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The Battle of Little Bighorn is also known as Custers Last Stand. The name of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer (1839-1876), who led the 7th Cavalry Regiment in the U.S. Army against a coalition of Native American tribes near the Little Bighorn River in Montana, will forever be linked to his defeat at Little Bighorn and to the humiliation of his persona. However, few people associate the Battle of Little Bighorn with the names of the hundreds of Native American chiefs and warriors who fought there. Even fewer remember the women who fought at Little Bighorn alongside Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, and contributed to the defeat of George Armstrong Custer. Here are four of them.What Happened at Little Bighorn?Gathering of the Clans, painting by Jules Tavernier, 1876. Source: Fine Arts Museums of San FranciscoThe Battle of Little Bighorn was the direct result of the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, in present-day South Dakota. In 1868, with the Treaty of Fort Laramie, the American government established the Great Sioux Reservation, an area set aside for the Lakota people. Here they were promised they could live forever in peace, on land that would be theirs as long as grass grow, wind blow, and the sky is blue, as Jack Crabb (Dustin Hoffman) puts it at the end of Arthur Penns revisionist film Little Big Man (1970).The Great Sioux Reservation included the Black Hills. Under the leadership of Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885), the 18th president of the United States, the American government attempted to persuade the Lakota to sell their lands, but they refused.Black Hills, photograph by Pamela Huber, 2020. Source: UnsplashOn June 25, 1876, the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army, led by George Armstrong Custer attacked an encampment of approximately 6,000 to 7,000 Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana. The exact number of people who died between June 25 and June 26 is uncertain. It is estimated that among Custers men, 258 were killed or died of wounds, including Custer himself and Canadian newspaper reporter Mark Kellogg. Of the casualties, 16 were officers and 242 were troopers.Estimates of Indigenous casualties range from 36 to 136, as reported by Lakota chief Red Horse in 1877, to some 300 Lakota and Northern Cheyenne. One of them was Hunkpapa Sioux One Hawk, who was the brother of Moving Robe Woman, one of the women who fought at Little Bighorn.General George Armstrong Custer, painting by Henry H. Cross, 1874. Source: Gilcrease MuseumAdditionally, on the Native American side, we should also remember six (unnamed) women and four (unnamed) children who were likely killed at the very start of the battle. The Battle of Little Bighorn continues to be one of the most extensively studied events in the history of the United States of America and Canada.Despite their significant victory at Little Bighorn, three thousand Teton Lakota moved into present-day southwestern Saskatchewan over the next few months, settling around Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain. In 1863, a group of Santee had already crossed the border following the Battles of New Ulm (or Minnesota Uprising), joining the Mtis around Upper Fort Garry, at the forks of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, in what is now Manitoba.Little Big Man wearing his beaded war shirt, photograph by William Henry Jackson. Source: Gilcrease MuseumThe Battle of Little Bighorn turned Indigenous leaders and warriors into legendary figures. Sitting Bull (or Tatka yotake), Crazy Horse (Take Witk), Little Big Man (Wiha Tkala), and Kicking Bear (Mat Wantaka) are just four of the manyNative American leaders who fought at Little Bighorn. Among them were also four women from different tribes, including the Hunkpapa Sioux, Oglala, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who fought alongside their husbands, friends, and relatives, andcontributed to changing the course of North American history.Moving Robe WomanSioux family, ca. 1850-1900. Source: Gilcrease MuseumDuring her (relatively) long life, Moving Robe Woman was known by many names. Among the Hunkpapa Sioux, the Lakota group she belonged to, she was called Tana Mni. Among non-Indigenous, she was known as Walks With Her Robe, Walking Blanket Woman, She Walks With Her Shawl, or simply Mary Crawler.The Dakota people have always been known by the name of Sioux among non-Indigenous people, which is an abbreviation of Nadouessioux, a French transcription of Nadowessi. In the language of the Ojibwa, Nadowessi translates as snake and enemy. The Dakota Nation is divided into three major groups: the Wihyena (comprising the Yankton and Yanktonai), the Santee Dakota (or Eastern Dakotas), and finally the Teton Lakota. The Hunkpapa Sioux, to which Moving Robe Woman and her beloved brother belonged, was one of the seven bands (or council fires) making up the Teton Lakota.Sioux Camp Scene, by Alfred Jacob Miller, 1858-1860. Source: The Walters Art MuseumThe word Hkpapa means Head of the Circle in Lakhota (or Laktiyapi) one of the three dialects of the Sioux language, which belongs to the larger Siouan family group. Moving Robe Woman, the daughter of Crawler (or Siohan), an important Hungpapa chief and warrior, and Sunflower Face was in her early 20s when she moved with her family from Grand River in South Dakota, where she was born, to Peji Sla Wakapa, or Greasy Grass, in what is now Montana. Among non-Indigenous Anglophones, Peji Sla Wakapa is known as the Little Bighorn.On June 25, 1876, the day of the battle, Moving Robe Woman was digging wild turnips with other girls when a warrior rode swiftly into the camp announcing that American soldiers under the command of Pehin Hanska were approaching. Reportedly, Moving Robe Woman jumped on her horse and rode in their direction with her father and other warriors.A Lakota beaded belt, which warriors would wear in battle, 1880-1890. Source: Brooklyn MuseumThe valley was dense with powder smoke, she recalled in 1931. I never heard such whooping and shouting. () There were Indians everywhereIt was not a massacre, but a hotly contested battle between two armed forces. Her brother, One Hawk, was killed in the initial attack, and she rode into battle with her face painted crimson and her hair braided, as a sign of mourning. She shot army interpreter Isaiah Dorman (1820-1876), the only African American killed at Little Bighorn, and killed another soldier with a knife. Some sources claim that it was Moving Robe Woman who killed Custer, repeatedly stabbing him in the back as Oglala Lakota warrior Fast Eagle held his arms.Pretty NosePretty Nose, photograph by Laton Alton Huffman, 1879. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Arapaho people believe that their ancestors once lived permanently in the Eastern Woodlands, in the western Great Lakes region along the Red River Valley. They likely occupied a large territory spanning contemporary Manitoba and Minnesota. Due to conflicts with the Ojibwe, they were compelled to migrate westward along the Platte and Arkansas rivers, in present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Wyoming. Here, they shifted from farming to buffalo hunting. Like other Plains people in the United States and Canada, they used to live in tepees, relied on horses for transportation and hunting, and traded buffalo products for the squash, beans, and corn that their ancestors once cultivated in the Eastern Woodlands. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have been residing with another group, the Shoshone, on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming.Thunderhead, by Eugene Ridgely Jr. (also known as Niieihii Nooteihi), a member of the Northern Arapaho tribe from Ethete, Wyoming. Source: Museum of BoulderThe 1867 Treaty of Medicine Lodge established a reservation in Oklahoma for the Southern Arapaho, who had been living along the Arkansas River since the 1830s. The Arapaho shared the reservation with other bands of Southern Cheyenne, who referred to them as Hitanwoiv, People of the Sky. Arapaho warriors fought alongside the Cheyenne at Little Bighorn, and among them was a woman known as Pretty Nose.In a photograph taken by Laton Alton Huffman (1854-1931), three years after the Battle of Little Bighorn, Pretty Nose sits proudly in her elegant cloth dress and buffalo robe, with her hair braided and her hands adorned with rings. Another picture shows her with her little sister on her lap. Little is known about Pretty Noses life before the battle at Little Bighorn, much like many of the men and women who fought (and died) there.Arapaho parfleche bag with designs inspired by Whirlwind Woman, the mystical woman in Arapaho oral traditions, 1900. Source: Brooklyn MuseumMost of what we know about Pretty Noses life after the battle and her status among the Arapaho and Cheyenne comes from the words of one of her descendants, tribal leader and storyteller Mark Soldier Wolf (1928-2018).She was (likely) born around 1851 and reportedly died after 1952. In 1952, she was alive to see her 24-year-old descendant, Mark Soldier Wolf, return to the Wind River Indian Reservation after serving in the Korean War. Historians have therefore speculated that she was over 100 years old when she finally passed away. When she saw young Mark Soldier Wolf return to Wind River, she was working in a field. Upon seeing him, she started singing a war song in his honor. Wolf later reported that she was wearing beaded cuffs around her wrists, a testament to her status as a War Chief among the Arapaho of Wind River, among the men and women who fought at Little Bighorn.Buffalo Calf Road WomanCheyenne warrior on horseback wearing a stripe and blue shirt, long leggings, and two feathers on his head knocks his non-Indigenous enemy off his horse, 1890. Source: Brooklyn MuseumBuffalo Calf Road Woman, also known as Brave Woman, was a Northern Cheyenne warrior. Her people were close allies of the Arapaho since at least 1811, more than six decades before the Battle of Little Bighorn. Like the Arapaho, they had moved westward from the Great Lakes region to present-day North Dakota and Minnesota after conflicts with the Assiniboine during the 17th century. They then relocated from the Missouri River to the Powder River Country, in northeastern Wyoming, between the Black Hills and the Bighorn Mountains.Through their formal alliance with the Arapaho,the Cheyenne were able to expand their territory on the Great Plains in the 19th century. By the 1820s, the Cheyennes hunting territory extended from southern Montana through Wyoming, part of Colorado and Nebraska, including the Washita and Cimarron Rivers in Oklahoma, and Bear Butte, in South Dakota.Bear Butte, the South Dakota mountain sacred to the Cheyenne, photograph by Jon Sailer, 2022. Source: UnsplashBear Butte is a sacred mountain to the Cheyenne, who call it Nhkhe-vose, translating to Bear Hill, or Noah-vose, Giving Hill. According to Cheyenne belief, it is at Bear Butte that the Great Spirit, Maheoo, transmitted essential knowledge to Motseeve, the prophet commonly known as Sweet Medicine or Sweet Medicine Standing. This knowledge became the heart of Cheyenne society and culture, shaping them into feared mounted horse-riding warriors organized in distinct warrior societies on the Plains.By the early 1800s, the Cheyenne society was organized into two related tribes, the Suhtai (Staeoo), also known as Sutaio (Stataneoo), and the Tstshsthese / Tsitsistas (or Cheyenne). By the mid-19th century, the Suhtai merged with the Tstshsthese / Tsitsistas to form the Cheyenne as we know them today, although the two groups continue to have their own prophets. In 1825, the Cheyenne split into the Northern and Southern Cheyenne, with the Northern Cheyenne moving into present-day eastern Wyoming.By the 1820s, the Cheyennes hunting territory stretched from southern Montana through Wyoming (pictured here), photograph by Michael Kirsh, 2022. Source: UnsplashThe Northern Cheyenne fought at Little Bighorn alongside their historic allies, the Arapaho, under the command of respected chief Morning Star (Vhhve in the language of the Cheyenne), who was also one of the signatories of the first Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851. As far as the Cheyenne and Arapaho are concerned, the treaty established that the lands between the Arkansas and North Platte Rivers, encompassing Wyoming and Nebraska south of the North Platte River, western Kansas, and Colorado north of Arkansas, were theirs to live on, without fearing the encroachment of American settlers.Buffalo Calf Road Woman and her husband, Black Coyote, were both skilled Northern Cheyenne warriors who fought together at the Battle of Little Bighorn. Just nine days before the battle, Buffalo Calf Road Woman had saved her wounded brother, Chief Comes in Sight, during the Battle of the Rosebud. The Cheyenne refer to this battle as The Battle Where the Girl Saved Her Brother.Cheyenne family, ca. 1871-1907. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Sioux claim that it was their warrior Moving Robe Woman who fatally stabbed Custer. In June 2005, storytellers of the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana finally shared stories about the battle, stories that had been handed down for years from generation to generation, breaking the 100-year-long silence their ancestors had imposed for fear of retribution. Among the stories shared in their account, one concerns Buffalo Calf Road Woman. According to Cheyennes oral tradition, she was the one who knocked Custer off his horse with a club-like object before other warriors finished him off.The only known picture of her was taken between 1870 and 1875. It shows Buffalo Calf Road Woman staring straight into the camera with her braided hair falling in two thick braids across her chest.Minnie Hollow Wood and One Who Walks With the StarsNative American warrior on a charging horse clubbing a gun-brandishing soldier wearing his blue army uniform with a tomahawk weapon, 1890. Source: Brooklyn MuseumAt least two Lakota women warriors fought at Little Bighorn. One of them was Minnie Hollow Wood. The other was One Who Walks With the Stars, also known as Woman-Who-Walks-with-the-Stars.The Lakota, also known as Teton Sioux, are one of the three divisions of the Sioux, along with the Wihyena (or Western Dakota) and the Santee Lakota (or Eastern Dakota). They are divided into seven sub-tribes: the Sihu (commonly known as the Brul), the Oglla, Hkpapa (Hunkpapa), Miniconjou, Sihsapa (Blackfeet), Itzipho (Sans Arc), and Ohenupa (or Two Kettles). Crazy Horse, for instance, who fought in various battles against American settlers and soldiers before he died in 1877, was a member of the Oglla and Miniconjou sub-tribes.Lakota womans leggings, ca. 1870-1895. Source: Brooklyn MuseumOne Who Walks With the Stars was a member of the Oglla tribe. Her husband, Crow Dog (Ka ka), was a Brul Lakota warrior and subchief born in Horse Stealing Creek, in what is now Montana. Unsurprisingly, although Crow Dog did not kill anyone during the Battle of Little Bighorn, historians have been able to gather more information about him than about One Who Walks With the Stars. For a long time, she has been known mainly as Crow Dogs wife rather than as a respected Lakota warrior and an active participant in the Battle of Little Bighorn.She reportedly slashed, clubbed, and eventually killed two soldiers who were attempting to swim across the Little Bighorn River as she was rounding up stray cavalry horses near her husbands Brul Lakota camp.A wounded (possibly Cheyenne) warrior lies on the ground, bleeding from his mouth, next to his wounded horse, whos bleeding from his nose, as five army men fire at them, 1890. Source: Brooklyn MuseumIn 1925, nearly 50 years after the Battle of Little Bighorn, Minnie Hollow Wood (1856-1930s) was photographed staring into the camera wearing her warbonnet. Standing next to her was (likely) her husband, Hollow Wood, a Cheyenne warrior who also fought at Little Bighorn. Among the Lakota, Minnie Hollow Wood was the only woman entitled to wear a war bonnet as a symbol of gratitude from her tribe for her role in the battle. Unfortunately, not much else is known about Minnie Hollow Woods contribution to the victory of her people at Little Bighorn.In the aftermath of the battle, she and her husband surrendered to Colonel Nelson A. Miles (1839- 1925) at Fort Keogh in Montana. They lived the rest of their lives in the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, located in the North Western Great Plains in southeastern Montana. In Cheyenne, it is known as Tshstno and was formerly called the Tongue River Reservation, after the Tongue River that borders it to the east.Cheyenne warriors captured by Custers forces after the Battle of the Washita River, here held prisoners at Fort Dodge next to U.S. Army chief John O. Austin, 1868. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMinnie Hollow Wood frequently worked with ethnographer and amateur historian Thomas Bailey Marquis until her death in the 1930s. She provided unique insights into the Battle of the Little Bighorn and shared the Native American perspective with Marquis and his white audience.The Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, and Lakota were the undisputed warriors of the Battle of Little Bighorn. The death of General G. A. Custer held symbolic significance beyond practical value. The man who had led so many aggressive attacks against Native American camps, the man responsible for the slaughter of innocent and unarmed women and children at the Washita River, was finally dead, killed by Native American warriors. Custers defeat sent shockwaves across American society and the US Army, underlining their miscalculation of Native American resistance, fighting skills, and tactics, and deeply embarrassing the government.Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, photograph by Karen Matinez, 2020. Source: UnsplashThe Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, and Lakota, like many other Indigenous people worldwide, won the battle but lost the war. However, historians, academics, and the general public are now at long last re-evaluating the bravery and strength of Native American men and women, warriors and civilians alike, before and after the Battle of Little Bighorn.

The Crimean War is notable as one of the few major European conflicts in the latter half of the 19th century. Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire clashed with the Russian Empire in a conflict triggered by disputes over the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land. In the Anglosphere, it is mostly remembered for the poor leadership of British officers and bloody events such as the Charge of the Light Brigade during the Battle of Balaclava.The Battle of BalaclavaBattle of the Alma by Eugene Lami, 1855. Source: Versailles CollectionThe allied forces landed on the Crimean peninsula September 5, 1854, and within three weeks were besieging Sevastapol, the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Disease quickly began to spread through the besiegers and they struggled to keep their forces adequately supplied through poor harbours like Balaclava. The manpower requirements stretched them thin and it was impossible to hold the siege line in strength due to the losses suffered and the large distances involved.All the armies involved faced difficulties during the campaign. Their recent military experience was largely limited to pacifying large empires rather than fighting set-piece battles. The British and French were busy fighting in Africa and Asia, the Russians in expanding their conquests in Central Asia and the Caucasus, while the Turks had to maintain their control over the Balkans and other fractious regions. All the armies were hamstrung by the appointment of officers to high positions by virtue of their birth rather than their ability or experience. British officers from wealthy backgrounds could purchase their commissions, bypassing more experienced and more deserving officers.Balaclava itself was only lightly defended by six hastily constructed redoubts manned by Turkish troops with some naval guns and British artillery NCOs as advisors. They could also count on the 93rd Highland Regiment of Foot, a cavalry brigade, and some artillery units. This came from a dismissive opinion of their Russian opponents, one that would cost the allied forces in the coming battle.Early Morning ActionRelief of the Light Brigade by Richard Woodville, 1897. Source: National Army MuseumThe seven-mile stretch between the siege lines and Balaclava was the perfect point for a Russian assault. General Pavel Liprandi brought a sizable force of 25,000 soldiers to attack the Allied lines. He had calculated that he would have nearly three hours to exploit this weakness before Allied reinforcements could arrive on the scene. The battle started with a Russian advance on the redoubts at dawn. Five Russian infantry battalions led the way, supported by another six battalions advancing behind them.The redoubts had never been intended to defend against a serious assault. They were constructed out of earth and manned by demoralized Ottoman levies from Tunisia, now stuck in horrendous conditions on the siege lines. A smattering of British artillery NCOs offered technical expertise. Worse again, only two-thirds of the redoubts were manned. Yet the defenders of Redoubt No.1 surprised both Russians and Allies alike, fighting the Russian vanguard while under bombardment from thirty guns. The tenacious Ottomans held out until half seven in the morning, leaving behind over 170 of their compatriots dead in the redoubt when they finally retreated.Unfortunately this show of defiance was not matched by the other redoubts. The garrison of Redoubt No. 2 retreated and was cut down by Cossack cavalry. Nos. 3 and 4 withdrew under the Russian bombardment with some survivors reforming with the 93rd Highlanders. Allied troops were responding slowly to the Russian attack and for the moment, the way to Balaclava seemed open save for a scratch force of British and Ottoman infantry.The Thin Red LineThe Thin Red Line by Robert Gibb, 1881. Source: National Museums of ScotlandThe next celebrated action during the Battle of Balaclava was the stand of the 93rd Highlanders, the famous Thin Red Line. After the taking of the redoubt, all that stood between the Russians and Balaclava were Sir Colin Campbells highland infantry and some Turkish troops he had managed to rally. In total, Campbell had fewer than 500 highlanders and a few hundred Turkish infantry to fight the oncoming Russian squadrons.Campbell was a career soldier who had a poor opinion of Russian cavalry. Conventional wisdom was to form an infantry square when threatened by cavalry but Campbell met them in a double line more suited for fighting other infantry units, hence the name of the action.The Highlanders let the Russian cavalry charge before unleashing two volleys in quick succession. Such was their eagerness to engage that Campbell had to rein them in before they charged forward to meet the horsemen. The determination of the Highlanders made the Russian officers second-guess themselves as they assumed there must be other units in support for them to act so boldly. The Russians were hampered by the local geography just as much as their opponents, the rolling terrain of the battlefield obscuring view and concealing possible threats. Liprandi stalled his advance, not willing to risk his cavalry venturing into unknown territory with the chance of more Allied troops overwhelming them. The 93rd had checked four Russian cavalry squadrons but the main force of Russian cavalry was still proceeding forward at a cautious pace.A Clash of PersonalitiesJohn McDermond winning the VC at Inkerman by Louis Desanges, 1860. Source: National Army MuseumBefore describing the cavalry actions of the day, it is necessary to discuss some of the peculiar personal aspects of the battle. The British system of purchasing commissions had resulted in some officers wholly unsuited for command. Similarly, the lack of conventional conflicts in recent history had resulted in an elderly group of senior officers. Four out of five infantry division commanders were well into their sixties while the chief engineer for the army was in his seventies. Lord Raglan, the commander of the British forces, had served as Duke of Wellingtons military secretary at the Battle of Waterloo four decades earlier. He had a habit of referring to the enemy as the Frencha recipe for confusion since the French were allied to the Britishand was prone to giving contradictory or obscure orders.In the Cavalry Division there were further problems. Its commander, Lord Lucan, had received the nickname Lord Look-On after he obeyed Raglans orders not to pursue retreating Russians at the Battle of the Alma. Not regarded as particularly intelligent and possessing a violent temper; to his credit at least he had seen active service.In the Light Brigade, Lord Cardigan was of a similar background. Like Lucan he had purchased his commission and made it his business to hound officers out of his unit that he felt were of inferior breeding. He clashed repeatedly with Lucan, despite the fact that the latter was his superior officer and brother-in-law. Cardigan also slept each night in his own private yacht while his commander roughed it with the troops.Charge of the Heavy BrigadeCharge of the Heavy Brigade by Godfrey Giles, 1897. Source: National Army MuseumThe British heavy cavalry also had their moment at Balaclava, though their successful charge is less well known than the ill-fated action involving their light cavalry cousins. Unlike the rest of the cavalry, it had a relatively normal commander, Scarlett, who recognized his own shortcomings and took the advice of experienced officers. Arriving too late to fight alongside the 93rd, they spotted the main body of Russian cavalry on their flank. Scarlett hurriedly ordered his squadrons to form up in anticipation of a charge. The Russian advance boasted more than 3,500 cavalry, yet they stalled at the sight of the small groups of British horses calmly reforming their ranks.Again, the Russians presumed there must be more soldiers in reserve as the few hundred British cavalry present were no match for the force opposite them. They were shocked then to find the front three squadrons charging at them closely followed by another two. The British heavy cavalry are described as crashing into the enemy ranks, the English with a cheer, the Irish with a yell, and the Scots with a snarl. The Russians had remained stationary and suffered for it.Lucan was watching the melee and ordered the remaining heavy cavalry to charge. The resulting shocks shattered the Russian cavalry and they began to stream away in disorder. The action had taken only five minutes. It was marred only by the failure of the Light Brigade to pursue the defeated Russians, they had remained stationary, less than half a kilometer away, despite the protests of Cardigans subordinate officers.A Collection of BlundersJames Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan by Sir Francis Grant, 1841. Source: National Portrait Gallery, LondonIt was not just one mistake that would prove fatal for the Light Brigade but a collection of them. From their commanding position, Lord Raglan and the other British senior officers had a clear view of the battlefield. So far, the battle was still mostly in the Russians favor, the British successes had checked their advances. Worse again, the local commanders had only limited visibility, what was obvious to those on the heights was not so for those on the valley floor.It was half ten in the morning and the battle was mostly over. Liprandis cavalry had been defeated and the massing Allied forces would soon regain the ground they had lost. Yet Raglan was obsessed with the Napoleonic conceit of never losing a gun in battle. He grew increasingly frantic at the sight of the Russians retrieving the abandoned guns in the redoubts. He sent off incomprehensible orders that confused the commanders in the valley, ordering them to stop the guns being carried away.Finally, a galloper was sent, Captain Louis Nolan. Renowned as the finest horseman in the army, he had a fiery temper and was contemptuous of both Lucan and Cardigan. He handed yet another confusing order to Lucan and when questioned, gave his own interpretation. When Lucan rightly asked which guns he was referring to, Nolan angrily gestured towards the Russian batteries at the end of a valley, rather than the captured guns in the redoubts, There my lord is your enemy! There are your guns!The Valley of DeathCharge of the Light Brigade by Richard Woodville, 1895. Source: National Army MuseumLucan was stunned, the proposed target was over two kilometers away and charging them would mean being exposed to fire from Russian batteries to the left and the right. Yet Nolan spoke with Raglans authority so he ordered the Light and Heavy Brigades to form up. Nolan joined the charge but realized too late that Lucan had misinterpreted him. He attempted to redirect the attack but was killed by an artillery shell. Already there was a fearsome toll being taken so Lucan pulled the Heavy Brigade out of the charge but the Light Brigade surged onward. The charge appalled French observers, who ordered their cavalry to charge one of the flanking Russian batteries so the survivors might have some chance at retreating. The Lights were being hit from left, right, and center.For all the casualties they had suffered, the tattered remnants of the Light Brigade tore through the Russian battery and even routed the bewildered Russian cavalry behind it. The squadrons behind killed the rest of the gunners while the Russian infantry hurriedly formed a square to protect themselves. The remainder of the Lights milled around the ruined battery without further orders from Cardigan. Lord Paget, the second-in-command, ordered the retreat as the Russians belatedly realized how few they were in number.The retreat was as bloody, the Lights moving back across the valley while under continuous fire. If it had not been for the supporting charge of the French cavalry, it was unlikely any would have survived the charge. Of the estimated 600 horsemen that had charged into the valley, almost half became casualties, including more than 100 killed.The Blame GameBalaclava by Elizabeth Butler, 1876. Source: Manchester Art GalleryNeither side pressed forward after the charge and the Russians withdrew as evening fell. They were astounded by the action and initially believed the enemy cavalry were drunk. They treated their prisoners with surprising care, going so far as to punish their own troops for any ill-treatment, so impressed were they by the courage displayed. Whatever personal doubts they might have had, the British light cavalrymen had dutifully carried out their garbled orders without question. In the immortal words of Alfred, Lord Tennyson:Theirs not to reason why,Theirs but to do and die.Into the valley of DeathRode the six hundred.Fitzroy Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan by William Salter, c. 1840s. Source: National Portrait Gallery, LondonThe dodging of responsibility began almost immediately after the action. Cardigan was exonerated immediately as he had merely followed a direct order. Yet he was to be criticized years afterward for his conduct of abandoning his men in the battery after the charge. Lucan was quick to deny any blame, foisting it on Raglan. Raglan, despite being the commander, tried to blame Lucan, stating that if the order was unclear, it should not have been followed. He also claimed the order had been written out incorrectly by Airey, the quartermaster general, as Raglan had merely dictated it. All were quick to blame Nolan, the galloper who had delivered the fateful order and put his own twist on it. The fact that Nolan had been killed in the action and was in no position to defend himself made him a convenient scapegoat.Unflattering reports were sent home both about the conduct of the British senior officers and the poor conditions in which the soldiers were fighting. Yet the Charge took on a mythology of its own, a testimony to discipline and courage. Although the action accomplished little, it contributed to the romanticism of the cavalry. Celebrated cavalry actions such as Charge of the Light Brigade and Von Bredows Death Ride during the Franco-Prussian War helped to ensure that European armies entered World War I with large cavalry contingents.

Conquest and war were often the raison detre of Ottoman Sultans. However, like ordinary people, sultans learned special trades and skills and enjoyed dabbling in hunting, poetry, and the performing arts.1. TradesmanshipCabinet made by Sultan Abdulhamit II, late 19th century. Source: PinterestOttoman princes were expected to master a trade or craft as part of their princely training. As apprentices, princes would not only learn the disciplinary and physical skills of craftsmanship but could also earn some extra income.When a prince became Sultan, he would continue his efforts in the trade he learned in his youth. The crafts that Ottoman princes learned depended upon their personal interests. Carpentry, jewelry-making, calligraphy, and musical composition were some of the most popular skills that they learned.One of the earliest sultans, Mehmed I (r. 1413-1421) earned the moniker kirisi, meaning bowstring-maker, due to his skill in making bows and bowstrings. As an avid hunter, Mehmed enjoyed the artistic process of creating the weaponry needed to hunt animals.Alternatively, Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) had a keen interest in jewelry, which led him to pursue a career as a jeweler. He would design and create jewelry for his beloved wife Hrrem. Sadly, none of these pieces have made it to the present day.Abdulhamit II (r. 1876-1909) was a skilled carpenter whose creationsunlike Suleymanshave been preserved. Abdulhamit even had a small carpenters workshop installed in the Yildiz Palace, where he resided.2. HuntingBejeweled gun of Sultan Mahmud I, 18th century. Source: Art Walters MuseumHunting was one of the greatest hobbies of medieval and early modern Ottoman sultans. The steppe nomadic origins of the Turks made huntingespecially with bows and arrowsalmost a cultural pastime. In Ottoman culture, a skilled hunter and horse archer came to represent strength, power, and masculinity.Sultans would go on lengthy hunting trips with their retinues, and palace officials, like the royal armorer, falconer, and squires would assist him on his journey. For shorter hunting trips, large hunting grounds were built in cities like Edirne that were close to the imperial capital, Istanbul.Although this was a normal and acceptable pastime, some sultans created controversy because of their obsession with the sport. Mehmed IV the Hunter (r. 1648-1687) spent most of his time hunting in Edirne, so much so that it became somewhat of an imperial residence for him.However, this was taken as an indication of his disinterest in socio-political matters, such as the loss of Buda Castle (Hungary) in 1686. The ensuing social unrest led Mehmet to declare that he would give up hunting and focus on state affairs.3. Gaming and SportsTwo men playing cirit, 18th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPhysical activities and sports were a way for Ottoman sultans to demonstrate their power and strength. Cirit, or javelin, was a traditional sport that originated amongst Turkic tribes on the steppes of Central Asia. The aim for these athletes on horseback was to throw javelin rods around 110 cm (43 inches) long at their opponents. In Ottoman Turkey, this sport doubled as a military training exercise for Sultans.After the advent of firearms, shooting sports also gained popularity. Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) enjoyed shooting rifles and, like his ancestors, commemorated his skill by erecting target stones around Istanbul.Using a gun, Mahmud shot an ostrich egg from a distance of around 735 meters (almost half a mile). In 1811, he had a target stone erected that contained an epigraph about the accomplishment. The neighborhood of Dikilita (meaning obelisk) in Istanbul received its name from this target stone.4. Drinking PartiesSelim II, 1570 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Ottoman Empire had two different sets of laws: one was the religious/Islamic law, called Sharia. The other was a more secular sultanic law, called the Kanun. According to the Sharia law adopted by the Ottomans, alcohol was a prohibited substance. However, this did not stop Sultans from enjoying a glass or two of wine.Many Ottoman sultans, such as the famous Mehmet II (r. 1451-1481) reportedly enjoyed drinking wine. Others, like Bayezid I and Selim II, were more passionate about the substance. Due to his drinking habits, the latter became known as Selim the Sot. He also tried to decriminalize the consumption of alcohol. According to contemporary sources, Selim also enjoyed hosting drinking parties where his jesters, dwarves, and mutes would entertain guests.Laws regarding alcohol changed according to the personal preferences of the Sultans. Selims father, Sultan Suleyman I, did not drink alcohol. Suleymans distaste for the substance was mirrored in his criminal law codes which stipulated that non-Muslims could not establish taverns in neighborhoods where Muslims lived.5. CalligraphyInsignia of Sultan Suleiman, 1520-66. Source: The MET, New YorkCalligraphy was considered an elaborate and distinguished visual art in Ottoman culture. Although the Ottomans were a Turkic-speaking dynasty, they wrote in the Arabic script (not language!). Calligraphy was already a popular art form found in earlier Islamic civilizations like the Abbasids. However, the Ottoman sultans not only patronized calligraphic works but learned the practice themselves.During the time of artistic and cultural development known as the Tulip Period (c. 1718-1730), Sultan Ahmed III was trained by the most skilled calligraphers in the empire. He created large calligraphic inscriptions which still grace the entranceways of mosques in Istanbul.A sultans personal monogram or seal, called a tughra, was also designed in a calligraphic style. This complex and stylistic writing that included the names of the sultan and his father was made into a signet ring that was used to authenticate royal documents.6. Poetry and ProseThe Poet Atai Reading from His Book (Hamse) to his Master, 17th century. Source: The Art Walters MuseumPoetry was a major aspect of Ottoman culture that was influenced by earlier Seljuk and Persian traditions. The Ottoman divan poetry not only used the Persian and Arabic poetic meters but preferred Persian and Arabic loanwords, as opposed to Turkish which was considered a less-refined language. To successfully write divan poetry, individuals would require an understanding of this foreign poetic meter, and of these non-Turkic languages.Ottoman sultans thus had a thorough education in foreign languages and written poetry. During their time as princes in governorships around Anatolia, they would invite the most gifted poets in their cities to court, where poetry recitals would be held.A sultans desires, interests, and dreams would all emerge through his poetry. Sultan Suleyman I wrote, under the penname Muhibbi, about his love for his wife Hrrem. In one poem, he wrote about Hrrem: Throne of my lonely niche, my wealth, my love, my moonlight. My most sincere friend, my confidant, my very existence, my Sultan, my one and only love.Other Sultans, like Mehmed the Conqueror and Selim the Grim, known more for their conquests and authoritarian personas, also wrote ghazals, poems, or odes that focussed on romantic love, spirituality, and life.7. Dramatic EntertainmentMusicians and Dancers entertain a crowd, by Abdulcelil Levni, 1720-32 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDramatic entertainment was almost a daily feature of life in Ottoman Turkey. Particularly after the consolidation of Ottoman power in the early 16th century, performers, including actors, musicians, and dancers formed guilds, mirroring the theater companies in contemporary Tudor England.Particularly during festivities, like circumcisions and weddings, sultans would organize shows to be performed in public squares. Some of the most popular forms of entertainment were theatrical displays on the topics of love and politics, comedic performances about taboo topics like interracial love and sexuality, and shadow puppet shows. Acrobatic performances, especially those involving wild animals like bears, were also a crowd favorite.Sultans preferred to enjoy such forms of entertainment from the privacy of their palaces. In fact, they were often concealed by screens where they not only watched jugglers, actors, and acrobats but also where they could observe courtiers and dignitaries.8. MusicWomen musicians playing a tanbur (bottom left), zurna (top left), daire (bottom right), and miskal (center), from the Surname-I Vehbi manuscript, c. 1720. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring the Tulip Period, Ottoman Turkey went through a period of peace that allowed it to focus on cultural innovation and development. The empire also became more open to foreign influence and ideas, learning about them from foreign dignitaries and ambassadors who began to settle in the country.Around the same time, the written record of musical compositions also became an important aspect of Ottoman culture. Although earlier Sultans like Bayezid I (d. 1402) were known for their interest in musical compositions, there are few extant examples of musical composition from medieval Turkey.In the 19th century, sultans like Mahmut II and Abdulaziz began to incorporate Western European musical theory into their pieces. What emerged was a pleasant blend of Western Asian and Western European music that became popular in a period of Ottoman decline, and lost popularity after the emergence of the Turkish Republic in 1923.9. FeastsEnjoying a Coffee, 18th century. Source: Google Arts & CultureThe Ottoman palace was a massive complex where a large fortune was spent on delicious meals for the sultan and his family. Early in the morning, the palace kitchen would be bustling with servants bringing in fresh produce from nearby markets in Istanbul, ready to prepare the sultans breakfast.Generally, sultans would eat two meals a day: breakfast, and a midday meal. Each meal was cooked according to the sultans tastes. Rice pilaf, kebabs, vegetable dishes, seafood, yogurt, and sherbet desserts were some of the most popular foods found in the kitchen registries.Grand feasts were generally held in times of celebration or to honor foreign dignitaries. During the wedding of Ayse Sultan, daughter of Sultan Murat III, (d. 1595), scores of dishes and a large cake shaped like a castle were displayed in the bridal procession. The sultan intended to display his immense wealth and generosity through the preparation of such feasts for his subjects.

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A kitten born to a stray formed a special connection with a cat from a different path. Costa and BansheeChatons Orphelins MontrealEarlier this year, a hungry stray cat wandered into a family's yard in search of food. The family began feeding her and even set up a camera to make sure she was safe.Day after day, the cat returned, and no one came to claim her. When they noticed her belly growing rounder, they suspected she was pregnant. Determined to help, the family devised a plan to bring her inside.They set up a humane trap, and within hours, she was safe indoors. Her days as a stray were finally behind her. Morgane and her kittensChatons Orphelins Montreal"This mama cat had a big belly but was very thin. She was given a cozy, quiet room and unlimited food," Chatons Orphelins Montreal shared. "Barely a week later, she gave birth to four beautiful, healthy kittens."The cat, named Morgane, was shy at first, but with patience and compassion, she began to trust. Chatons Orphelins Montreal"She realized her humans meant well and allowed them to handle and weigh her kittens daily. With good food, Morgane regained her strength and produced enough milk to feed all four kittens."Once the kittens were weaned, the rescue welcomed the whole family into their care. Among them was a spirited gray tabby named Banshee, who would soon go out of his way to meet another foster cat, Costa. BansheeChatons Orphelins MontrealCosta had once belonged to a family but was surrendered after developing a urinary blockage. When Chatons Orphelins Montreal learned of his plight, they stepped in immediately, ensuring he received the life-saving treatment he urgently needed.Despite everything he had endured, Costa remained a ray of sunshine, greeting each day with resilience and soaking up every ounce of affection from his caretakers. CostaChatons Orphelins MontrealCosta loves being doted on and has a baby-like personality. He craves attention, wants to be part of everything, and follows people everywhere. "He's a clingy cat who is emotionally dependent. He's very much a kitten at heart, even though he's a large cat."Once fully recovered, Costa longed for companionship and eagerly awaited a playmate to share his life with. Chatons Orphelins MontrealThat's when he met Banshee. The lively kitten was instantly drawn to Costa, and the feeling was mutual. "Banshee is endlessly curious and always eager to play."Despite their nearly four-year age gap, the two bonded almost overnight, snuggling together as if they had known each other forever. They became fast friendsChatons Orphelins MontrealIn less than 24 hours, they were already best friends, enjoying life to the fullest together.Both cats are affectionate, social, and easygoing. They shadow their humans around the house, chase each other in playful bursts, and curl up side by side when playtime winds down. Chatons Orphelins MontrealCosta has taken on the role of big brother, grooming little Banshee and watching over him. If Banshee isn't snuggled up with his humans during nap time, he's almost always nestled against Costa.Banshee's playful antics have brought Costa's inner kitten to life. Together, they fill their foster home with laughter and the pitter-patter of little paws. Chatons Orphelins MontrealThough they came from very different beginnings and are years apart in age, a loving foster home brought them together.Banshee looks up to his big foster brother with adoration, while Costa showers him with affection and endless cuddles. Chatons Orphelins MontrealShare this story with your friends. More on Banshee, Costa, and Chatons Orphelins Montreal on Instagram and Facebook.Related story: Kind People Go Back to Find the Mother of a Kitten, Turns Out the Cat Has More Kittens to Feed