Health Canada funded youth-focused euthanasia research while failing to rule out MAID eligibility for children with severe autism. By yourNEWS Media Newsroom Internal government documents reveal that

In New Zealands North and South Islands, each Mori tribe (iwi) has its own history, founding ancestor or ancestress, tribal territory (rohe), and governance structure, often based around a tribal council known as rnanga.The role of Mori tribes has evolved considerably in recent centuries. From the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, a turning point in the history of Mori-Pkeh (New Zealanders of European descent), to the most recent initiatives to promote and preserve Mori language and traditions, Mori tribes continue to influence New Zealands politics, particularly on matters of land rights and resource management.What Do We Mean by Iwi?A Mori p (village), 1880s. Source: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa TongarewaThe Mori name for tribe is iwi, which translates as nation or people. The tribe was the foundation of Mori life before European contact and its largest political grouping. All Mori tribes trace their origins back to the Polynesian sailors who arrived in Aotearoa/New Zealand in their large ocean-going canoes (waka) during the 13th century.Tribal names honor Mori ancestors, both male and female, and names are usually accompanied by a prefix. The most common prefixes are Ngti, Ng, Ngi, and Te ti (the people of or the offspring of), as well as Te Whnau (meaning the family of), Te Khui (the assemblage of), or Ng Uri (the descendants of). The name of the Ngpuhi iwi, for instance, the largest tribe of the North Island, translates as The People of Puhi.Mori treasure box (papahou) owned by an unspecified tribe from the Bay of Plenty region in the North Island, 18th century. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe name of Te Whnau--Apanui, one of the tribes from the Bay of Plenty, can be translated as The Family of Apanui. In pre-contact Mori society, each iwi consisted of several related hap, that is, several clans (or descent groups) that controlled a defined portion of their iwis tribal territory. In times of war, the clans came together to defend their sea fisheries, their sacred volcanoes, lakes, rivers, and streams. Marriages were often the key to resolving inter-tribal disputes over land and natural resources and ensuring the survival of the haps members.Although some clans moved according to seasonal changes, various hap usually lived in a single p (village). During the Musket Wars, Mori clans fortified their p with multiple rows of single wood palisades, ditches, ramparts, elevated defensive terraces, and fighting stages to protect themselves from attacks by musket-armed enemy tribes. Such villages became known as gunfighter p.Mount Ngauruhoe, on the North Island, is sacred to the Ngti Twharetoa tribe, the custodian of the central plateau, photograph by Matthew Buchanan, 2019. Source: UnsplashAs the population increased, so did the various hap. In some cases, larger hap could split into smaller ones. It also happened that small splinter groups, originating from intertribal wars or forced migration, would merge. In turn, each hap comprised at least one (but often more than one) extended family, which the Mori call whnau, and which continues to form the foundation and basic unit of Mori society. Sometimes large and powerful families, with leaders strong enough to stake their claim, would evolve into a clan, that is, one hap, in its own right.The North and the South IslandsMap of New Zealand showing the North and the South Islands, as well as Stewart Island, south of the South Island. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAotearoa/New Zealand consists of two main islands, the North and the South Islands, and more than 700 smaller islands, including Stewart Island, New Zealands third-largest island south of the South Island across the Foveaux Strait. The history of the North and South Islands and their varied landscapes is interwoven with the stories, myths, and traditions passed down from one Mori generation to another, from one tribe to another. The Mori name for the North Island, for example, is Te Ika-a-Mui, the fish of Mui.According to Mori myths, the North Island was fished up by Mui, the famous trickster hero of Polynesian and Mori mythology, during a fishing expedition in the Pacific Ocean. His brothers refused to take him with them, so he hid in the canoe. When he revealed himself to them, they were already out at sea.Rotorua on the North Island, photograph by Yoann Laheurte, 2019. Source: UnsplashHere Mui cast a fish hook into the deep waters of the ocean and caught a fish: according to some traditions, it was a flounder, and according to others a stingray. The fish became the North Island. Muis brothers disobeyed his prayers and chopped up the fish, cutting off its tail, gills, head, and fins. Hence, the islands uneven and rugged landscape. The southern part of the North Island, where Wellington was founded between 1839 and 1840, is the head of the fish. The Northland region, home to the Ngpuhi tribe, represents the tail of the fish, while its backbone runs from Rotorua, with its hot mud pools, geysers, and lakes, to Lake Taup. Mt Maungaphatu, whose rugged bush ranges are sacred to the Ngi Thoe, is the heart of the fish.Stewart Island (Rakiura), 2020, photograph by Sbastien Goldberg. Source: UnsplashWhile the North Island is believed to be Muis fish, the South Island is Muis canoe. It is indeed known as Te Waka-a-Mui, the canoe of Mui. The southern tip of the South Island represents the stern of the canoe, while its northern part north is the canoes prow.Stewart Island, the hilly and forested island 30 kilometers (18-19 miles) south of the South Island, is thought to represent the canoes anchor. Today, the Mori call it Rakiura, which means glowing skies, but its original Mori name is Te Punga o Te Waka a Mui, which translates as the anchor stone of Muis canoe.The Largest Mori Tribes of the North IslandHne Heke, one of Moris most influential leaders, was a member of the Ngpuhi tribe, watercolor by Joseph Jenner Merrett, 1845. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThree of the four largest Mori tribes by population live in New Zealands North Island. The Ngpuhi iwi is Aotearoas largest and most influential tribe. Bounded to the east by the Pacific Ocean and to the west by the Tasman Sea, its rohe (territory) occupies the islands Northland region, the Winterless North, as many call it. Ngpuhis territory stretches east to west from the Bay of Islands to Hokianga Harbor, the latter known among the Mori as Te Kohanga o Te Tai Tokerau, the nest of the northern people.To the south, Ngphui territory also includes present-day Whangrei, New Zealands northernmost city. The Ngpuhi trace their ancestry back to three canoes, the Matawhaorua, Mataatua, and Ngtokimatawhaorua waka. Kupe, the legendary Polynesian explorer, entered Hokianga Harbor in his Matawhaorua canoe. With his wife Kuramrtini, he was the first to discover New Zealand, which he named Aotearoa, the land of the long white cloud.Whale at krito. Source: Canterbury MuseumThe second largest Mori tribe is the Ngti Porou, the easternmost iwi on the North Island. Its name translates as the People of Porou, after their most important ancestor, Porourangi. Their other founding ancestor, Paikea, is said to have sailed to Aotearoa from Hawaiki on the back of a huge whale.The Mori claim that when Mui fished up the North Island the first peak to emerge from the depths of the Ocean, the first bit of land to be lit by the rising sun was Te Ara ki Hikurangi, known among the Pkeh population as Mt Hikurangi. Today, Hikurangi is the most sacred place of the Ngti Porou. The tribes rohe runs along the coast from Gisborne (and the Te Toka-a-Taiau rock) in the south to Ptikirua in the north. In its southern part, it extends inland to Waikaremoana.Mt Ruapehu, in the heart of the North Island, 2021, photograph by Luca Calderone. Source: UnsplashThe fourth largest group is not a tribe, but a tribal league known as the Waikato Confederation. The confederations tribal rohe occupies a large area of the North Island, the Waikato region, and extends along New Zealands longest river, Waikato, which connects Mt Ruapehu to Lake Taup. Among the 33 iwi (or hap, sub-tribes, as some tend to call them) included in the confederation are the Ngti Mahuta (the first Mori king, Te Wherowhero, belonged to this iwi), Ngti Tamainup (named after the tribes founding ancestor, Mori chief Tamainu-p), Ngti Mhanga (beloved childrens writer and illustrator Melanie Drewery is affiliated with the Ngti Mhanga), and Ngti Te Ata (the tribe of one of New Zealands most important female leaders Dame Ngneko Kaihau Minhinnick). All these tribes descend from those who first came to New Zealand aboard the Tainui waka.The South IslandMori representatives of the tribes of Te Tauihu (the Top of the South Island): Ngti Koata, Ngti Toa, and Ngti Kuia tribes from the South Island, photograph by Frederick Nelson Jones, 1916. Source: Nelson Provincial MuseumOf the more than 100 Mori tribes in Aotearoa/New Zealand, the third largest by population is the Ngi Tahu. The tribes name translates as the people of Tahu, after Tahptiki, one of Paikeas grandsons (or great-grandsons). The members of the Ngi Tahu share their ancestors with the Ngti Porou from the North Island and trace their identity back to Paikea who arrived in New Zealand on the back of a whale to escape his murderous brother.The story of the Ngi Tahu is one of migrations, battles, betrayals, and intermarriages with other tribes. Today, their tribal territory covers much of the South Island, stretching from Stewart Island (Rakiura) in the south to Kahurangi Point, the northernmost point of the islands west coast. Originally, however, the Ngi Tahu were a northern tribe from the Gisborne District.According to Ngi Tahu stories, Lake Tekapo (Takap) was dug up by Rkaihaut, an explorer of the Waitaha tribe, later absorbed by the Ngi Tahu, photograph by Tobias Keller, 2016. Source: UnsplashFrom the North Islands East Coast, they began their migration southward, first to the fertile Heretaunga region near present-day Hastings, then to Wellington, where they settled and ruled the area with other tribes. Eventually, in the early 18th century, some Ngi Tahu left the North Island, crossed the Cook Strait, and landed on the South Island, Te Wai Pounamu, as it is known among the Mori. Each move was accompanied by bloodshed.During the early years of their occupation of the South Island, however, the Ngi Tahu deliberately intermarried with the original resident tribes, learning their traditions and adopting their customs, particularly those of the Waitaha people, such as their understanding of wind patterns.The Top of the South IslandMarlborough Sounds, the ancestral lands of the Ngti Kuia, one of the tribes of Te Tauihu (the Top of the South Island, photograph by Mark De Jong, 2019. Source: UnsplashThe top of the South Island is known among the Mori Te Tauihu o Te Waka a Mui, the Prow of the Canoe of Mui. Despite being separated from the North Island by the Cook Strait, it is what we could call a transitional area in terms of tribal organization. Most of the iwi living in this region have deep ties with the North Island tribes. Some of them, such as the Ngti Toa, Te tiawa, and Ngti Koata (the people of Koata, named after their founding ancestress), migrated southward from the Taranaki, Waikato, and Wellington regions of the North Island.The Ngti Tama, for instance, were originally from Taranaki, and crossed the Cook Strait in the 1820s before participating in the 1835 invasion of the Chatham Islands, the homeland of the Moriori, along with the Ngati Mutunga.Most of the tribes from the Top of the South Island migrated south from the North Islands Taranaki region, pictured here, on North Island, photograph by Raquel Moss, 2021. Source: UnsplashThe Rangitnes rohe occupies different regions across New Zealands two islands. In the North Island, their lands stretch from the mouth of the Rangitikei River in the Manawat region to the Ruahine Ranges in the east. They also extend into the Horowhenua district to the west and the Wairarapa region in the southeastern corner of the North Island. On the South Island, the Rangitnes rohe occupies a significant part of Marlborough (known among Mori as Te Tauihu-o-te-waka), one of the South Islands 16 regions, including cities like Nelson and Picton and several national parks. The Top of the South Island is also home to two other major tribes, the Ngti Apa ki te R T, Te Rnanga o Ngti Rarua, and the Ngti Kuia.Mori warriors performing a Haka for U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon E. Panetta, photograph by Erin A. Kirk-Cuomo, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe latter is believed to be the oldest (and largest) iwi in the area. Its rohe stretches from Pelorus Sound (the Hoiere), part of the network of submerged valleys known as the Marlborough Sounds, at the islands north-easternmost point, to the Nelson Lakes National Park in the south and Taitapu on the west coast.From the northernmost districts of the North Island to the southernmost regions of the South Island, Mori tribes (iwi) and their leaders continue to influence New Zealands politics, representing Mori interests and determination to preserve their language and culture among non-Mori New Zealanders.

While the High Medieval Period is famous for its warrior and martial cultures, there are some military leaders who really stand out above the rest. These are the men known not merely as great fighters, but as generals whose successes are studied even to this day. The ten figures on this list are those known for their unique and noteworthy military abilities during roughly the period of 1000-1300 CE.1. Saladin, 1137-1193Statue of Saladin in Al-Karak, Jordan, by Petar Miloevi. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn a fascinating coincidence, two of the periods foremost military leaders battled against one another in the Third Crusade. Richard the Lionheart of England and Saladin were remarkable adversaries and had unique strengths and weaknesses that mirrored those of the other.To begin, Saladin, born to a military official in Iraq, gained experience serving the Zengid Dynasty defending Syria from the Crusader States, and helping to conquer Egypt. Eventually, however, Saladin turned on his former masters and made himself the independent Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Then he turned his attention to the Crusader state of Jerusalem. In a series of brilliant campaigns, Saladin weakened the Crusaders control of the Holy Land and then baited the Crusaders into a decisive defeat at Hattin in 1187. Shortly thereafter, he captured Jerusalem and left the Crusaders clinging onto the city of Tyre as their only power base in the region.Saladins brilliance was in his grand strategy and choice of engagements. He knew the Crusaders were well-defended behind city walls and their knights were more than a match for his men in open combat. So, he used his army to bait them from behind their walls and then pulled back, harassing the heavy Crusader knights with his lighter-mounted archers. He led the Crusaders to Hattin, where he was able to surround them and cut them off from their supply of water, letting thirst and attrition destroy his enemy. After this success, however, the Third Crusade was called and Richard I, King of England entered the fray.2. Richard the Lionheart, 1157-1199Richard the Lionheart outside the Houses of Parliament in London. Source: Geograph.org.ukRichard I of England earned his epithet the Lionheart for his legendary bravery, but he was also a brilliant battlefield tactician and military commander. He first took command at just 16, spending several years alternating between rebelling against his father Henry II, and fighting for him against other rebels. He ascended to the throne after his father and older brother died but quickly set off on the Third Crusade. On the way he successfully captured Cyprus for the Crusaders, and then captured Acre, beginning the start of a counter-offensive against Saladin.Richard was a strict disciplinarian and an innovator, utilizing a greater number of crossbows in his army to counter the horse archers of Saladin. He confounded Saladin by refusing to fall for the same tricks Saladin had used on previous Crusader armies, preventing his forces in the field from chasing and harassing units or falling for feigned retreats.In the field, Richard was arguably the superior tactician, but Saladin seemingly had the edge in terms of grand strategy. Twice Richard defeated Saladin at Arsuf and Jaffa, and after both, he looked set to capture Jerusalem, but both times Saladin was able to retreat his forces, deny Richard supplies, and allow time and disunity among the other Crusader leaders to prevent Richard from taking the city. The Crusade ended in a truce with Jerusalem remaining in Muslim hands but with Christian pilgrims free to enter the city.Richard I the Lionheart, King of England, by Merry-Joseph Bondel, 1841. Source: French Ministry of CultureRichard the brilliant battlefield tactician and Saladin the masterful grand strategist serve as illuminating contrasts when looking at medieval warfare. There is plenty to speculate about as to how history could have changed had one gotten the better of the other, and if the two had joined forces such a military duo would have been hard to beat. That last suggestion appears fanciful on paper, but the two had seemingly great respect for each other, and at one point while negotiating the truce, it was suggested Saladins brother would marry Richards sister!3. Rajendra Chola, 971-1044Painting of Rajendra Chola at the National War Museum in Pune, India. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Chola Empire was a major power in Southern India during the Middle Ages. Arguably the greatest ruler of the dynasty was Rajendra Chola, who expanded the empire to yet greater heights. He began his military career under his father Rajaraja, taking part in both land and naval expeditions. Rajendra commanded with distinction during invasions of the Maldives and Sri Lanka as well as raids on neighboring kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent. In 1014, Rajendra ascended to the throne and soon made it his clear ambition to increase the prestige of his dynasty and the size of his dominions.He first finalized the conquest of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, before turning his attention inland. In the early 1020s, he engaged and defeated several kingdoms in Southern India, often invading on multiple fronts. Soon he had expanded his empire west and northwards and was even able to capture territory along the sacred Ganges River, where he built a new capital. This was an astonishing achievement in and of itself, but Rajendra still had greater plans. In the late 1020s, he attacked the Srivijaya dynasty of Indonesia and in a series of brilliant naval expeditions, he plundered cities across the Malay peninsula and Sumatra, even going as far as Singapore!It is unclear how often, as emperor, Rajendra commanded in the field, leaving that to his brother Araiyan Rajarajan, but Rajendra was no doubt a great tactician in his own right and a brilliant grand strategist. He often launched sudden and fast-moving campaigns against multiple enemies at once. He combined the two arms of his army well, using his navy to supply his army along the coast and even using it to sail along the Ganges to strike at the heart of enemy territory during his northern campaigns.4. Baybars, 1223-1277Bust of Baybars outside the National Military Museum in Cairo. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the 1230s CE, a young Kipchak boy was captured and enslaved in what is now Ukraine following a Mongol raid. He was sold in Egypt and trained to become a Mamluk or elite slave soldier. In a twist of fate, the boy, Baybars, would become the nemesis of the Mongols in the Near East and one of the fiercest warriors of the age.Baybarss military aptitude was swiftly put to use by the ruling Ayyubid Dynasty of Egypt. In 1250 CE, he defeated part of the Seventh Crusade at the siege of Al Mansirah. His star continued to rise when the Mamluks seized power from the Ayyubids and Baybars became the right-hand man of the new Sultan, Qutuz.Together they repelled an invasion by the Mongol Ilkhanate at Ain Jalutpersonal vengeance for Baybars and an unprecedented victory against the Mongols. Baybars, however, had greater ambitions and assassinated Qutuz to become Sultan in his own right and carry out yet greater military accomplishments.First, he attacked the Crusader States, seizing Antioch, Jaffa, and even the legendary Crusader castle of Krak Des Chevaliers. In a mirroring of Saladin and Richard, this led to the Ninth Crusadeled by another English king, Edward. However, the two never actually fought and the Crusade ended before the territory changed hands. Baybars then turned south and subjugated the Christian kingdom of Makuria, in modern-day Sudan, which had long been a thorn in the side of Islamic Egypt. His final campaign before his death saw him once again take victory over a Mongol invasion at Elbistan.Baybars, Mamluk ruler in the Baptistre de Saint Louis, Mdaillon IV, 13201340. Source: The LouvreThe Mongols Baybars faced may have been a more fractured force than the unrelenting horsemen that Genghis Khan had led across the globe 40 years previously, but Baybarss repeated successes against them were still astonishing. Baybars used the backbone of his army, the Mamluk cavalry, to perfection. They were heavily armored horsemen, but used a bow to fight at range, allowing them to compete with both Christian knights and the Mongol horse archers.Baybars turned his kingdom into a war machine to defeat his foes, building highly developed arsenals to equip his troops. He was also a ruthlessly cunning commander, often using deception and false reports to mislead his enemy about the armys whereabouts. Indeed, at his first battle at Al Mansirah, he tricked the besieging Crusaders by opening the gates of the city and making it appear abandoned, before shutting the gates again when the Crusaders had entered and falling upon his now trapped enemy with his army that was hiding in the city center.5. John Komnenos, 1087-1143Mosaic of John II Komnenos inside the Hagia Sophia, photo by Dosseman. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter the shock defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1070 against the Seljuk Turks, the Byzantine Empire seemed in very poor shape. However, in 1081, the new Emperor Alexios Komnenos, after a small setback at the Battle of Dyrrhachium, oversaw the empires remarkable revival by the beginning of the 12th century. Alexios reformed the Byzantine military and diplomatically stabilized the Empire, but it would be his son John who would reignite the empires military might. Ascending to the throne in 1118 CE, John added to the reforms of his father but went one step further by putting the empire fully back on the offensive.After securing the Balkans by defeating Pecheneg and Hungarian incursions, John turned his attention to driving back the Seljuks in Anatolia. In a series of steady, methodical campaigns, John succeeded in recapturing almost all of the western coast of modern-day Turkey and much of the southern coast. He recaptured Cilicia and even advanced into northern Syria, campaigning alongside the Crusader States that had recently conquered much of the Levant and Syria upon invitation by Alexios.Johns military strength lay in the patience of his strategy and his brilliance as a besieger. John focused on small but consistent advances against the Seljuks and securing these gains before ending his campaigns and returning the next year. This gave him time to return to Constantinople to reduce the threat of plots against his reign in his absence and also ensured his other frontiers were stable.On campaign, John avoided risking his army and all his gains on pitched battles. Instead, he focused on capturing enemy strongholds to ensure progress and keep his gains secure after ending the campaign.6. El Cid, 1043-1099El Cid, Section from Jura de Santa Gadea, by Marcos Hiraldez Acosta, 1864. Source: Senate of SpainRodrigo Diaz de Vivar is one of Spains most celebrated folk heroes. He was born in the mid-11th century, during the turbulent period when Spain was divided between several Christian kingdoms in the north, and the Islamic Taifas of Al-Andalus or Moorish Spain in the south. He first rose to prominence as a military leader in the service of King Sancho II of Castille, expanding his masters territory against Christian and Moorish enemies alike. However, he was then exiled in 1079 by Sanchos brother and heir Alfonso, whom he had previously defeated in battle.Despite his exile, soldiers still flocked to his banner and soon Rodrigo found employment with the Taifa of Zaragoza, another former enemy. As loyal and capable a soldier under an Islamic liege as a Christian one, Rodrigo continued to win military glory, earning the title of El Cid, a Spanish translation of the Arabic Al-Sayyid, or The Lord, and Campeador, meaning Champion in Spanish.In 1087, Alphonso recalled El Cid from exile to defend against an invasion by the Almoravids of Morocco. Once again, El Cid loyally supported his liege, but another dispute led to a second exile. This time, El Cid established himself as an independent ruler of the city of Valencia. He successfully defended his new fief from the Almoravids and all other comers until his death in 1099 CE.The Cid and Five Moorish Kings, by William Ewart Lockhart, 1880. Source: Art UKWhat makes El Cid notable in the pantheon of medieval military leaders is the loyalty he earned from his soldiers and his ability to win against great odds. His personal bravery and readiness to lead from the front encouraged this loyalty in his men. However, part of his success came from an uncanny ability for tactical timing and his sense of when exactly to launch decisive maneuvers. At the battle of Golpejera in 1072, he advised King Sancho to counterattack after initially being forced to retreat. El Cid led a dawn charge, catching their enemywho had spent the night celebrating their presumed victorycompletely unaware.7. Genghis Khan, 1162-1227Monument to Genghis Khan in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, photo by Bernard Gagnon. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFew leaders in history enjoy a reputation as notorious as that of Genghis Khan. The personification of conquest and plunder, Genghis needs little introduction. Yet the man born Temujin Borjigin on the banks of the Onon River seemed unlikely to reach the heights that he did. As a child, his family was abandoned by the rest of his tribe when his father died. He survived, thanks to the determination of his mother who taught him the skills to survive on the steppe, but his early life was one of extreme hardship.Through sheer determination, cunning, and superb military and political ability, Temujin rose to prominence as a soldier and leader. Gradually he gained power until he was able to unite all the clans of the steppe and obtained the title of supreme or great ruler: Genghis Khan. However, this was not the end of his ambition, and soon he and his men would create the largest land empire the world has ever seen.It is difficult to adequately summarize just how stunning and dramatic Genghiss rise to power and military success were. His lowly start made his future success even more incredible and enabled him to reform traditional Mongolian society into a formidable fighting force. Genghis promoted his generals based on ability, not aristocratic connections, giving him the best quality subordinates. Likewise, he remade the traditional clan system into a simple but effective organizational system. Each man belonged to a band of ten, ten of those bands formed a group of 100, and so on, until the highest division of 10,000 men known as a Tumen.Colossal Genghis Khan Statue, Mongolia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Tumens could operate semi-independently, giving Genghis and the Mongols greater strategic flexibility. He also ensured a portion of all plunder taken was put into a fund for the families of his dead and living soldiers, meaning forces could stay on campaign for longer while still supporting their families.Aside from these reforms, Genghis was a brilliant field commander. There are many stories of his tactical brilliance but perhaps the most astonishing was his invasion of the Khwarazm Empire. In 1220, Genghis deceived the Shah of the Khwarazm Empire by besieging the border forts between their empires. Then he himself led his main force across the seemingly impassible Kyzyl Kum Desert using a carefully managed supply system to strike into the empires heart with no warning.8. Edward I, 1239-1307Portrait of Edward I in the Royal Genealogy of English Kings, 13th century. Source: British LibraryEdward I, also known as Longshanks, is perhaps best known as the villain of Mel Gibsons Braveheart, but there is much more to this King of England than was depicted in the 1995 epic. Edwards career as a commander began with the Battle of Evesham in 1265, where he defeated the rebellion of Baron Simon De Monfort, and continued when he led the Ninth Crusade.When he became King in 1274, Edward initially focused on domestic reform, but he soon found himself returning to military matters. He first invaded Wales, initially in retribution for its previous support for the de Monfort rebellion. However, the conflict soon developed into a full-blown conquest of Wales, a feat many previous English kings had tried but failed to achieve.Most famous of all though was his intervention in Scotland, where Edward took an invitation to be a neutral arbiter in a dispute over the Scottish crown as an opportunity to become overlord of Scotland. When his suzerainty was disputed by his chosen king and the Scottish nobility, Edward invaded and captured the Stone of Scone, the legendary emblem of Scottish royalty.Then came the famous rebellion of William Wallace, which saw Edward lead his final military campaign to defeat. When the English occupying forces fell victim to the guile of Wallaces rebellion, Edward returned to Scotland and outmaneuvered Wallace, forcing him into a pitched battle at Falkirk where Edward gained a crushing victory.Edward I (?), Westminster Abbey Portrait, 1272-1307. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEdward was undoubtedly a ruthless and brutal king. However, it is fair to acknowledge how he dedicated his life to restoring the prestige of the throne of England after the disappointing reigns of his father, Henry III, and his grandfather, John. Additionally, his military ability and talent for decisively defeating his enemies is quite impressive. He was a ruthlessly efficient conqueror, with the ability to ensure his conquest lasted, although he died before Scotland was truly subdued.Furthermore, he succeeded in the greatest challenge for any commander: forcing an enemy using guerrilla warfare and hit-and-run tactics into a decisive battle and destroying them not once but twice in his Welsh and Scottish campaigns.9. Robert Guiscard, 1016-1085Statue of Robert Guiscard outside Monte Cassino Abbey, photo by Mattis. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe warfare of 11th-century Europe was dominated by the Normans. Former Vikings who settled in northern France, they plied their trade as pre-eminent mounted warriors across Europe. William the Conqueror is arguably the most famous Norman, but in terms of military success, one name stands out: Robert de Hauteville.Robert, known as Guiscard, meaning the cunning or fox-like one, clawed his way from lowly adventurer to the ruler of most of Southern Italy and Sicily in the mid-11th century. He joined the Norman mercenaries in Southern Italy, who had originally fought for the Pope and local Lombards, against the Byzantine Empire, before they turned on their erstwhile employers to rule the region themselves.Eventually, Robert became the leader of the Normans and forged an alliance with Pope Nicholas II, who in exchange made him Duke of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. At the time Sicily was in fact under the rule of the Islamic Emirate of Sicily. However, Robert soon made sure his Dukedom was complete by conquering the island with his brother Roger. He then fully removed the Byzantines from Southern Italy and even invaded the Byzantine Balkans, famously defeating Emperor Alexios Komnenos at the Battle of Dyrrhachium. This would not be the only emperor he defeated, as Robert would also go on to rescue the Pope from the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III, who had besieged Rome.The surrender of Palermo, from Roger of Sicily Receiving The Keys of the City, by Giuseppe Patania, 1830. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRobert was a crafty strategist, often surprising his enemies with his maneuvers. For example, in 1061 he and Roger captured Messina in Sicily after crossing from mainland Italy overseas in the dead of night and landing right under the defending armys nose without them knowing.On the field, Robert perfected the newly developed massed lance charge of the Norman Knights, using it to extreme effectiveness against many enemies. The epitaph on his tomb sums Robert up quite well: Here lies Guiscard, the terror of the world.10. Subutai, 1175-1248Chinese Engraving of Subutai, 16th century. Source: XLegio.ruWhile this list has not been strictly ranked, there is one name that simply stands above the rest. Subutai, also known as Subudei, was a general of Genghis Khan and without doubt one of the finest military men of all time. He was a lowborn son of a blacksmith before he became a devoted follower of Genghis and demonstrated an astonishing aptitude for warfare during the unification of the Mongol tribes. At one point he disguised himself as a deserter to falsely report to an enemy force that his army was far away, and so let down their guard, giving his own troops time to catch up to and destroy their unsuspecting foe. From there, Subutais talents only grew.Subutai was one of Genghiss top commanders, known as the Dogs of War, and won victory after victory for his lord in campaigns in China, Central Asia, and modern-day Ukraine. Even after Genghis died, Subutai continued to gain military glory for his lords descendants. In the 1240s, Subutainow well into his 60sorchestrated an invasion of Central Europe that saw several more stunning victories. The rest of Europe was only spared when the death of Genghiss successor, Ogedei Khan, necessitated the return of the Mongols back to their homeland to choose a new ruler. His military accomplishments continued with further victories against the Song Dynasty in China until his death in 1248.Mongol Empires conquest of Chinese regimes including Western Liao, Jurchen Jin, Song, Western Xia, and Dali kingdoms. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe list of Subutais military innovations and achievements is long. On the battlefield, he perfected the ancient Steppe tactics of horse archery and feigned retreats by implementing heavy cavalry to fall upon his foes during their pursuit of his retreating horse archers. He even used siege artillery in the field at the Battle of Mohi in 1241, driving off Hungarian crossbowmen who were defending a bridge and thus allowing his army to cross. This form of Creeping Barrage would not be seen again for several centuries.When planning campaigns, he would use a network of spies and intelligence gatherers to give him all the information possible on his enemy and their operations. He also used the Tumen system to divide his forces and launch multiple attacks with independent armies across a wide front. This pinned his enemies down as they struggled to respond to the varied assaults, giving Subutai time to engage and defeat multiple enemy forces at once before they could link up. This form of wide front, command and control warfare would also not be seen again for several centuries.

The Komnenos Dynasty came from obscure origins to revive the Byzantine Empire after a disastrous period of weak emperors and military setbacks. Alexios Komnenos took power in 1081 CE and began an astonishing reversal of the empires dire fortunes, continued by his descendants during what became known as the Komnenian Restoration. In 1095 CE, Alexios sent a request for military support to the Pope. This was the catalyst for the Crusades that would have an unprecedented impact on the Byzantine Empire and the rest of the world.The Rise of the Komnenos DynastyThe Castle of Kastamonu, Fiefdom of the Komnenids. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe origins of the Komnenos family are frustratingly obscure. The first recorded member is Manuel Erotikos Komnenos. Manuels parentage is unknown, although he was likely of minor noble descent. He appears in a record of 978 CE leading a loyalist army to victory against a rebellion. For his loyalty and success, he received a fief on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia. There Manuel built a castle, known today as Kastamonu.Manuel had two sons, Isaac, and John, who became accomplished military men, and Isaac was a popular general on the empires eastern border. In the cloak-and-dagger world of imperial Byzantium, military command was held by members of elite families of provincial nobility. Meanwhile, in Constantinople, the Church and civilian administrators held sway. These two factions were kept in balance by the powerful emperors of the Macedonian Dynasty.However, the last Macedonian ruler died in 1055 CE and the imperial throne then went to a civilian aristocrat, Michael. Within two years, Michael had alienated the military elite, who rebelled with Isaac as their leader. In 1057 CE, Isaac forced Michael to abdicate and took the throne himself. Ironically, Isaac in turn alienated the civilian bureaucracy, which forced him to abdicate in 1059 CE.However, this was just the beginning of the Komnenos story. For the next 20 years, (while the empire suffered crises of government, faith, and military) Isaacs nephew, Alexios, went into the family business of military command. Alexios, born the same year his uncle had become emperor, gained his first military command at just 19 years old. Just five years later in 1081 CE, he also took the throne in a military-backed coup. Thus, the reign of the Komnenos, and the restoration of the Byzantine Empire, truly began.Alexios and Saving the EmpireAlexios I Komnenos receiving a blessing from Christ, 12th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Byzantine Empire was in a truly dire state when Alexios took power. The last two decades had seen further disharmony among the civilian and military elites that had weakened the imperial state, while an inflation crisis had devastated the economy. Minor revolts and heretical rebellions also kept popping up throughout the empire.However, a greater problem by far were the military disasters the empires army had suffered. In the west, the arrival of the Normans in Italy had pushed the Byzantines out of the peninsula. Even worse, ambitious Norman lords had begun raiding and invading Greece and threatening the Byzantine heartlands. To the east, the situation was yet more dire. The invading Seljuk Turks had won a massive victory over the Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071 CE that had devastated the Byzantine army.In the decade since Manzikert, the Seljuks had conquered almost all of Anatolia save for some small holdings on the west coast. Even the traditional Komnenid holdings of Kastamonu had been lost.A Seljuk prince on horseback, 12th-13th century. Source: The MET, New YorkAlexioss reign began inauspiciously with a defeat struck by the Normans, led by Robert Guiscard at Dyrrachium in the year of his coronation. However, the young emperor turned to the other weapons in the Byzantine arsenal diplomacy and bribery. He managed to convince the Holy Roman Emperor Henry to attack the Norman lands in Italy. This forced Robert back to Italy and allowed Alexios to push the Normans out of Byzantine territory entirely.Alexios followed this success with swift internal changes. He reformed the Byzantine currency to restimulate the economy and began rebuilding and restructuring the military following Manzikert and Dyrrachium. With his western and northern fronts stabilized, a growing economy, and a pacified political scene, Alexios was able to turn his attention to the Seljuks in Anatolia. He made some progress in recapturing parts of the coast, but his army still lacked the numbers to make serious headway. This is why, in 1095 CE, he decided to write a letter to the Pope requesting military aid.The First CrusadeA depiction of the Siege of Jerusalem from a 15th-century Manuscript. Source: University of North FloridaNo discussion about Alexioss reign can be had without discussing the Crusades and their impact on the history of the Byzantine Empire and the world as a whole. Alexios clearly had no idea what his missive to the Pope would create, but this does not mean it was some desperate last-gasp gamble. Politically (if not religiously, following the Great Schism in 1054 CE) Rome and Constantinople were on good terms, thanks in large part to Alexioss diplomatic efforts. Furthermore, there was a precedent for Latin (that is Catholic West European) soldiers serving the Byzantines. In fact, Count Robert of Flanders had already served Alexios with immense success against the Seljuks.Arguably Alexioss request to the Pope was quite sensible. Due to the shortcomings in his own forces, he requested military support from an ally. What Alexios did not predict was the notorious Pope Urban II using his request for his own means. Namely, to whip up the squabbling warriors and religiously zealous peasants of Europe and direct their violence away from Europe and toward the supposed infidels of the Islamic world.Alexios had expected the Pope to arrange for a detachment of knights and mercenaries. He did not expect first a swarm of peasantsthe Peoples Crusade, which tore through his empire on their way to destruction in Anatolianor the wave of religiously fanatical knights of the First Crusade who followed.Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, from Livre des Passages dOutre-mer, 1474. Source: Gallica National LibraryThough it was assumed he would, Alexios decided against taking direct command of this seemingly military migration. Instead, he gave them what supplies and transportation he could arrange and obtained promises that any territory captured would be returned to the Byzantines. This worked for a time when the Crusaders captured Nicaea and carried on toward the Levant. However, after the capture of Antioch in 1098 CE, a series of miscommunications between the Crusaders and Alexios occurred. This led to the Crusader leaders rescinding their oaths and carving out their own independent kingdoms the notorious Crusader States of the Holy Land.John II KomnenosMosaic of John II from the Hagia Sophia, c. 1118 CE. Wikimedia CommonsDespite the unfortunate setback of accidentally unleashing a wave of war-mongering religious fanatics onto his doorstep, Alexioss reign into the 12th century was a continual success. He took more territory in Anatolia and repaired relations with the Crusaders, though they maintained their independence. Internally meanwhile, his monetary and civil reforms bore fruit, with the ambitions of the imperial Bureaucracy and military aristocracy kept in check. In his impressive 37-year reign, he took the empire from near collapse to being stable, functional, and back on the offensive.All that said, things were still fragile. When Alexios died in 1118 CE, his wife and daughter attempted a coup against his son John II, while external enemies including the Pechenegs and Hungarians began probing raids into the empire. A less capable ruler might have collapsed under the pressure but not John. He swiftly dealt with the attempted coup before moving to continue what his father had started.The Pechenegs defeating the Rus, from the Skyllitzes Matritensis, 11th-13th centuries. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJohn was known as the Beautiful for the splendor of his reign rather than his looks, and it was a truly splendid reign. He continued strengthening the economy and maintained good relations with the Pope, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Crusader States, even inviting Crusaders and other Latins into his court. This was part of Johns meritocratic policy promoting men of ignoble or foreign birth but great ability to senior positions in his court and armies. This gave him capable subordinates directly loyal to him and limited the influence of the ambitious great noble houses.John was his fathers equal in drive and brilliance. In military terms though, many argue he exceeded his father by quite some margin. He utterly destroyed the Pechenegs at the battle of Beroia and fully repulsed Hungary by 1129 CE. His one blemish was an inconclusive naval war in Crete against the new merchant power of Venice. Against the Seljuks in Anatolia, however, John would see his greatest successes.John II and Restoring the EmpireJohn II leading the siege of Shaizar, 14th century. Source: BnFAfter defeating Hungary, John swiftly went on the offensive in Anatolia, but the Seljuks were stubborn opponents, and he could not be away from Constantinople for fear of leaving conspiring nobles unsupervised. So John kept his campaigns brief but productive. He would make small but notable gains, ideally capturing strongholds to secure his conquests, before returning to Constantinople. A ruler can never be everywhere they are needed at once, so John made sure to not be too far away from anywhere for too long.These small but regular siege-based gains also reduced pitched battles and the risk of another Manzikert-like disaster. Furthermore, John was simply a master of siege warfare, often taking seemingly impenetrable castles easily and building on his successes quickly. In this way, John recaptured territory from the fractured Seljuk kingdoms of the Rhum Sultanate and the Danishmendids during the mid-1120s to 1130s CE.He retook western Anatolia, the southern coast, and even parts of northern Syria where he also made Cilician Armenia, several Crusader states, and even some independent Islamic emirates into vassals. His greatest triumph was the siege of Shaizar in 1138 CE, which took place in cooperation with the Crusader States of Antioch and Edessa. While the Crusader commanders stayed in their tents playing dice, John personally led an assault and capture of the city.Marble carving of John II in Imperial regalia, 12th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJohn died suddenly, from septicemia after cutting himself during a hunt, in 1143 CE. He was aged just 56 and planning another campaign against the Rhum Sultanate. His final act was to appoint his youngest son Manuel, born in 1118 CE, to succeed him. Contemporary sources suggest Manuel showed greater military skills and likeability than his older brother, Isaac. Johns meritocratic policy continued until the very end.Despite the many successes of Johns 25-year reign, there was still much work to be done. Fortunately, Manuel was made of the same stuff as his father and grandfather.Manuel Komnenos, the GreatManuel receiving Baldwin III of Jerusalem, from a later Medieval manuscript. Source: British LibraryManuelknown as the Greatwas a man of ambition. Growing up with his fathers Crusader advisors, he became very pro-Latin. His court adopted the notions of Chivalry and even held jousting tournaments. His pro-West policies left him on good terms with Pope Eugene III, which helped him prepare for the first major event of his reign, the Second Crusade in 1147 CE.Manuel, unlike his grandfather, was well prepared for the sudden arrival of two Crusader armies looking to retake the Crusader state of Edessa. He swiftly and peacefully (aside from some minor skirmishes) moved the Crusaders through his empire, securing an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III into the bargain.Manuel I Komnenos and his second wife Maria of Antioch, 12th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThough the Crusade failed, Manuels allegiance with Conrad encouraged him to attack the Normans in Southern Italy, who were once again menacing Greece. The Normans backed down but his meddling in Italy led to a falling out with Conrads successor, Frederick Barbarossa, and a protracted on-again-off-again conflict with Venice. Despite this, Manuel saw other successes during the 1150s and 60s CE.In the West, he won victories over Hungary and Serbia and brought the entire Dalmatian coast into the Byzantine Empire. He was also recognized as suzerain of all the Crusader states, including Jerusalem, by 1159 CE and made further conquests in Anatolia. He even made the Rhum Sultanate his vassal in 1162 CE.Yet, the good times would not last. First came a failed expedition to Egypt with the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1169 CE. The biggest failure though, was in Anatolia. In 1176 CE, during a punitive expedition against a rebellious Rhum Sultanate, Manuels army was ambushed at the battle of Myriokephalon. Though not as devastating as Manzikert, the defeat forced Manuel on the defensive. While campaigning to protect the gains of his forebears, Manuel died of a fever in 1180 CE.In his 37-year reign, Manuel invested much to make the Byzantine Empire the most prosperous and influential it had been for centuries. Once again, a Komnenid Emperor passed on, leaving the empire in an empowered but still precarious position. All that was needed was another strong heir to keep up the good work. This time, however, there was none.The Downfall of the DynastyPortraits of the final four Komnenid Emperors and the two that followed, Isaac and Alexios III Angelos, from a 15th-century manuscript. Source: Estense Digital LibraryManuels only son, Alexios II, was eleven when his father died. Until he came of age, power rested with a regent, and all at once the Byzantines returned to their ancient pastime of squabbling for power. Alexioss regent was his mother Maria, but she was a Latin, from the Crusader state of Antioch.While the Komnenids were pro-Western, the common citizens and other noble families were less so. The idea of a foreign princess ruling the empire was not popular. Nor did Maria help herself with some of her questionable policies. The most egregious was her imperial favoring of Italian merchants, including those from the empires erstwhile rival, Venice. Resentment boiled over into open defiance and Maria did not have the military or political support to maintain control.Lion of Saint Mark, Doges Palace, Venice. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn stepped the ambitious Andronikos Komnenos. The son of Alexios Is youngest son, Isaac, Andronikos had been exiled by Manuel for his many scandals and schemes. In the civil disorder of Marias reign, he returned to Constantinople in 1183 CE to a heros welcome from its citizens.Andronikos swiftly deposed Maria and her dwindling supporters, then made himself co-emperor with Alexios II before quietly having both mother and son killed. His ascension sparked a riot in the city against the resented Italian merchants and other Latins in the city. Almost 80,000 people, it is claimed, were killed, but sadly this was just the beginning of the violence. Andronikos rolled back many of the pro-Western policies and earlier reforms of the other Komnenids. He also came down hard on the military aristocracy which had enjoyed the favor of a near century of successive military campaigning. In a state of increasing paranoia, Andronikos had all dissenters or perceived threats executed.The empire endured two years of Andronikoss tyranny. However, in 1185 CE the Normans invaded Greece, allegedly to avenge the massacre of the Latins, and Andronikos found none of his armies nor generals were willing to defend him. As the invaders marched towards the capital, a noble named Isaac Angelos, distantly related to the Komnenids, finally stood up to Andronikos and deposed him. The last Komnenos Emperor was then seized by a mob and brutally lynched.The Final Legacy of the Komnenos DynastyThe Byzantine Empire in 1170, at the height of the Komnenian restoration. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe reign of the Komnenids came to a squalid end barely a century after it began. Once again, urban nobles and military aristocrats squabbled for power as the borders of the empire crumbled under the threat of invasion. Yet it would be far too cynical to claim that the Komnenos emperors had achieved nothing. In three generations, Alexios, John II, and Manuel had transformed the Byzantine Empire from a state of ruin back into a superpower.All three emperors undoubtedly rank among the greatest emperors in Byzantine history. While they may not have ultimately succeeded in restoring the empire to its original borders, they managed to pull it from a death spiral, revive it civilly and militarily, and restore much-lost glory. They bought Constantinople a century of much-needed stability and success. The great tragedy was that this stability was tied to their own abilities as emperors and could not survive less able successors.It is hard to say whether the Komnenids only delayed the inevitable collapse of the empire, or if they could have succeeded given different circumstances. One can only speculate what could have been had John II survived for one more campaign or had Manuel lived long enough for Alexios II to reach adulthood. Yet we must also acknowledge the tragic reality of the events set in motion during the Komnenian restoration.Assault of the Crusaders on Constantinople 1204 by David Aubert, 15th Century. Source: akg-imagesIn 1204 CE, after Isaac Angelos was deposed by his own brother, his son Alexios employed the army of the Fourth Crusade, financed by Venetian merchants, to take Constantinople from his uncle. Then, when Alexios was killed in a riot before he could provide payment, the Crusaders promptly sacked the city, with much of the treasure returning to Venice. The empire was then divided between the Crusaders and Venice, with a few Byzantine noble families creating splinter kingdoms in the empires extremities, one of whichthe Empire of Trebizondwas ruled by an offshoot of the Komnenos family.Though the Byzantine Empire would eventually return, it would never be the same again. This is perhaps the most tragic irony of the Komnenos legacy. The very movement Alexios I unwittingly engendered to try and save the empire, all those years before, would lead to its darkest hour.

During Genghis Khans rise to power and subsequent conquests, he gathered many men to his side who became his trusted confidants and most able commanders. Four of them came to be known as his notorious Four Dogs of War. In this article, we shall explore the extraordinary stories of these legendary Mongol warriorsJelme, Jebe, Qubilai, and Sbeedeitheir legacies, and the legends that have filtered down to the modern day.Four Dogs, Raised on Mans FleshThe equestrian statue of Genghis Khan near Ulaanbaatar in Mongolia, the largest equestrian statue in the world. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTemujin raised four dogs on mans flesh and keeps them shackled in chains. So said Jamuqa, former blood brother turned enemy of Genghis Khan during the Battle of Chakirmaut in 1204 CE in the historical epic, The Secret History of the Mongols. Jamuqa continues his description in a notoriously poetic passage:Those four dogs have Bronze as their foreheads, Borers as their tongues, Chisels as their snouts, Steel as their hearts, Swords as their whips. They drink the dew and ride the wind. At the scenes of slaughter, they swallow human flesh; On the day of dealing death, they devour the flesh of men.It is possible the quote was fabricated, however, it still creates a vivid image of the brutal and terrifying reputation the four generals have in the popular imagination. However, a different aspect to them, and the meaning of their title, appears in a later passage.Genghis Khan, Yuan Dynasty Portrait, 14th century. Source: National Palace Museum, TaipeiAfter finally uniting the Mongol tribes, Genghis held a Kurultai, essentially a grand assembly of his new peoples, in 1206 CE. There he gave a speech singling out the Four Dogs for their loyalty, steadfastness, and ability:When I sent you, the four dogs of mine, Qubilai, Jelme, Jebe and Sbeedei, towards a purpose I had planned, By the time I said to get there, The boulder you ground to grit. Before I said to attack there; The cliff you crushed apart, Shattering through the smooth stone, Diving through the deep water.Both passages are a perfect dichotomy. The Dogs of War appeared to their enemies as war machines and monsters made human. To their compatriots, however, they are heroes who helped found the Mongol nation and brought it eternal glory. We shall look at the lives of all four men, to understand why Genghis favored them, and why his enemies feared them. What are the pedigrees, one might ask, of the Dogs of War?1. Jelme: The Loyal CompanionA manuscript showing Genghis rewarding the Four Dogs and other followers at the Kurultai of 1206 CE. Source: BnFThe first of the dogs to join Genghis was Jelme. In fact, he was tied to Genghis from birth. According to the Secret History, when Genghis was born, Jelmes father pledged his son in service to the newborn Genghis in adulthood and so it came to be in around 1180 CE. Though technically a servant to Genghis, Jelmes position was not a lowly one. At a time when Genghis, still known as Temujin, had few followers and little prestige, Jelme was a welcome and respected member of his following.Jelme was a capable retainer and advisor for Temujin and helped him win his earliest victories that saw him first proclaimed Genghis, or Great Khan, by his increasingly large following in the mid-1180s CE. Genghis would not forget Jelme, praising his faithfulness when Genghis had no friend but a shadow and promoting Jelme to be one of his most senior leaders, ruling his other followers. Jelme stuck by Genghis through thick and thin. He remained with Genghis during the lost years of the 1190s CE, when Genghis was attacked and exiled by Jamuqa, fleeing to China. However, Genghis would return with Jelme and the other Dogs of War by his side.The apogee of Jelmes loyalty came during the battle of Kyiten at the turn of the 13th century. During the battle, Genghiss horse was shot from under him, and he was injured in the neck. Jelme diligently remained by his side and nursed his lord back to health, at one point even stealing some mares milk from the enemy camp for Genghis. The archer who wounded him shall be discussed later.Gate to the Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue, Tsonjin Boldog. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJelme was an invaluable officer in Genghis Khans military machine, however, he doesnt appear to have often held independent command. Rather, it seems he stayed close by to Genghis, perhaps still serving as his steward and personal advisor. After Genghis finally united the Mongol Steppe tribes, he again sang the praises of Jelme who had been tied to him since birth and he proclaimed him one of his most senior men in his new kingdom. Even as the Mongols conquered new lands, Jelme seems to have remained by the side of his khan as a loyal advisor and perhaps friend.The historian Rashid Al Adin mentions Jelme dying during the time of Genghis Khan which could have been any time between 1207 and the 1220s, though scholars tend to assume earlier dates. Jelme was not necessarily a great general, but he was by no means less important to Genghis. Truly, his faithful service to the young man surviving on the Steppe through to his most glorious epoch is a near-unmatched story of loyalty and ability.2. Qubilai: Master of DisciplinePersian manuscript of Mongol horse archers, 13th century. Source: Columbia UniversityQubilai (also spelled Kublai) has been somewhat obscured in history by his later and far more famous namesake, Kublai Khan, Genghiss grandson and founder of the Yuan Dynasty. However, Qubilai the Dog of War deserves recognition. According to the Secret History, he and his brothers were some of the first people to join Genghis after his first success against the Merkits. During this early period, when Genghis was still building up his forces, Qubilai was made a guard of the Khans household.Like Jelme, Qubilai remained a loyal companion to Genghis, despite being a noble member of his own tribe, most likely following him through the lost years and on his return. Qubilai was often deployed alongside his fellow Dog of War Jebe, leading scouting and reconnaissance missions during the unification of Mongolia. One episode saw them charged with taking the loot during Genghiss defeat of the Tatar tribes, allowing the rest of the army to pursue and capture their fleeing foes.This strategy was a crucial part of Genghiss success. Previous Steppe conflicts often saw victorious armies halt to plunder what they could from the losers, allowing them to escape as the soldiers took what they could for themselves. However, by ensuring all the plunder was managed by a subordinate, Genghiss army could pursue their enemies and have all plunder divided equally among all his soldiers, making no special dispensation for nobles or higher ranks. This was vital to ensuring the loyalty and service of his men who would willingly fight for him, knowing they would get a fair share of the glory, rather than just getting what they could while the traditional aristocrats received more of the glory and plunder.Mongols at war, 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsQubilai appears to have excelled in this managerial and discipline enforcement role. So much so that, according to the Secret History, Genghis tasked him to preside over all the affairs of the army and be chief disciplinarian of the unified Mongol forces. This was a prestigious and vital position. Much of the success of Genghis and his descendants was thanks to the strict military discipline and strategic flexibility derived from a clear chain of command.Qubilai clearly excelled in instilling this discipline and keeping the armies of Genghis well-managed and supplied. Part of this duty still included the taking of loot from defeated foes and raided cities, a portion of which was kept in trust for the widows and orphans of fallen soldiers, further instilling loyalty among the army and allowing them to campaign for longer periods without fear of their familys well-being.After the full unification of Mongolia, Qubilai is only recorded going on one further mission. This was to subjugate the nearby Qaarlut Nation, whose ruler submitted to Genghis, who in turn praised this submission and married this ruler to one of his daughters. This was another example of Genghiss new way of conducting warfare: providing enemies who submitted bloodlessly with fair and respectable treatment. Aside from this, it seems Qubilai, like Jelme, stayed close to Genghiss side. However, his instillation of discipline and masterminding of the armies would be of huge benefit to other generals, including the last two Dogs of War.3. Jebe: The ArrowFrench depiction of the Jebe and Sbeedeis combined victory at the battle of the Kalka River, 19th century. Source: British LibraryAfter the Battle of Kyiten, the Secret History records that Genghis interrogated some defectors from the defeated enemy about who the archer was that had shot his horse and almost killed him. A man named Jirqoadai told Genghis plainly that he was the archer in question. He then offered to let Genghis kill him there and then or spare him and he would become the Khans most loyal vassal, willing to take on any task. Genghis was so impressed by Jirqoadais bravery and straight shooting, in every sense, that he made him a general and renamed him Jebe, meaning arrow. And so, the man who almost killed him became the arrow to Genghiss bow.The story may or may not be wholly accurate but it gives a good characterization of who the warrior Jebe was and the tactical ruthlessness he would soon unleash. As previously noted, Jebe partnered with Qubilai on scouting and reconnaissance missions during the unification of Mongolia. While Qubilai took charge of discipline and logistics, however, Jebe was chosen by Genghis to be a field commander, a role he would excel in.Many historians rank Jebe as one of the finest cavalry generals in history, and his achievements during the Mongol conquests show why. He commanded a wing of the army that invaded Jin China in 1211, often using the speed and maneuverability of his forces to lure his enemy into disadvantageous positions. Then in 1218, he defeated an old enemy of Genghis, Kushlug of the Qara Khitai, with just two Tumens20,000 men. During the invasion of the Khwarazm Empire, he and Sbeedei served as commanders of the advance guard, ruthlessly pursuing the Shah of Khwarazm as he fled the avenging Mongol forces. Jebes greatest glory, however, was yet to come.Mongol Warrior statue, Singapore Museum. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1220, Jebe and Sbeedei organized the Great Raid. Starting from eastern Iran, the two Dogs of War journeyed into the unknown with just 20,000 men. They pushed through the Caucasus Mountains, destroying a Georgian army many times their size, and carried on north and east in a great circle around the Caspian Sea. They then surprised the Kipchaks, allies of Genghiss old enemy, the Merkits. The Kipchaks joined forces with those of several Rus princes, including the prince of Kyiv and other famous cities, to defeat the Mongol menace. Jebe and Sbeedei led their enemies on a nine-day false retreat before turning on them and destroying them at the legendary Battle of the Kalka River.Yet after this astonishing triumph, Jebe all but disappears from the historical record. No contemporary sources mention his later whereabouts after the completion of the Great Raid. It is speculated, but not certain, that he died shortly after the raid or perhaps during the final stages. In any case, Genghiss arrow and the most unlikely of the Dogs of War came to a sudden end after proving to be such a terrifying military adversary for his foes. This leaves us with the final, and easily most notorious of the Dogs of War: Sbeedei.4. Sbeedei: The LegendA Medieval German depiction of Sbeedeis victory over the Hungarians at Mohi in 1241 CE, 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSbeedei (or Subudai) is without doubt the most infamous and well-known of the Dogs of War, and with good reason. He has gone down as one of the most brilliant and ruthless generals in history, winning astonishing victories and instilling terror in his foes all in the service of Genghis and his descendants. Yet despite his reputation, or perhaps because of it, there are many misconceptions about his career and lifemisconceptions that have also bled into the wider view of the Dogs of War, Genghis, and his Mongol Empire.It is commonly believed that Sbeedei was Jelmes younger brother. However, newer sources and understandings of the Secret History have shown they were cousins or some close male relative to each other but did not have the same father. Regardless, Sbeedei followed his relative Jelme and his master Genghis but only gained station around the turn of the 13th century, when he and his brother defeated a group of bandits. Sbeedeis star rose quickly due to his bravery and talent for warfare. He was most likely the youngest and least senior of the Four Dogs, but his abilities shone through enough that he went from relative obscurity to a prestigious and vaunted position in a relatively short space of time.There is little that hasnt already been said about Sbeedeis astonishing military accomplishments. His first independent command was in conquering the remains of the Merkit tribe that had fled Genghiss rise and allied with the Kipchaks west of Mongolia. He then formed a brilliant partnership with Jebe, firstly campaigning in China, then in Central Asia pursuing the Khwarazm Shah, and then embarking on the Great Raid during the 1210s-1220s CE.Subutai, Chinese drawing, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGenghis Khan died in around 1227 CE and by that time, Sbeedei was the last living Dog of Waryet his military marvels in service to Genghiss heir, Ogedei, would continue. Firstly, in China, he continued the innovations of mobility, military discipline, and flexibility instilled by Genghis, Qubilai, and Jebe by attacking multiple armies operating in concert. His most legendary campaign, however, came in the late 1230s CE, when he, alongside Genghiss grandson Batu, invaded Russia and Central Europe.Though Batu was nominally in command, Sbeedei was the true mastermind. His forces swept through Ukraine and Russia, finally destroying the Kipchaks and their Rus allies before the independent principalities could form a united defense. Sbeedei continued pursuing fleeing Kipchaks into Hungary and Poland, engineering several stunning victories, the complete destruction of the Hungarian army, as well as plundering much of Eastern Europe.Sbeedei would return to Mongolia after the death of Ogedei. Though aged over 70, he was still able to organize a final campaign against the Song Dynasty in around 1243 CE. Not long afterward though, the last of Genghiss almighty generals and faithful Dogs of War passed away peacefully, in his home in Mongolia.Sbeedeis long and well-documented military career made him the most famous of the Mongol generals in the West, outside of Genghis himself, but it has also colored perceptions. With so much of the historical record focused on Sbeedeis military exploits, warfare and conquest dominate our understanding of him and the other Dogs of War.Understanding the Four DogsThe advances of Genghis Khan and his generals and the territorial expansion of the Mongol Empire. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJelme, Qubilai, Jebe, and Sbeedei were extraordinary men. A title like the Dogs of War may lend itself to presumptions of conquest and military ferocity. Yet investigating the lives of the men themselves, much of their story revolves around their loyalty and support of Genghis in creating the new Mongol nation.Both interpretations have meritdogs can be savage beasts or loyal companionsand the dichotomy was undoubtedly intentional on the part of the Secret Historys compilers. However, returning to our two original passages, the description given by Jamuqa is one of the most well-known and recited in popular discussions of Genghis and his Four Dogs. It fits the popular image of the notorious conqueror perfectly. Meanwhile, the later passage with Genghis as the charismatic leader praising and rewarding his loyal and able lieutenants is often forgotten.There is an undercurrent of brutality and violence that pervades popular discussions of the Mongol Empire, even in positive accounts. For example, a popular modern nickname for Sbeedei is the Demon Dog of Genghis Khan. However, during his lifetime, Sbeedei held the epithet Baatur, meaning hero, a title given only to those of great valiance and standing.The bloody reputation of the Mongols is not without merit, but other conquerors are often celebrated for their military prowess, not dreaded. Few would describe the Marshals of Napoleon as demons. Modern historians are challenging this tendency and some of it is due in part to sources and stories only recently becoming widely available. Yet, at the risk of over-romanticizing him, Genghis truly should be known for feats other than his conquests, as should the stories of the men who followed him.Chinggis Khan advising his sons on his deathbed, 15th-century miniature from Marco Polos Livre des Merveilles, 1410-12. Source: BnFBloody and ruthless warriors they may have been, but all four men showed incredible faith and loyalty to Genghis. Traditional Steppe allegiances were forged through blood and clan ties, and followers would abandon leaders who seemed unable to bring success, but Genghis and the Four Dogs thought differently. All four served Genghis loyally despite being from different tribes and families. Jelme and Qubilai both followed Genghis in his lost years and refused to abandon him. Additionally, all four men took part in the Baljuna Covenant in 1203 CE, when Genghiss followers reaffirmed their loyalty to him after he was betrayed by his ally Togrul.While they are now remembered for their violence, the Four Dogs perhaps should be better known for their loyalty to Genghis and each other. They typified the new ideas and way of thinking that saw Genghis turn the people of the Mongol Steppe into a nation that took on the world. In many ways, Jelme, Qubilai, Jebe, and Sbeedei exemplify the loyalty, discipline, honor, and brilliance that helped a man with humble origins overcome all odds to create one of the most renowned empires in history.

Any trip through Armenia and Georgia will offer you many opportunities to sample delicious wines from the various vineyards and some questionable wines from home-brewing cellars. But while taking a tour, it is interesting to discover a little more about the history of wine production in both countries and try to uncover which country produced wine first.The History of Wine Production in ArmeniaWine Tasting the Areni Region in Armenia, photograph Ashley White, 2022Armenia boasts one of the oldest winemaking traditions in the world, with a history that intertwines deeply with the development of viticulture. The history of Armenian wine production can be traced back thousands of years, highlighting the regions pivotal role in the early development of winemaking.Ancient BeginningsArchaeological evidence points to Armenia as one of the earliest sites of grape cultivation and wine production. The discovery of the Areni-1 cave complex, located in the Vayots Dzor region, provides compelling evidence of ancient winemaking.In 2007, a team of archaeologists uncovered a 6,100-year-old winery in this cave. The site included fermentation vats, a wine press, storage jars, and even a cup and drinking bowl, all indicating the production and consumption of wine. It is possible to visit this site, a top recommendation for any wine enthusiast so they can see, first hand, where one of the oldest wineries in the world was. It happens to be in the modern-day wine region of Armenia, and there are many beautiful wineries to stop off at nearby and sample some of the delicious wines they have on offer.Viticulture and Winemaking in AntiquityViticulture in Armenia dates back to around 8000 BCE and the Armenian Highlands are believed to be one of the origins of the vitis vinifera grapevine, the primary species used in winemaking. Many wine producers around the Areni-1 cave continue to use subspecies of this grapevine to produce their wines today. The regions favorable climate and terrain provided ideal conditions for grape growing. Ancient manuscripts and artifacts suggest that wine was an integral part of Armenian culture, used in rituals, celebrations, and daily life.Inside the Noravank Monastery, Armenia, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Middle Ages and the Silk RoadDuring the Middle Ages, Armenian wine continued to thrive, benefiting from Armenias strategic location on the Silk Road. This trade route facilitated the exchange of goods and culture between East and West, and Armenian wine was traded and appreciated far and wide. Monasteries played a crucial role in preserving and advancing viticultural knowledge and winemaking techniques. Monastic winemakers maintained vineyards and produced high-quality wines, some of which were used for religious purposes.It is therefore vital that anyone visiting Armenia should visit the monasteries too, in order to get a complete picture of the cultural and religious significance of wine. One of the most magnificent wine-producing monasteries in the Areni region is the Noravank Monastery, and well worth a visit!Ottoman Period and Modern ChallengesThe Ottoman Period posed significant challenges for Armenian winemaking. Despite restrictions and hardships, Armenian winemakers persisted, often producing wine in secret. The genocide and subsequent diaspora of Armenians in the early 20th century had a profound impact on the countrys wine industry, leading to a significant decline.Soviet EraDuring the Soviet Era, Armenias wine production was largely geared toward quantity over quality, with a focus on brandy production. However, the country still produced notable wines, and Armenian brandy gained international acclaim. State-run wineries dominated the industry, and traditional winemaking practices were often sidelined in favor of mass production.Brandy remains an important part of Armenian culture, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Post-Soviet RevivalSince gaining independence in 1991, Armenia has experienced a renaissance in wine production. The revival has been fueled by a combination of the returning diaspora, foreign investment, and a renewed interest in traditional winemaking methods. Modern Armenian winemakers have embraced both ancient techniques and contemporary innovations, focusing on quality and the unique characteristics of indigenous grape varieties such as Areni, Voskehat, and Khndoghni.Local wine producers in the Areni Region, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Contemporary Armenian wineArmenias winemaking tradition is one of the oldest in the world, with roots that stretch back over six millennia. Despite numerous challenges throughout its history, Armenian wine production has endured and evolved, emerging today as a symbol of the countrys resilience and cultural heritage. The revival of Armenian wine not only celebrates the ancient past but also looks forward to a promising future in the global wine industry.The History of Wine Production in GeorgiaSaperavi wine, Shumi Winery, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Georgia, often referred to as the cradle of wine, boasts a rich and ancient history of wine production that spans thousands of years. The countrys winemaking tradition is deeply ingrained in its culture, and archaeological evidence supports its claim as one of the earliest regions to domesticate grapevines and produce wine.Ancient BeginningsThe history of Georgian wine production dates back to around 6000-5000 BCE. Archaeological discoveries have uncovered evidence of early winemaking in the form of qvevri (large clay vessels used for fermenting and storing wine) found in the village of Shulaveri. These qvevri contained grape seeds and residue, indicating the early practice of winemaking.The Qvevri TraditionOne of the most distinctive features of Georgian winemaking is the use of the qvevri. This ancient method involves fermenting and aging wine in large, egg-shaped clay vessels buried underground. This technique, which has been passed down through generations, imparts unique characteristics to the wine and is recognized by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The qvevri method allows for natural fermentation and has become a symbol of the Georgian winemaking tradition which is still used today. When visiting Georgia, a trip to Kakheti is vital if you want to see this ancient method firsthand.Qvevri Store in the Shumi Winery, Kakheti, Georgia, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Viticulture in AntiquityBy the Bronze Age, viticulture had become well-established in Georgia. The countrys favorable climate and diverse terrain, from the coastal regions to the mountainous areas, provided ideal conditions for grape growing. Ancient texts and artifacts suggest that wine was an integral part of Georgian society, used in religious ceremonies, social gatherings, and daily life.Medieval PeriodDuring the Medieval Period, winemaking continued to flourish in Georgia. Monasteries played a crucial role in preserving and advancing viticultural knowledge. Monastic vineyards produced high-quality wines, which were often used for religious purposes and in royal courts. Medieval Georgian literature and poetry frequently referenced wine, highlighting its cultural significance. One of the monasteries still producing wine in the Kakheti region is the Alaverdi monastery. Here you can witness the wine being produced by monks and buy some of their delicious wines.Ottoman and Persian InfluenceDespite invasions and occupations by the Ottoman and Persian empires, Georgian wine-making traditions persisted. Although these periods posed significant challenges, including restrictions on alcohol production, Georgians maintained their winemaking heritage through clandestine production and the preservation of traditional practices. This is possibly the reason why many people still produce their own wine today. You can, still to this day, buy liters of homemade wine on the side of the road if you dare!Soviet EraUnder Soviet rule, Georgian wine production was industrialized and focused on quantity over quality, much like in Armenia. State-run wineries dominated the industry, and traditional methods were often sidelined. However, Georgian wine remained popular in the Soviet Union, and the country was a major supplier of wine to other Soviet states.Mass production began during the Soviet era in Georgia, Tsinandali Palace wine cellar, photograph by Ashley White, 2022Post-Soviet RevivalFollowing the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Georgia experienced a renaissance in winemaking. The revival was marked by a return to traditional methods, including the widespread use of qvevri, and a renewed focus on quality. Small, family-owned wineries began to emerge, and Georgian winemakers started to gain international recognition for their unique and high-quality wines.Contemporary Georgian WineToday, Georgias wine industry is thriving. The country is home to over 500 indigenous grape varieties, with Saperavi (red) and Rkatsiteli (white) being among the most prominent. Georgian wines are celebrated for their diversity and distinctiveness, with both traditional qvevri wines and modern styles being produced. Wine tourism has also grown significantly, attracting visitors eager to explore the rich history and culture of Georgian winemaking.So, Who Produced Wine First?Saperavi wine tasting in Kakheti, Georgia, photograph by Ashley White, 2022The question of which country made wine first, Georgia or Armenia, is a subject of ongoing debate among archaeologists and historians. Both countries have strong claims based on archaeological evidence and historical records.Georgias ClaimAs previously mentioned, Georgia is often referred to as the cradle of wine. The country has archaeological evidence suggesting that wine production dates back to around 6000-5000 BCE. Discoveries in the village of Shulaveri include qvevri which contained grape seeds and residues, indicating early winemaking. The use of qvevri has been passed down through millennia and is a significant part of the countrys winemaking tradition.Armenias ClaimArmenia also has a compelling claim to being one of the first winemaking regions. The Areni-1 cave complex, discovered in the Vayots Dzor region, contains evidence of a 6,100-year-old winery, which includes fermentation vats, a wine press, storage jars, and even a drinking bowl. This discovery is one of the oldest known wineries in the world and suggests that Armenians were making wine around the same time or even earlier than the evidence found in Georgia.Part of the Areni 1 cave, Armenia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCurrent UnderstandingGeorgia: The evidence of winemaking in Georgia dates to around 6000-5000 BCE with the discovery of ancient qvevri.Armenia: The Areni-1 cave complex, dating to approximately 6100 BCE, contains some of the earliest definitive evidence of a complete wine-making setup.While the exact timeline remains a topic of debate, it is generally accepted that both Georgia and Armenia are among the earliest regions to develop winemaking, with each having significant archaeological evidence to support their claims. The precise determination of who made wine first might not be conclusively resolved, but it is clear that both cultures have ancient and rich winemaking traditions that are among the oldest in the world, and therefore it is important for any wine lover to go back to the source and enjoy a glass of wine in either of these beautiful countries.

I've always loved MMOs. I've plowed hours into exploring every corner of Azeroth, and happily whiled away the days chilling by the Aetheryte in Limsa Lominsa, watching the world go by. But, with stellar single-player games like Clair Obscur: Expedition 33 and Baldur's Gate 3 occupying my time at the moment, I've fallen off of the MMO grindset and haven't quite found a reason to return to it. Enter Sword of Justice, Netease's gorgeous new Wuxia-inspired fantasy adventure. Having racked up over 40 million players in China during its first month alone, the team confirms that it's coming to the West, and it's about to ruin my attempts to clear my Steam backlog. Continue reading Gorgeous Wuxia inspired MMO Sword of Justice is coming to the WestMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best MMOs, Best free MMOs, Best multiplayer games

What are the Elden Ring Nightreign system requirements? In a surprising twist, the Elden Ring Nightreign system requirements almost mirror those of the original souls-like game. There are changes to the CPU requirements, but almost everything else is identical.The original Elden Ring system requirements were arguably low even for 2022, but the decision to apply a 60fps frame cap perhaps explained the decision. Now, with Elden Ring Nightreign finally out and available to play, you still won't need the best graphics card to enjoy this soulslike, but an upgrade to your CPU may be required. You can also check out the best Elden Ring Nightreign settings to see how the game performed in our tests on PC and the Steam Deck. Continue reading Elden Ring Nightreign system requirementsMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best graphics card, Best gaming PC, Best SSD for gaming

What are the best Elden Ring Nightreign settings for PC and Steam Deck? We're ready to step back into the world of Elden Ring, and this brutally hard Souls-like is simple enough to run on gaming PCs and handhelds alike, thanks to one rather limiting feature.The Elden Ring Nightreign system requirements surprised us, with very little changing from the release of Elden Ring back in 2022. This means you won't need the best GPU to get great performance, but an awkward 60fps frame cap prevents you from achieving super high frame rates at launch anyway. Continue reading Best Elden Ring Nightreign settings for PC and Steam DeckMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best graphics card, Best gaming PC, Best SSD for gaming

With its move away from the originals open-world RPG format, Elden Ring Nightreign was always going to divide opinion somewhat. Rather than a sweeping, fantasy epic, the three-player co-op game is a frantic dash for gear, leading into a challenging boss rush where you're being herded by a Fortnite-style circle of flame. It strips away the gradual, player-driven character progression of base Elden Ring in favor of fixed classes, placing the focus on quick, roguelike-style runs. Instead of its dramatic change in focus, however, so far, it's Nightreign's missing features that are actually proving the real killer reviews wise, dooming it to an initial rating of 'mixed.' Continue reading Elden Ring Nightreign Steam reviews are mixed, making it From's worst-rated gameMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Elden Ring Nightreign review, Elden Ring Nightreign class, Elden Ring Nightreign bosses