on old Henry II, who died in 1189 when he was in his 50s, still a young man but weakened by decades of war and ruling. When Richard was notified of his fathers death he said a curt goodbye over his fathers body and then moved quickly to solidify his position as the new King of England. Nevertheless, Richard still ensured that his father had a proper funeral as king and he organized a grand ceremony for Henry at Fontevraud Abbey in Anjou where both Henry and Richard are buried.5. He Was a Fierce CrusaderRichard the Lionheart outside Parliament, photo by Mattbuck. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRichard the Lionheart is predominantly known for his leadership during the Third Crusade; he was courageous and triumphant. His military acumen, strategic ingenuity, and compelling oratory skills were widely acknowledged by his soldiers and back in England. Richard actively engaged in combat alongside his soldiers, fostering unwavering loyalty among them. His most noteworthy feats during the Third Crusade were the Siege of Acre and the Battle of Arsuf.The conquest of Acre and the decisive victory over Saladin, the Muslim ruler of the Holy Land at the Battle of Arsuf, solidified Richards enduring legacy as the Lionheart.Although he did not reconquer Jerusalem for Christianity, Richard was praised for his practical approach to diplomacy with Saladin. This diplomacy demonstrated Richards understanding of the broader political and military context. Richard saw that Christians had secure access to the Holy Land, ensuring that Christians could embark on pilgrimages to the area.The narratives of his triumphant endeavors were brought back to England by his devoted crusaders, significantly contributing to the lore surrounding his exceptional leadership. Thus it was perhaps his courageous diplomacy that fueled his legacy rather than his fighting skills in battle.The Third Crusade no doubt shaped and influenced Richard and his outlook on kingship. He learned how to conquer, fight, and persevere in the face of hardship, something that his younger brother John may have never learned. Richards time as King of England may have been short, and, indeed, Richard did not spend much time in his kingdom, but his time spent fighting the Third Crusade, and his dedication and loyalty to his soldiers, ensured his story would be renowned for centuries.

With a rich tapestry of joyous and tragic history, the Kingdom of Scotland was officially founded in 843 CE when the Picts and Scots united under one crown. Scotland is famous for its beautiful rural landscapes, and it is dotted with cities that were infamous for poverty and overcrowding. Generations of people have lived and died in the mystical landscapes of Scotland, so it may be no surprise that some of them chose not to pass over and linger on, haunting the living. Read on for four of Scotlands most terrifying ghost stories, sure to keep you up at night.The Ghosts of Drum CastleDrum Castle, Aberdeenshire, originally 12th century. Source: Visit ScotlandThe original Drum Castle was built in the 12th century and given to Clan Irvine in 1323 by Robert the Bruce. Additions were made to Drum Castle in Aberdeenshire until the Victorian era, and it remained in the Irvine family until 1975, when it was taken over by the National Trust of Scotland. As one of the oldest castles in Scotland, Drum Castle has become known for an array of hauntings.Two of the most prolific ghosts seen or heard at the castle are Anna Forbes Irvine and her son, Alexander. Anna married into Clan Irvine when she married Alexander Forbes Irvine, 20th Laird of Drum, in 1848. Anna was a brilliant watercolor painter who captured Drum Castle from a variety of unique angles, but her work was overlooked as there were male artists in the family. Alexander was the couples first son, but tragically died at age six in 1856.Watercolor painting Drum Rooftops, by Anna Forbes Irvine, c. 1828-1900. Source: National Trust of ScotlandAnnas footsteps can be heard in the corridors of the castle, and objects, especially in the bedrooms, are moved around, with the rooms feeling noticeably cold afterward. The ghost was recognized as Anna when the staff realized the spectral woman was identical to the grand portrait of her that still remains in the castle.Portrait of Anna Forbes Irvine, c. 1829-1982. Source: Art UKChildlike laughter is often heard around the building and the grounds, which have been attributed to Alexander. Some have reported seeing a small boy running in the gardens who seems to be looking for other children to play with. Alexanders cause of death is not known, but supposedly, his untimely death devastated his mother, who is now unable to rest until she finds him. The two spirits have never been seen together.The Mackenzie PoltergeistPortrait of Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, by Sir Godfrey Kneller, c. 1680s. Source: National Library of ScotlandGeorge Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, or Bloody Mackenzie as he was known to his contemporaries, was a Scottish legal advisor to the crown and government in the 17th century. Mackenzie made his name in law by defending Covenanters and achieving an acquittal for the Marquis of Argyll on treason charges. However, once he rose to a prominent position in the field of law, Mackenzie switched allegiances.Mackenzie took the lead in fighting against the Presbyterian Covenanters, a religious and political faction who wanted to resist changes issued by the crown, notably under James IV and I (of Scotland and England respectively), Charles I, and Charles II. Mackenzie detained 1,200 Covenanters in a field next to Greyfriars Kirkyard in Edinburgh after their failed rebellion culminated in the Battle of Bothwell Brig in 1679. Many of the men were executed swiftly after arriving by being beheaded or hanged.Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAt the time, this space was an open area at the southern edge of the kirkyard, enclosed by the town wall. The prisoners were abandoned there without access to food, water, or shelter, leading to the deaths of hundreds. They were subjected to mistreatment by guards, and many were executed, their heads displayed on spikes at the gate. By the end of 1679, sources differ, but only between 48 to 200 Covenanters had survived. The remaining men were sent on boats to Australia.When William of Orange ascended to the throne, Mackenzie again switched his loyalties and gave religious power back to those who had fought against him and the crown. Bloody Mackenzie escaped to England, but when he died, he was buried in a mausoleum in Greyfriars adjacent to his infamous prison.Painting of the Black Mausoleum titled Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh, showing the Black Mausoleum, with figures gathered nearby, by Paul Sandby, 1750. Source: National Galleries of ScotlandToday, Mackenzies resting place, dubbed the Black Mausoleum, is responsible for over 450 paranormal reports. This began when a homeless man disturbed the crypt. Seeking shelter on a dark, stormy night in 1999, the unknowing vagrant broke the lock and entered the mausoleum. The individual was curious and lifted the iron grate on the floor and followed the stairs down. In the lower vault were 4 coffins, and hoping to find valuables, the man opened the coffins.As he did so, the floor beneath him fell through and sent him falling into an unknown plague pit. The pit had been so well sealed and completely undisturbed since its construction that the bodies had not fully decomposed. The story goes that the hysterical man fled the crypt and ran into either a dog walker or a security guard.Even before this story, the Black Mausoleum was a common feature on the many ghost tours in Edinburgh, and many reported feeling cold or being touched nearby. But the presence has since intensified significantly, and the accounts have changed from feeling a touch to being pulled and grabbed. Tour guides claim that large welts sometimes appear on visitors as well as bite marks and scratches.Many visitors have even lost consciousness at the scene, with one woman collapsing and showing overt bruising on her neck. Another woman was almost blown over by an incredibly strong icy wind blowing directly from the doorway. A medium, Colin Grant, attempted to perform an exorcism on the mausoleum and was quoted as saying, The exorcism will be the death of me. In what was perhaps a cruel irony or the doing of the poltergeist, Colin Grant died of a heart attack just a few weeks later.Wee Hughie, the Sauchie PoltergeistPhotograph of Virginia Campbell aged 11, 1960-1961. Source: Sunday PostIn the 1960s, Sauchie, a small town in the central lowlands of Scotland, was the site of an infamous haunting that was witnessed by priests, doctors, and multiple other residents. Virginia Campbell was 11 years old when she and her mother, Annie, moved from Ireland to Sauchie and moved in with Virginias aunt and uncle. Virginia was distressed by the move; all her elder siblings had moved out, her father James had remained in Donegal to sell the family farm, and she had to leave her beloved pet dog behind.To add to Virginias discomfort about the move, she had to share a bed with her younger cousin Margaret. Her mother found work in a neighboring town where she decided to stay, leaving her daughter alone with her aunt and uncle. Despite the difficult start, Virginia appeared to settle in well at her new school.However, on November 22nd, 1960, the calm was interrupted when Virginia and Margaret heard a strange knocking coming from behind their headboard. Frightened, the two girls went downstairs. The adults clearly heard a thudding following them downstairs. At first, Thomas and Isabella Campbell thought the girls were playing a trick, but the strange noises continued. The knocking got so loud that the neighbors began to hear it.Increasingly strange activity began to happen all over the house. Objects would mysteriously disappear, only to reappear weeks later. The lid of a linen basket lifted on its own, and ornaments shifted positions without anyone nearby. Even furniture began to move inexplicably. Thomas and Isabella witnessed their sideboard slide several inches away from the wall, seemingly pushed by an unseen force, only to be gently moved back into place moments later with no one nearby.Photograph of the Campbell residence in Park Crescent, Sauchie, c. 1960s. Source: Daily RecordThe Campbells brought in a local minister, TW Lund, who witnessed the laundry basket glide across the floor and then back to its original location all on its own. Soon after, it was discovered that the supernatural action was following Virginia. At school, Virginia was observed by her teacher, Margaret Stewart, struggling with the lid of her desk. When instructed to remove her hands, the lid abruptly flew open and slammed shut three times. This was followed by another desk lifting a few inches off the ground.Another unusual event occurred on Monday, November 28, when, at school, both the pointer and the table began to vibrate. Miss Stewart felt the vibrations, though Virginia was nearby, she wasnt in contact with either object. During a visit, the local doctor brought his dog, which Virginia immediately adored, noting its resemblance to her own dog, Toby, whom she dearly missed. After spending some time playing with the dog, Dr. Logan departed. That night, Virginia fell into a trance-like state and began speaking in her sleep, repeatedly calling out for Toby.Virginia remained frantic throughout the occurrences, prompting Dr. Nesbit of the Tillicoultry medical practice to sedate her, yet the poltergeist activity persisted. Both Dr. Nesbit and a local minister witnessed her pillow rotate on the bed. Virginia was later relocated, where Dr. William Logan and his wife, also a physician, observed similar knocking sounds. As a result, Drs. Nesbit and Logan set up a cine camera to document the events. Between 9:00 p.m. and 10:30 p.m., both knocking and moving furniture were successfully recorded.By December, while the townspeople were still heavily discussing the notorious poltergeist, the activity began to dwindle. Curiously, around this time, Virginia was reunited with her beloved dog and had a new best friend. Furniture still moved on occasion, but Virginia was no longer frightened and affectionately named the poltergeist Wee Hughie. Many priests who were involved with the incident deemed Virginia to have psychic powers. Was Wee Hughie the manifestation of a troubled girl in tune with supernatural forces, or was this a case of mass hysteria?Mary Kings CloseMary Kings Close, Edinburgh. Source: Visit ScotlandMary Kings Close in Edinburgh was named after the burgess and merchant of the same name. Nothing is known about her prior to married life, but she was married in 1616 and interestingly kept her own maiden name instead of taking her husbands last name, Nimmo. By 1629, Marys husband had passed away, yet Mary still lived a fairly comfortable life selling clothes in what at the time was called Alexander Kings Close, the second-largest street in Edinburgh.Mary Kings Close is actually a network of several interconnected closes, linked by narrow alleys and passageways. It resembles a labyrinth, with eight distinct layers. Wealthy residents occupied the grand high houses, which typically had multiple stories and a cellar. In contrast, the low houses were home to a range of people, from tradesmen to the very poorest. While some of these lower homes were relatively comfortable, others were dark, cramped, and lacked basic sanitation.Clothes of a Scottish Plague Doctor. Source: Real Mary Kings Close MuseumMary King eventually passed away in 1644, and two plagues hit the residents of Edinburgh the following year. Due to the crowded and unsanitary conditions, the plagues spread uncontrollably. Three hundred inhabitants were sealed inside a part of the Close and were abandoned to die. They were alone with the exception of the plague doctor George Rae, who stayed to provide care. George survived the plague and allegedly died penniless after ten years of battling the council to pay him the money he was promised.Mary Kings Close was fraught with constant danger due to the presence of criminals such as murderers, rapists, and thieves as well as public health risks heightened by hazardous workshop practices, such as the use of horse urine in tanning. Additionally, its proximity to the polluted Old Nor Loch exposed residents to toxic biogases that seeped through the walls, causing hallucinations and emitting an eerie green glow, a phenomenon that likely gave rise to the earliest ghost stories from the 17th century.Photograph of toys and dolls left for Annie taken in 2019, Edinburgh. Source: Wee Walking ToursThe Close was partially demolished and buried due to the building of the Royal Exchange in 1753. The new building clipped the tops of many structures inside the Close, which essentially created a ceiling and constructed a mysterious underground village. Mary Kings Close has now opened to the public as a historic attraction, and it has become infamous for ghostly sightings.One sighting at the Close is thought to be the spirit of its last resident, Andrew Chesney. In 1902, his home was taken through a compulsory purchase. He has been seen as an anxious man who meanders around the streets of the Close. The woman in black is another frequent presence, thought to be Mary King herself. In addition, ghostly animals have also been spotted, including dogs, cats, and rats.When Mary Kings Close reopened to the public, a renowned Japanese medium visited and reported encountering the spirit of a young girl named Annie. The medium felt a tug on her coat and saw the child weeping in a corner. Annie claimed she had lost her family, and it has been surmised that she had caught the plague and had therefore been abandoned. Annie was equally distressed over the loss of her beloved doll. Deeply moved, the medium returned and left a doll for her, and since then, visitors have continued the tradition by leaving dolls and gifts in the same spot.

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