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Dark matter, as its name suggests, is really dark, so dark in fact that it doesnt interact in any way with light or any other part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Even thought it makes up about 80 percent of all matter in the universe and plays a vital role in galaxy formation we still dont really know what it is. Of all the methods and techniques used to try and unravel this mystery, never would I think I would be writing about the Moon and how it could help us. However, a new piece of research suggests that future missions to the far side of the Moon could help us determine the mass of individual dark matter particles.

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Elizabeth I lived through some incredibly turbulent times. There was the state-sanctioned murder of her mother when she was just a toddler, her fathers many failed marriages and the resultant comings and goings of a parade of stepmothers, and then the dynastic firebomb that was her fathers death. One man wanted to steer her future and take her influence and political power for himself. That man was the brother of one of her stepmothers, the uncle of her younger brother, and a man destined to die in the same place her mother did: Thomas Seymour.Seymour, Using Age and Charm as a WeaponElizabeth I, by Henry Bone, 1815. Source: Getarchive.netBefore Thomas Seymour ever wreaked havoc in Elizabeths life, he had his sights set on her stepmother, Katherine Parr, who was much closer to his age. Lets rewind a bitback to 1547 when Seymour decided to test his luck with the then 13-year-old Elizabeth.Fresh off his broken fling with the recently widowed Katherine (who had, in the ultimate plot twist, ended up marrying Henry VIII instead), Seymour sent Elizabeth a marriage proposal. Was this a power play? Was this a ploy to make Katherine jealous for choosing king and country over her heart? It was terrible timing as Elizabeth was in mourning for her father. The tyrant king had died just a year earlier, but that didnt stop Seymour from making his move.Edward VI, Circle of William Scotts, 16th century. Source: SothebysElizabeth, ever sharp even in those formative years, politely rejected the proposal, claiming she was too young and had obligations in mourning for her father. A slick and reasoned response from a girl who had probably seen more political maneuvering by age 13 than most people see in a lifetime.Seymour was more than two decades older than Elizabetha seasoned 38 to her fresh-faced 13. The age difference didnt seem to bother him one bit and, to be fair, it wasnt unheard of in Tudor England among the noble echelon. You have to admire Elizabeths poise; she didnt just brush him off, she did it diplomatically, writing her refusal in a letter her tutor would have been proud of.Seymour, however, wasnt someone to hear no and believe it to be a final answer. He came from quite the background: the fourth of six strapping sons born to Sir John Seymour and Margery Wentworth, he boasted royal blood through descent from Edward III (yes, that Edward III, the warrior king from the 1300s). His family had a solid reputation and was firmly ensconced within the court. His father had been knighted by Henry VII after the Battle of Blackheath, and Thomas himself was knighted in 1537quite the rsum, if he hadnt been, well, rather full of it.Portrait of Thomas Seymour, by Nicholas Denizot, 1547-9. Source: Art UKHe managed to carve out a comfortable existence, snatching up monastic land after the Dissolution and getting knighted, but he was always aiming for moreparticularly in the form of power through proximity to the throne. When he fell for the widowed and wealthy Katherine Parr in 1543, she ended up marrying Henry VIII instead. As Jane Dunn puts it in Elizabeth & Mary, Katherine had sacrificed her heart for the sake of duty.Clearly, Seymour was not someone who was comfortable with knowing his place. This is when his eyes wandered to the middle school-aged Elizabeth (though middle school itself, or any state-mandated education, was a concept far in the future for Tudor folks). His charm, coupled with his older, experienced man act, was less a romantic gesture and more a weapon to wield for power. Katherines rejection of him to become Englands queen hadnt knocked him down, so Elizabeths well-written refusal certainly didnt either. Instead, he just got a little more creative and a lot more reckless.Seymour, Destroyer of Elizabeths Only Happy Home LifeWaxworks of King Henry VIIIs Court, photo by Ann Longmore-Etheridge. Source: FlickrBefore Thomas Seymour came barreling into Elizabeths world, things were actually kind of nice for once. Thanks to her stepmother, Katherine Parr, Elizabeth was finally starting to feel like part of a real family after years of being sent from court and ignored by her father. Katherine had achieved something remarkableshed managed to reconcile Henry VIII with his three children: Mary, Elizabeth, and Edward, despite his ire toward two of their three mothers.This wasnt just some family squabble patched over tea and biscuits and savvy Katherine knew it. Katherines efforts had massive implications for the Tudor era. It was under her influence that Henry restored Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession, a move that put both women back in the running for the throne, though firmly behind Edward and any children Henry and Katherine would potentially produce together.This new consort, who had experience stepmothering children from a previous marriage, basically glued the family back together from scattered shards. Elizabeth, at long last, had a woman in her life who could be trusted.Catherine Parr, late 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKatherine Parr wasnt just playing house and coddling the tykes. She was one of the few strong and learned female leaders Elizabeth had ever known, for which the young girl admired her deeply. When Henry went off to battle in France, he left Katherine as regent, something hed only trusted one other woman to doessentially putting her as the highest arbiter in the land. It was a power move that made it clear to both Elizabeth and Mary that a woman could rule, and queenship could be effective. Lets be honest, in a time when strong, empowered female role models werent exactly growing on trees in the English countryside, this was huge.Elizabeths feelings for Katherine were best summed up in her letters and by her own words. In one, written after shed been hastily sent away, Elizabeth poured her heart out to her stepmother. She spent most of the missive apologizing for not expressing her gratitude properly during their goodbye because she was replete with sorrow at having to leave Katherines side.The letter practically screams confusion and heartbreak, but it also shows just how much she valued Katherines opinion and their connection. Katherine, after all, had been a positive force in Elizabeths life, encouraging her love of learning, and her growing Protestant faith. Elizabeth was a Boleyn by birth, with all the sharp wit and ambition of the mother she never really knew, and Katherine seemed to nurture those qualities instead of finding shame in them.Sudeley Castle, where Elizabeth I Lived With Katherine and Thomas. Source: GeographBut then along came Thomas Seymour, charming his way into Katherines heart once again. It is clear Katherine adored Seymour during this early period of their secret courtship and marriage, maybe even blindly. She suffered a lot to be with him including the scorn of her two other stepchildren from the king. When she made a home with him, Elizabeth went with her, and this was the beginning of the end for Elizabeths sense of a steady family.Katherine seemed to look the other way as her husband roughhoused with and made visits to Elizabeths bed chamber only half dressed in the morningsthough no one should forget that his sporting behavior was toward a young lady he had recently proposed to before this union with Katherine.However, as her husbands antics with the young princess became impossible to ignorelike the time she walked in on Elizabeth in his arms in what was deemed an embraceKatherine was forced to face reality. When she finally woke up to what was happening, she acted quickly, sending Elizabeth away.Thomas Seymour miniature, 16th century. Source: Royal Greenwich MuseumsElizabeths reaction? Utterly heartbroken and confused. Her letter after the abrupt dismissal from the household is packed with words of hurt and sorrow. She was desperate for reassurance that Katherine still cared about her, despite all the tumult. The whole situation wasnt just awkwardit was scandalous. Even by the standards of Tudor England, people were side-eyeing the entire affair, whispering, This is not okay.Katherines home had once been a haven for Elizabeth. Under her stepmothers watchful eye, Elizabeth was thriving intellectually and emotionally, soaking up Katherines strength as a leader alongside Jane Grey. Then, thanks to Seymours meddling, that peaceful and quiet female sanctuary was shattered. Katherine, who had likely convinced herself that everything was fine for far too long, ended up sacrificing Elizabeth in the venture to keep her marriage and the pregnancy within it respectable. It was a harsh lesson for Elizabethone she would never forgetand it solidified in her mind the need to protect her own reputation at all costs.Rumors of Marriage and PregnancyWomen with babies, detail from a painting in a Larvik Church, by Lucas Cranach, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhat is a royal dust up without a bit of juicy gossip for the people to mull over? As this was before television, the royal rumor mill was the Netflix of the day. During the height of the Thomas Seymour debacle, wild tales circulated that Elizabeth might have been pregnant with Seymours child. Take a pause here to appreciate the sheer audacity of that claim. At the time, Elizabeth was just 14 years old, and while Seymour had clearly crossed some inappropriate lines, the idea that theyd managed to carry on a secret affair and produce a child was almost too outlandish to believe. Almost.Many historians have chalked up these rumors to nothing more than slanderous attempts to ruin Seymour, who, by then, had already done a fine job of digging his own grave. Elizabeths ruin then was just a byproduct of the bid to take down Thomas. After all, this was the same fellow who tried (and failed) to kidnap King Edward VIan act so reckless that even the mucky mucks in power, including his own brother, were eager to see his head roll. Did they really need to throw in a scandalous pregnancy accusation for good measure? Probably not. After all, Thomas had shot and killed the boy-kings beloved pup.In her book Elizabeth: Virgin Queen? Philippa Jones dives into some of these theories, suggesting that Elizabeth may have had not just one, but multiple illegitimate children. According to Jones, there is a possibility that Elizabeth could have had a baby with Thomas Seymourand then later, perhaps more with her lifelong favorite, Robert Dudley.Teenage Elizabeth I, by William Scrots, 1546. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNow, to be fair, this theory of Elizabeth being a mother has never exactly held up under a microscope. As much as people love to speculate, keeping a royal pregnancy under wraps (especially one that involved a princess as scrutinized as Elizabeth) shouldve been impossible. Were talking about court in Tudor Englanda place where you couldnt sneeze without someone noting it in a letter sent to other bastions of power abroad. And yes, there is evidence of people attempting to pay servants and ladies for information about Elizabeths periods. Therefore, the idea of hiding an entire pregnancy and birth is a bit of a stretch.Even once Elizabeth became queen, this secret would have been bound to leak at some point; though proponents of the Elizabeth-and-Thomas-baby theory would argue, Maybe it did.That being said, it is no surprise that people believed such rumors about the princess. Elizabeth was Anne Boleyns daughter, and in the eyes of the Tudors, she became stained with her mothers supposed treachery. Annes rumored witchcraft followed her everywhere, and the belief in the bad seed theorywhere sin is supposedly passed down from parent to child like a genetic diseasewas rampant.Elizabeths quick wit and political maneuvering may have saved her from the worst of the Seymour scandal, but her already shaky reputation plummeted. And, for a young princess whose mother was the most infamous woman in Christendom, many were looking for an excuse to condemn her.Anne Boleyn, Hever Castle Portrait, c. 1550. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHolding her own in the face of interrogations conducted by grown men, Elizabeth emerged from the whole mess with her head held high but her name somewhat bruised. To restore her standing, she spent the remainder of her brother Edwards reign emphasizing her piety and respectability. Plain clothing, prayer book in handit was Elizabeths way of saying, Behold my unimpeachable innocence.Did any of these rumors about pregnancy or secret children ever hold any water? Modern historians pretty much agree: not likely. They dismiss the gossip as little more than the usual court speculation designed to bring down powerful figuresbecause when youre on top, people just love to watch you tumble.Downfall of Thomas Seymour and Elizabeths ReactionEdward VI, c. 1546. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen Thomas Seymours life finally imploded, it was nothing short of a train wreck. And Elizabeth? She knew how to keep her cool in the face of chaos. After all, she was both Tudor and Boleyn and had lived through the execution of one stepmother and the divorce of another. So, when Thomas was finally sent to the executioners scaffold, what did Elizabeth reportedly say? This day died a man of much wit and very little judgment. Talk about a sharp-tongued epitaphthough it is probably apocryphal.Now, some historians, like Elizabeth Jenkins in Elizabeth the Great, argue that even if those words werent actually Elizabeths, they likely captured her feelings perfectly. She may have kept a stiff upper lip, but no one doubted the emotion simmering just beneath her stoic exterior. Her father had a temper for the ages, one that made his favor, and the revoking of it, the stuff of legends. Elizabeth had it too, but earned the respect of those watching her closely by keeping it mostly under wraps.Yet up until the very end, there was reason to believe Seymour might wiggle his way out of the mess of his making. He was the kings uncle and the brother of the Lord Protector. Hed fathered a child with the queen dowager. Surely, theyd spare him, right? Wrong. He was hit with 33 charges of treason. The only special treatment that came his way was when both his brother, Edward Seymour, and young King Edward VI delayed signing the death warrant.Executioners axe, Tower of London, photo by Serendigity. Source: FlickrHowever, the execution wasnt to be put off indefinitely. On March 20, 1549, Thomas Seymours head met the executioners axe. Unfortunately for him, it took two blows to get the job done.To make matters worse, his material possessions were returned to the Crown, the common practice with treasoners, and his fancy title of Baron of Sudeley was handed off to Katherine Parrs surviving brother. This left his daughter with Katherine, little Mary, whose mother had died of childbed fever, orphaned and without the funds to cover her needs.During life, being Lord High Admiral wasnt enough for Thomas, nor was being married to the previous Queen of Englandhe wanted power, real power, the kind his brother held as Lord Protector. One of Thomass final actions was his attempt to bribe Sir William Sharington, who was busy cooking the books at the Bristol Mint, so he could invest in a coup against his brother. This was classic Thomas, always aiming high and falling hard.It all fell apart at the end of 1548 when the Privy Council caught wind of his schemes. He was summoned to explain himself, but instead of laying low, he decided to go all-in on a wild plan to kidnap Edward VI (in the blown scheme in which he shot the boys dog).Elizabeth, however, wasnt about to get dragged down with him. She played it cool under interrogation, confirming only that yes, there had been gossip about her marrying Seymour, and yes, he had asked a few too intimate questions about her body and her finances. The emotional scars Seymour left behind were undeniable. His death marked the end of a tumultuous chapter in her life, but it also solidified her determination never to let herself be manipulated again.

Although Slovenia is one of Europes youngest countries, it has a rich history owing to its strategic location in the center of the continent. Over the centuries, what is now Slovenian territory has been part of the Roman Empire, Gothic and Slavic kingdoms, the Holy Roman Empire, the Venetian Republic, and Yugoslavia. Although the region witnessed some of the bloodiest fighting during the First World War, Slovenia is now a peaceful, independent state with a thriving tourism industry.Roman SloveniaNeanderthal flute, c. 60,000 BCE. Source: Tomaz Lauko, National Museum of SloveniaThe territory of what is now Slovenia was first inhabited some 250,000 years ago and boasts some of the most important prehistoric archaeological finds in Europe. A 60,000-year-old Neanderthal flute found at the Divje babe cave in 1995 is considered the oldest musical instrument in the world, while a 5,000-year-old wheel unearthed near Ljubljana in 2002 is also among the worlds oldest.During the 3rd century BCE, the area was inhabited by the Illyrians and the Celts, who formed a political entity known as the Kingdom of Noricum. The region was known for its iron production, which was used for Roman short swords. The foundation of the Roman city of Aquileia in 181 BCE paved the way for Roman expansion into what is now Slovenia. By the turn of the first millennium CE, the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire.Major Roman colonies in Slovenia include Emona, present-day Ljubljana, located on the banks of the Ljubljanica River, a major trade route linking the Adriatic with the Danube; Celeia in the center of the country, which was to become the important medieval settlement of Celje; and Poetovio, present-day Ptuj. The historian Tacitus states that it was from here that Legio XIII Gemina marched into Italy under the leadership of Marcus Antonius Primus and helped establish Flavius Vespasianus as emperor in 69 CE. In 2024, a Roman harbor was discovered off Portoroon the coast.The Arrival of the SlavsChurch of St Thomas, kofja Loka region, Slovenia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenAs the Roman Empire began to decline in the 4th century CE, a number of so-called Barbarian peoples, including the Visigoths, Huns, Ostrogoths, and Lombards, invaded Italy via Slovenia. As the Roman authorities abandoned the Slovenian colonies at the end of the 4th century, the Christian Church began playing a more important role in social and political life.By the early 6th century, the region was part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, founded by Theoderic the Great, but contested by both the Eastern Roman Empire and the Lombards. The mid-6th century saw two waves of Slavic migration into the eastern Alps. These Alpine Slavs were initially subject to rule by the Avars, but in 623, a successful revolt led by a Frankish merchant named Samo established the first Slavic state in history.Samos Empire was centered in Czechia and stretched from western Poland in the north to the Istrian peninsula in the south. The polity collapsed upon Samos death in 658. While the Slavs who lived north of the Karavanke Alps in what is now eastern Austria established the independent principality of Carantania, the Slavs in present-day Slovenia fell under Avar rule once again.Holy Roman EmpireOld Castle of Celje, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenIn 745 CE, the Slavs in Caratania and the surrounding regions sought protection from Bavaria in response to Avar attacks. The Bavarians themselves were vassals of the Frankish kingdom, which became the Holy Roman Empire when Charlemagne was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III in Rome on Christmas Day, 800 CE. Although the Slavs initially enjoyed autonomy in Caratania, by the early 9th century, the local Slavic princes gave way to a German ruling elite, and the land became known as Carinthia.The power struggles following the collapse of the Carolingian Empire were put to an end by Duke Otto of Saxony, who restored the Holy Roman Empire in 962. In 976, Carinthia was raised to a duchy, but in 1040, the southern part was split off into the March of Carniola, which encompassed much of present-day Slovenian territory. The lords of Carniola originally had their seat in the city of Kranj. Despite German overlordship, the people of Carniola continued to speak the Slavic vernacular that came to be known as Slovene.In 1279, Carinthia and Carniola were seized by Count Rudolf of Habsburg, Duke of Austria, who ruled Germany as king of the Romans between 1273 and 1291. While the Habsburgs went into temporary decline after Rudolfs death, they re-established control of the Eastern Alps in the 14th century, and in 1364, Rudolf IV declared Carniola as a duchy.Ljubljana Castle, Slovenia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenThe Habsburgs controlled Carniola from the castle at Laibach, now Ljubljana, but their power came to be challenged by the Counts of Celje in the early 15th century. Celje supported the cause of the House of Luxembourg, whose members ruled the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary and had also held the imperial crown. In 1405, Count Hermann II of Celje arranged the marriage of his daughter Barbara of Celje to King Sigismund of Hungary, the son of the late emperor Charles IV.Celjes fortunes improved as Sigismund was elected king of Germany in 1410, king of Bohemia in 1419, and crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433. In 1436, a year before his death, Sigismund made Hermanns son and grandson imperial princes. Hermanns grandson, Count Ulrich II, briefly became one of the most powerful men in Central Europe and served as regent of Hungary from 1452 to 1456. However, his assassination at the hands of the Hunyadi family brought an end to the male line of the House of Celje. At the time of his death, Ulrich controlled a third of the castles in present-day Slovenia.On the Habsburg FrontierPiran Town Square, Slovenia, photography by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenThe extinction of the House of Celje enabled the Habsburgs to regain control of the Slovenian territories, which were incorporated into the hereditary Habsburg lands of Inner Austria. In 1452, Duke Frederick V of Austria was crowned Holy Roman Emperor, and the Habsburgs retained the imperial crown almost without interruption until the empires dissolution.The 16th century witnessed the Protestant Reformation in Slovenia, and the Protestant preacher Primo Trubar wrote the first books in modern Slovene. Although the Protestants were expelled from Slovenia during the Catholic Counter-Reformation, they left a lasting impact on the development of the Slovenian language, and religious texts in Slovene continued to be produced.Between the 15th and 17th centuries, the Slovenian lands were on the frontier of the Habsburg Empire. Southern Slovenia was devastated by frequent wars between the Habsburg and Ottoman empires. Western Slovenia witnessed hostilities between the Habsburgs and the Venetians, and the Adriatic ports of Koper (Capodistria), Izola, and Piran had been under Venetian rule since the late 13th century. The towns owed their prosperity to the neighboring salt pans, which continue to serve as a major source of salt production to this day. While Ljubljana was never under Venetian rule, much of the city was rebuilt in a Venetian Baroque style during the 17th century by Venetian artisans.National AwakeningFrance Preeren Monument, Ljubljana, Slovenia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenThe turn of the 19th century witnessed the fall of the Venetian Republic to Napoleons armies in 1797 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. In 1809, Slovenia became part of the Illyrian Provinces in Napoleons Empire, which had its capital at Laibach. After the fall of Napoleon, in 1821, the Slovenian capital hosted the Congress of Laibach, which brought together major European leaders as part of the Congress System established after the Napoleonic Wars.The brief period of French occupation sowed the seeds of a national awakening in Slovenia. The Romantic poet France Preeren was one of the most influential figures in shaping Slovenias national identity. In his 1834 cycle, A Wreath of Sonnets, Preeren likens his unrequited pursuit of the teenage Julija Primic to the unhappy fate with his homeland, constantly under foreign rule. Preerens 1844 poem Zdravljica, or A Toast, which promoted the idea of a united Slovenia, was suppressed by the Austrian authorities and only appeared during the 1848 Revolutions when press censorship was abolished.While Preeren died in 1849 in Kranj with neither of his romantic nor nationalist dreams fulfilled, the Slovenian national movement gained in strength during the second half of the 19th century as the Austro-Hungarian Empire was compelled to grant greater autonomy to ethnic minorities. The development of the port of Trieste encouraged large numbers of Slovenes to move to the city. At the turn of the 19th century, Trieste faced ethnic tensions between the large Slovenian minority and the Italian majority.A Bloody BattlefieldItalian Charnel House, Kobarid (Caporetto), photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenThe Kingdom of Italy, which had been established by the kings of Sardinia-Piedmont in the 1860s, sought to expand into Trieste and Istria at the expense of the Habsburg Empire. When Italy entered the First World War alongside Britain, France, and Russia in April 1915, its claims to these territories were recognized.Some of the bloodiest fighting of World War I took place on what is now Slovenian soil. Between June 1915 and November 1917, no less than twelve battles were fought along the banks of the Isonzo River, known as the Soa in Slovenian. Neither side was able to achieve a decisive victory until the Twelve Battles of the Isonzo, better known as the Battle of Caporetto, fought in the mountains above the town of Kobarid between October 24 and November 19, 1917. In one of the greatest military disasters in Italian history, the Austrians and their German allies broke the Italian line and inflicted over 300,000 enemy casualties.However, the Italians were able to establish a new defensive line at the Piave River and repulsed repeated Austrian offensives. Defeat at the Piave in June 1918 signaled the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as a viable military force. The final remnants of Austrian resistance were eliminated at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in November, shortly before the end of the war.YugoslaviaSlovenian partisan flag, World War II, on display in the Ljubljana City Museum, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy Chen (Ljubljana City Museum)Defeat in World War I led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the war, most Slovenes favored the prospect of being part of a united South Slav state alongside the Serbians and Croatians. Accordingly, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was established in Belgrade on December 1, 1918.The new state, which officially became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, saw significant tensions between the Serbian and Croatian populations. King Alexander I established a personal dictatorship in 1929 and attempted to foster a sense of shared Yugoslav identity, but was assassinated by Macedonian nationalists while visiting France in 1934. The Slovenian capital of Ljubljana was transformed during the interwar period by the distinguished Slovenian architect Joe Plenik.Yugoslavia also faced an external threat from the Italians, who claimed that their WWI allies had gone back on their promises to transfer large parts of Slovenia and Croatia to Italy. During World War II, Italian armies occupied Ljubljana in Spring 1941. The following February, they surrounded the city with barbed wire to prevent Slovenian partisans from entering. After Italy switched sides in 1943, the Germans took over the occupation of Slovenia.After enduring brutal occupation by Italian and German fascists during the war, Slovenia rejoined Yugoslavia, which became a socialist republic under Josip Broz Tito in late 1945. Although Tito sought to distance himself from the Soviet Union on the international stage, communist repression still affected hundreds of thousands of Slovenians.Today: An Independent RepublicThe Soa River, Slovenia. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenAfter almost half a century of communist rule, Slovenia declared independence from Yugoslavia on June 26, 1991. This triggered a brief war with the Yugoslav Army until a ceasefire was signed on July 7. Although several dozen soldiers and civilians were killed, Slovenia largely escaped the bloodshed that accompanied the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, and its independence was recognized in early 1992. France Preerens dream was finally realized, and in 1994, the seventh stanza of his Zdravljica, which celebrates peace and goodwill to all nations, was adopted as the countrys national anthem.In three decades of independence, Slovenia has become a popular destination for European tourists, particularly after joining the European Union in 2004 and the Schengen Area in 2007. Despite its small size, the country boasts some of the continents most attractive natural scenery, including the famous Lake Bled, Mount Triglav in the Julian Alps, which features on Slovenias coat of arms, and the turquoise waters of the Soa River valley, whose serene tranquility belies its past as a dreadful field of slaughter.Predjama Castle, Slovenia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2023. Source: Jimmy ChenAnother major attraction is the Postojna caves and the nearby Predjama castle, built into the mouth of a cave. Owing to its location on the Habsburg frontier, Slovenia boasts over 500 castles. Ljubljanas castle, once a symbol of Habsburg authority, towers over the Slovenian capital near a bend of the Ljubljanica River. The ancient cities of Ptuj and Celje also boast impressive castles with panoramic views. While Slovenia is limited to some 30 miles of coastline between Italy and Croatia, it attracts large numbers of tourists to the ports of Koper, Izola, and Piran-Portoro, where the architectural legacy of the Venetian Republic is easily identifiable.Slovenia is a young and vibrant democratic state seeking to embrace a brighter future after centuries of war and repression. Its rich history has left behind a unique combination of cultural influences that will continue to shape the countrys destiny.

Although three rival kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla and Baekje existed on the Korean Peninsula, each shared a common language and cultural heritage. The three existed roughly from the 1st Century BCE to around 668 CE. They occupied the entire peninsula, as well as part of Manchuria and Liandong.Each shaped Korean civilization. However, all things change, so the political rivalry and differences disappeared. Silla eventually unified the peninsula in 668 CE with the Tang Dynastys assistance.Silla: The Oldest of ThreeFunerary artifacts from the 5th Century depicting mounted warriors. The Silla kingdom created a military elite comprised of promising youth known as the Hwarang, meaning Flower Knights. Source: National Museum of KoreaSilla, the oldest, was founded around 57 BCE by Bak Hyeokgeose. This earliest kingdom lay in Koreas southeast.The kingdom originated as a confederation of Jinhan tribes, with its capital at Seorabeol (modern-day Gyeongju). The first ruler, Hyeokgoese, ruled from 57 BCE to 4 CE. According to legend, he emerged from a shining egg found near the Naheul River, marking the beginning of Sillas dynasty.The capital, Seorabeol, quickly grew as Silla grew in wealth and importance. The dynasty laid solid groundwork for a centralized administration, a strong king, and an economy. Nestled in the southern corner, Sillas port network, like Ulsan, poured goods from China, Persia, and beyond. In return, goods exported included gold, ceramics, and lacquerware. Sillas connections spread to China, Japan, and further West.Daereungwon Tomb Complex, by Daniella RomanoThe official adoption of Buddhism occurred in 527 CE. This influenced government, art, architecture, morals, and literacy. External economic and social influences would change Silla, especially as the Silk Roads western terminus.Consistently militarily strong, Sillas army never ranked as the regions largest. However, due to its centralization and constant wars with other Korean peninsula powers, it remained experienced and formidable. Later, the Silla would cleverly ally with the Tang.Baekje-The Korean PhoeniciaDaereungwon Tomb Complex, by Daniella RomanoThis kingdom, founded in 18 BCE by King Onjo, originated on the Han River, later expanging southwest. King Onjo expanded Baekje via war, taking good farmland and increasing coastal access. This, plus their access to the Yellow and South Seas, created the greatest maritime entity of the three kingdoms.Baekje soon became a cultural and economic hotspot. From China came their writing system, better metallurgy and architecture, and Buddhism (384 CE). Contact with Yamato Japan meant that Baekje monks, scholars, and merchants added their own unique color. Assimilation would become deep in families like the Kudara no Konikishi clan, benefiting both societies. In all things maritime, Baekje shone.Dubbed the Phoenicia of East Asia, Baekje progressed in its shipbuilding and navigation. Able to utilize their long-distance ocean travel, they opened their country and beyond. Their ability to move people and materials rivaled the other Korean kingdoms. This tradition proved valuable later on.Goguryeo: The Mightiest of ThreeDaereungwon Tomb Complex, by Daniella RomanoOf all Koreas Three Kingdoms, Goguryeo emerged as the toughest. Founded by King Dongmyeong in 37 BCE, Goguryeo lay situated near the Yalu River in the northern Korean mountains. He and later kings established a hierarchical government, which helped establish stability. Protected by these mountains, Goguryeo battled Silla, Tang China, Baekje, and others. Like Silla, their military remained disciplined and tough.Goguryeo experienced its greatest expansion under Gwanggaeto the Great (391-413 CE). His reach went past Korea into Manchuria and even parts of Mongolia. Goguryeo would remain a power for decades, protected by its military aristocracy and mountain fortresses.Cultured like their two Korean opponents, the Goguryeo saw themselves as descended from divine sources, which strengthened their sense of destiny. However, like Silla, Goguryeos and Baekjes futures would be intertwined. Indeed, modern Koreas name was derived from Goguryeo.The End of Three ErasMap of the Tang Dynastys Empire. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor well over five centuries, trade and conflict swirled around Korea. Amidst this swirl, in 645, Sillas Queen Seondeok approached the Tang Dynasty. Silla faced a strong Goguryeo-Baekje alliance. With repeated invasions, the duo repeatedly invaded, devastating the country. Isolated with few allies, the Tang represented an option.The Tang responded, seeing an opportunity to eliminate Sillas foes, especially Goguryeo. The Tang-Silla forces defeated Baekje at the 660 Battle of Hwangsanbeol. Goguryeo proved a tougher nut to crack, a tribute to its location and tough military.A simultaneous north-south invasion took six years to break Goguryeo. By 668, it collapsed under external and civil war. Yet by 670, all soured. Silla and the Tang bitterly fought over the peninsula. Imperial China sought to govern the reluctant Koreans directly.The Silla-Tang War (670-676) ended in a Silla victory. This victory marked the beginning of the Unified Silla era (668-935). This perhaps is one of Koreas greatest eras in religion, government, and culture.

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