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Napoleon Bonaparte dominated the landscape of Europe as his French Empire expanded across the continent. Napoleon is one of the most studied personalities in modern history. Indeed, historian David Bell did not exaggerate when he mentioned that biographies of Napoleon written between 1995 and 2015 alone could collapse many a bookshelf (2019, xix).It is no surprise, then, that virtually every aspect of the life of Napoleon has been analyzed and often romanticized or mythologized. This article explores the facts and legends associated with Napoleon through 13 places that shaped his life.1. Life of Napoleon: Maison Bonaparte (Ajaccio, France)Photograph of a Map of Corsica, 1740 in the Maison Bonaparte Museum, Ajaccio, photograph by Sailko, 2019. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNapoleon Bonaparte, the second son of Carlo and Letizia Buonaparte, was born in this house in Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15, 1769. He and his seven siblings grew up in this family home. His parents supported Corsican rebel Pasquale Paolis uprisings against Genoese and French rule.However, by the time Napoleon was born, they had made peace with the islands new French rulers. According to historian Andrew Roberts, Napoleon would benefit from the recognition of his fathers noble lineage in 1771. In 1770, the islands French governor, the Comte de Marbeuf, declared that any Corsican who could prove two centuries worth of aristocratic lineage would receive the same recognition as French nobles (2014, 9).His familys recognized noble lineage and close ties to Marbeuf paved the way for Napoleons education in France. Although initially determined to become a major player in Corsican politics in the early 1790s, Napoleon and his family were forced to flee the island in June 1793 because they were on the wrong side of the islands political current.Today, the house is a museum and the highlight of any Napoleonic-themed itinerary in Ajaccio.2. Brienne-le-Chteau (France) and Its Role in the Life of NapoleonPhotograph of Napoleon as a Young Student Statue outside the City Hall of Brienne-le-Chteau, France, photograph by Lantus, 2020. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe north-central French town of Brienne-le-Chteau played a key role in Napoleons life. In fact, his legendary military career began and nearly ended in Brienne.Napoleon enrolled at the public school of Brienne in 1779 and embarked on a career path in the French military. According to David Bell, Napoleon spent five years at Brienne, which was the defining moment of his childhood (2019, 16-17).Napoleon returned to Brienne in 1814. At this point, his enemies were closing in on the retreating French forces during the war of the Sixth Coalition.On January 29, 1814, however, Napoleons troops defeated Prussian and Russian forces in the Battle of Brienne. The French captured the chteau and nearly caught the Prussian commander, Blcher, but could not force the Russians out of Brienne.According to historian Jonathan Sutherland, Russian Cossacks nearly captured Napoleon, but French general Gaspard Gourgaud saved the emperor (2003, 93).Today, the former military academy where Napoleon studied houses the Muse Napolon, which has exhibits on both Napoleons school days and the 1814 battle. Brienne is also home to an unusual monument to Napoleon.Most monuments and busts of Napoleon depict him as a conquering general or even in the style of a Roman emperor. However, Brienne has a statue of Napoleon as a young student, commemorating his school years in the town.3. Toulon (France) as a Key Location in the Life of NapoleonPhotograph of the Tour Royale, Toulon, photograph by SiefkinDR, 2010. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRemarkably, Napoleon experienced his first taste of battle and became a general in the same year, 1793, when he was only 24 years old. That year, French Royalists, supported by British, Spanish, Neapolitan, and Piedmontese forces, captured the strategic port city of Toulon.By the summer of 1793, the French Republic, born out of the French Revolution, appeared on the verge of collapse, and Toulons fall was just one example of this crisis. As historian Robert Forczyk points out, strategic threats plagued Frances revolutionary regime from virtually every sector. French armies were reeling from defeats in Germany and Belgium. Moreover, the country faced invasion threats from Austrian, British, and Spanish forces from Dunkirk to Perpignan. On top of this foreign onslaught, Royalists revolted in the Vende region (2005, 7).In short, French revolutionaries desperately needed a decisive victory over the invading forces and a new military hero. The young, virtually unknown artillery officer that history remembers simply as Napoleon would fulfill that role. Napoleon helped dramatically reverse the French Republics military situation at Toulon and ultimately secured the citys recapture.Many of Toulons fortifications can still be seen today. However, Robert Forczyk notes that few of these sites are open to the public. This is partly because Toulon remains the home of Frances Mediterranean Fleet (2005, 91).David Bell notes that Napoleons rise was extraordinary even amid the French Revolution, when many young, talented officers became generals based on merit. Bell points out that the average age of newly promoted French generals in the 1790s was just 33 (2019, 22).4. The Life of Napoleon & Church of Saint-Roche (Paris, France)Attack on the National Convention. Royalist insurrection of 13 Vendmiaire Year IV (October 5, 1795), shooting in front of the Saint-Roch church, engraving Abraham Girardet. Etching by Pierre Gabriel Berthault. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Museum of the French Revolution, VizilleNapoleons role in the significant victory at Toulon in 1793 did not result in a prominent command. For instance, David Bell notes that as late as 1795, Napoleon sought foreign employment, including in the Ottoman army (2019, 21). However, by late 1795, turmoil in Revolutionary France would once again present the young Napoleon with an opportunity to build upon his fame secured at Toulon.Conservatives demanding a return to constitutional monarchy rose in revolt against the revolutionary government in October 1795. Defense of the government and streets of Paris from this royalist uprising fell to Paul Barras.Barras had been instrumental in securing Napoleons position with the army at Toulon in 1793. As David Bell notes, he again called on Napoleon to defend Frances revolutionary republic. On October 5, 1795, Napoleon organized the successful defense of Paris from the royalist uprising, which left hundreds dead and wounded (2019, 23).One of the most famous scenes in the legend of Napoleons career involves his actions on that bloody day in October 1795. According to this story, Napoleon placed cannons near the Church of Saint-Roch on the Rue Saint-Honor in central Paris and fired on a mob of royalist insurgents. This was the so-called Whiff of Grapeshot, which decisively crushed the revolt.Many historians, including David Bell, argue that this story is likely a myth (2019, 23). However, Napoleons role in crushing the rebellion is beyond dispute. As a result, Napoleon received an important promotion and secured jobs for some of his brothers.5. Lodi (Italy)General Bonaparte giving orders at the Battle of Lodi, by Louis-Franois, Baron Lejeune, 1804. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Palace of VersaillesAccording to David Bell, Napoleon, while in exile, said it was only after his victory at Lodi did I believe myself to be a superior man, and did the ambition come to me of executing the great things which so far had been occupying my thoughts only as a fantastic dream (2019, 27).Indeed, Napoleons dreams did not match the grim reality he faced upon taking command of Frances Army of Italy in 1796. Designed as a sideshow to the main theater of operations against the Austrians in Germany, Frances government, the Directory, did not expect much from the campaign in northern Italy directed against Austria and Piedmont.However, Napoleons boundless energy and signs of his brilliance as a commander rapidly altered Frances position in northern Italy. In a matter of weeks, Napoleons troops knocked Piedmont out of the war and forced the Austrian army to retreat.By early May 1796, Napoleons objective of seizing Milan from the Austrians was within reach. French and Austrian forces met once again on the battlefield at Lodi on May 10, 1796.Napoleon and his fellow officers displayed great courage, leading their troops from the front and seizing a bridge that the Austrians heavily defended. Andrew Roberts notes that while he won larger and more significant victories in his career, Lodi was, according to Napoleon, where he realized he was a man called upon to decide the fate of peoples (2014, 91).6. The Life of Napoleon & Spinetta Marengo (Italy)The Battle of Marengo 1800, by Louis-Franois, Baron Lejeune, 1802. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Palace of VersaillesNapoleon built upon the momentum of his victories in Italy in 1796 and 1797 by leading a French invasion of Ottoman Egypt in 1798. Although it was a largely unsuccessful campaign, Napoleon soon took advantage of turbulent affairs in France to topple the unpopular government known as the Directory in November 1799.France and Austria resumed fighting in 1799/1800 as part of the War of the Second Coalition. Northern Italy, Switzerland, and much of Germany became a battleground for French and Austrian armies.Although he now governed France as First Consul, Napoleon was determined to lead the main French forces in battle against the Austrians in northern Italy. He led a daring march across treacherous Alpine passes to surprise Austrian troops.Austrian forces quickly regained the initiative and attacked Napoleon sooner than he anticipated. Jonathan Sutherland notes that the Austrians nearly defeated Napoleon at Marengo in June 1800. However, the timely arrival of reinforcements under General Louis Desaix saved the day for the French (2003, 24).The town of Spinetta Marengo houses a museum dedicated to the battle.Napoleon Crossing the Alps, by Jacques-Louis David, 1801. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Charlottenburg Palace, BerlinThe campaign also highlighted Napoleons skillful use of art and media for propaganda. For example, Napoleons crossing of the Alps was immortalized in the legendary portrait by Jacques-Louis David. While David depicts Napoleon heroically mounted on horseback in the painting, David Bell notes that he actually crossed the Alps wrapped in a blanket and rode a donkey (2019, 52).7. Slavkov u Brna (Austerlitz), CzechiaThe Battle of Austerlitz, 2nd December 1805, by Franois Grard, 1810. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNapoleons greatest victory occurred at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. That December day marked the first anniversary of Napoleons coronation as Emperor of the French.Austria and Russia, two members of the Third Coalition against Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, organized armies in hopes of defeating Napoleon and retaking territory in Germany from the French.The Austrian and Russian allies failed to coordinate their campaign strategy and did not anticipate Napoleons quick movements. For example, David Bell points out that Napoleon surprised and forced one Austrian army to surrender at Ulm in southern Germany in October 1805 (2019, 72).After capturing Vienna in November, Napoleon set out to destroy the remaining Austrian and Russian forces. The battle would come to be known as the Battle of the Three Emperors as Napoleon faced the combined forces of Emperor Francis I of Austria and Tsar Alexander I of Russia.Napoleons decisive defeat of Austrian and Russian forces at Austerlitz brought Austria back to the negotiating table. David Bell explains that the Peace of Pressburg forced Austria out of the war and dissolved the Holy Roman Empire (2019, 73).Battlefield sites are scattered around the vicinity of the city of Brno, including Slavkov u Brna.8. Jena (Germany) and Its Role in the Life of NapoleonThe Evening at Jena, by douard Detaille, 1894. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNapoleon followed up his victory at Austerlitz by dealing a decisive blow against Prussia in October 1806. Prussia hesitated to enter the coalition against Napoleon in 1805 but now joined Russia in the war against France. Napoleons expanding influence in Germany and a patriotic fervor at the Prussian court and among many officers led King Frederick William III to war against France.As David Bell points out, Frederick Williams decision proved disastrous for Prussia. Of the roughly 171,000 troops arrayed against Napoleon, the French killed, wounded, or captured all but 6,000 in the twin battles of Jena and Auerstadt (2019, 77).While Napoleon crushed one Prussian army at Jena in October 1806, French Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout routed a far superior force at Auerstadt on the same day.Although Napoleon praised Davouts impressive victory over the main Prussian force, Andrew Roberts says he was careful not to celebrate Auerstadt publicly (2014, 421). Like Davids painting of the daring Alpine crossing in 1800, Napoleon was again careful to control his image and the narrative surrounding the successful campaign of 1806.Thus, Jena remains one of Napoleons legendary victories despite the significance of Davouts victory at Auerstadt on the same day.Napoleon surveyed Jenas battlefield from Landgrafenberg Hill. Andrew Roberts believes it is still a good place to see the battlefields main features (2014, 418). A museum dedicated to the 1806 battles of Jena and Auerstadt is located in Cospeda.9. Leipzig (Germany)Photograph of the Battle of the Nations Monument, Leipzig, Germany, photograph by BonAlex, 2016. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlong with French disasters in Spain and Russia, Napoleons road to ultimate defeat passed through Germany in 1813.While Waterloo is undoubtedly one of historys most famous battles, it was not even the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars. That distinction goes to the October 1813 Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of the Nations. At that point, Leipzig was the largest battle in European history until World War I.Napoleon fought a debilitating campaign in Germany in 1813 against a coalition army of Austrians, Russians, Prussians, and Swedes. Heavy losses weakened both camps, although neither could inflict a decisive defeat.According to Jonathan Sutherland, by October, some of Napoleons German allies, like Bavaria, joined the coalition against the French (2003, 88). Over three days in October 1813, David Bell notes that 500,000 soldiers clashed at Leipzig. The opposing sides would suffer over 100,000 casualties (2019, 99).As Sutherland points out, already in retreat, French engineers early bridge demolition led to further French losses, including Marshal Poniatowskis death (2003, 89).The fighting now shifted to French soil, which resulted in Napoleons first abdication the following year, in 1814.Leipzig became a powerful symbol of German nationalism and unity on the road to German Unification and the rise of Imperial Germany in the 1860s/1870s. Today, the battlefield includes a massive monument dedicated during the battles centennial in 1913.10. Route Napolon (France)Photograph of the equestrian statue of Napoleon by Emmanuel Frmiet, 1868, by DeuxDeTension, 2006. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn late February 1815, Napoleon escaped from exile on the island of Elba and sailed for France in hopes of reclaiming his throne. Three days later, they landed safely in France near Cannes and began an inland march on Paris, uncertain of how they would be received by the French people and forces loyal to the restored Bourbon monarchy of King Louis XVIII.Napoleon and his followers from Elba faced a tense encounter with Bourbon troops at Laffrey on March 7, 1815. As David Bell notes, troops loyal to Napoleon and those of King Louis XVIII were largely veterans of Napoleons campaigns. As a standoff threatened bloodshed, Napoleon called out that he recognized the unit called on to defeat him. His charisma won over these potential enemies and soon paved the way for a return to power (2019, 2-3).Today, the Route Napolon traces sites connected to Napoleons dramatic return to power during the Hundred Days. This 200-mile (325-km) stretch of road links Napoleons landing site at Golfe-Juan on the Cte dAzur to Grenoble.11. Waterloo Battlefield, Braine-lAlleud (Belgium)Photograph of the Battle of Waterloo Reenactment, 195th anniversary, 2010. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEuropean powers formed the Seventh Coalition to contest Napoleons return to power in early 1815. Andrew Uffindell and Michael Corum point out that two armies formed in present-day Belgium to defeat the French. The Duke of Wellington commanded a force of British troops joined by contingents from the United Netherlands and the German states of Hanover, Brunswick, and Nassau. A second army of Prussians was led by Field Marshal Gebhard von Blcher (2003, 7-8).Time was critical for Napoleons slim chances of victory. Each month brought the potential for massive reinforcements in the form of Russian and Austrian troops to join Wellington and Blchers armies.Napoleon struck quickly, hoping to keep the two armies apart and defeat them piecemeal. This strategy had worked in the past, dating back to Napoleons first victorious campaign against the Austrians and Piedmontese in 1796.Despite minor successes over the British and Prussians, the French could not inflict a decisive defeat on either army. Napoleon aimed to crush Wellingtons army before it could link up with the Prussians at Waterloo on June 18, 1815.As Uffindell and Corum note, Wellingtons army suffered staggering casualties but repelled repeated French attacks (2003, 9). However, Blchers timely arrival late in the day sealed Napoleons fate.As Uffindell and Corum explain, the Lion Mound monument dominates the battlefield. It is situated where one of Wellingtons commanders, the Dutch royal heir Prince William of Orange, was wounded (2003, 17).12. Napoleon in Exile: Elba (Italy) and Saint HelenaPhotograph of Napoleons residence on Saint Helena, Longwood House, by Michel Dancoisne-Martineau, 2008. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNapoleons enemies agreed to a plan to exile the former French emperor to the tiny Mediterranean island of Elba in August 1814.If his enemies, meeting to redraw the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna, believed the 45-year-old Napoleon would retire peacefully, they were in for an unpleasant surprise.As historian Alexander Mikaberidze explains, Napoleon was well-informed of developments in France during his exile on Elba (2020, 603). He recognized that the restored Bourbon monarchy was unpopular and vulnerable. In late February 1815, Napoleon and his loyal followers evaded detection and sailed for France.Napoleons dramatic escape from Elba, return to power, and renewal of hostilities during the Hundred Days in 1815 prompted a stronger response from the victorious Seventh Coalition. While Napoleon hoped to be exiled to rural England, he was ordered to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic.Andrew Roberts notes that Saint Helena was a British possession managed by the British East India Company. The volcanic island is over 700 miles from the nearest land (2014, 781).As Andrew Roberts points out, Napoleon died on May 5, 1821, and was initially buried on the island about a mile from his residence (2014, 801).It is possible to visit the residences where Napoleon lived in exile on Elba and Saint Helena.13. Napoleons Tomb, Htel des Invalides, Paris, FrancePhotograph of Napoleons Tomb, Dome of Invalides, Paris, France by Diego Delso. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNapoleons memory and legacy remained a potent political force in France for decades after he died in exile. Known as Bonapartists, Napoleons admirers supported his descendants and former senior officials from the First Empire in a bitter political battle in 19th-century France.An embattled King Louis-Philippe attempted to gain popularity by permitting the return of Napoleons remains to Paris in 1840. Andrew Roberts notes that on the day of the funeral, an estimated one million people lined the streets of Paris to catch a glimpse of the procession. The date was rich with symbolism: December 2, the anniversary of Napoleons coronation and his greatest victory at Austerlitz (2014, 801).Napoleons remains were entombed in a massive sarcophagus at the Htel des Invalides. David Bell points out that the tomb is cut in the shape of a great wave (2019, 114).Louis-Philippes reign did not survive Europes next wave of revolutionary turmoil in 1848. His successor, Napoleons nephew Louis-Napoleon, would soon style himself Emperor Napoleon III.References and Further ReadingBell, D.A. (2019). Napoleon: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.Forczyk, R. (2005). Toulon 1793: Napoleons First Great Victory. Osprey.Mikaberidze, A. (2020). The Napoleonic Wars: A Global History. Oxford University Press.Roberts, A. (2014). Napoleon the Great. Penguin.Sutherland, J. (2003). Vital Guide: Napoleonic Battles. Airlife.Uffindell, A, & Corum, M. (2003). Battleground Europe Waterloo: The Battlefield Guide. Leo Cooper.

The medieval village was more than a scattering of homes; it was a tightly knit ecosystem of people, animals, land, and customs. To understand it is to glimpse the rhythms of medieval life not from the perspective of kings or nobles, but from those whose hands worked the soil and whose survival depended on cooperation. It is not as simple as wooden tiny houses with packed dirt tracks where everything was dirty, as often seen in films such as Monty Python, historical fiction, or modern recreations.Cosmeston Medieval Village, photo by Missy. Source: FlickrThese villages contained numerous fields and small farms that were worked for food. These houses would be small with multi-generational families, and centered around a religious location. The layouts of these villages and the activities that took place there can be seen through architectural evidence. Fields would be carefully plotted, plowed and cultivated. Without an easy resource of supermarkets or mass-produced goods one year of poor or rancid crops could devastate an entire village. For example, ergotism, a disease contracted through a fungus that could contaminate rye bread and was common in that time period. It caused stomach issues and neurological problems including hallucinations and convulsions, and even gangrene.Other important factors in the setup of a village included nearby resources such as woods for firewood, fields or meadows for their animals to graze, and water.How Villagers Governed ThemselvesIlluminated manuscript. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLords were often the higher up powers of medieval villages, unlike in larger cities where there were more inherent freedoms. Some towns, usually the ones who were financially well off or able to grow through commerce, were able to purchase a royal charter meaning they were not under a lord and could make their own laws, have their own town governing, and taxes. They often had city councils that advised on decisions, and were elected by the upper class and always male.The towns that gained independence could also blossom into bigger (still small by todays standards) cities that would produce and sell goods. The sales of these items were often overseen and under the power of guilds.These merchant and craft guilds controlled work hours, pricing, and complaints. Members owed dues and it kept other people from being able to break into businesses, such as furniture making. To be a part of the guild a child became an apprentice and learned the trade over years of working for free, although sometimes their families were given money.Labor Divisions by Class and GenderManuscript image of a Treadmill Crane, c. 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLife in a medieval village was defined by work. Men were often the ones who labored outside, planting, plowing, and harvesting crops that fed everyone. However, women were not regulated to the side within Medieval villages. While certainly there were expectations of women minding the home versus being out in the world, that wasnt always feasible. Even women who were queens or of a noble rank were able to take power for themselves.House and stocks in the Medieval Village Cosmeston, Wales. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the larger towns women were, often left out of these narratives of guild and trade history, or mentioned as an afterthought. As is often the case, extant written records of women are few and far between, according to contemporary medieval scholar Eulalia Piebakere. In villages everyone was required to work to survive. If the fields needed to be harvested before the season ended and the crops went bad women worked alongside men and children outside of tending to the home.Peasants in villages or on land could be free or serfs. Serfs were not free in a traditional way, they were tied by laws and customs to the lords land. They owed labor on the lords fields and still had to work their own small piece. Anything they worked for the lord had to stay with the lord, borrowing, taking, or stealing could result in fines among worse punishments.Village Economies and Agricultural PracticesMonk Gardening by Carl Gustaf Hellqvist. Source: Gothenburg Museum of ArtPeople were important, but agriculture was the heart and soul of village life. These fields would be completed in waves of spring and winter crops, with some time off to allow the ground to recover the nutrients and minerals that get depleted growing the crops. They used other means to enrich the fields including adding chalk, lime, and manure as a way to boost the soil, similar to how manure is used as fertilizer today.Grains were a prominent part of the European diet in the medieval ages. This included wheat, which was essential for baking bread, barley, rye, and oats. While most of the crops were needed to feed families and store food for the winter or other hard times, excess was sold for goods they could not produce themselves. Some villagers werent just tilling farms, but worked specialized skills needed to keep villages running including carpentry, blacksmiths, and brewing ale.How Medieval Villages EvolvedPope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, from Livre des Passeges dOutre-mer, c. 1474. Source: Galicia Digital LibraryDespite potential isolation, medieval villages were always in a state of change. While uncontrollable events such as a bad harvest could affect their life, nothing changed the comfort of many quite like the dramatic upheaval in the 14th century.The Black Plague swept westward through Europe. While smaller-scale plagues and diseases had ravaged areas and towns before nothing prepared them for this. Villages lost entire family lines, and populations that were densely packed could lose half of the people.These deaths weakened the previous structural classes. With so many deaths, the original serf structure was no longer sustainable. This led to the upward mobility of many former peasants.Medieval Market scene, 15th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsStill, many debated whether these village communities became cohesive or fragmented. Contemporary historian Miriam Muller proposed that economic stress, shifting inheritance practices, and class tensions fractured solidarity. Yet the need for community buildings and practices, including religion and harvesting, kept them bound together.These people were the backbone of the medieval era. Though the great lords and monarchs of the Middle Ages often dominate our histories, it was in these small communities that the true story of survival was written. Fields plowed, bread baked, ale brewed, and disputes settled, were the reality of everyday life.

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