The late 18th century in France was a tumultuous time, marked by the rise of revolutionary ideologies. To end the grip of the absolute monarchy, people had to take the matter into their own hands. The result was the French Revolution. One of the most influential groups of the revolution was the Jacobin Club, whose members called for a more equal society. However, the Jacobins became increasingly radical, prosecuting their opponents and introducing the infamous Reign of Terror. This article will explain the rise, fall, and ideology of the Jacobins.Political Atmosphere in France Before the Rise of the Jacobin MovementLouis XVI, King of France and Navarre, wearing his grand royal costume, by Antoine-Franois Callet, c. 1778-1779. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Museum of the History of France, VersaillesBefore the start of the French Revolution in 1789, France was an absolute monarchy. King Louis XVI ruled with unchecked power and divine right from Versailles. The government was centralized. During the early modern period in Europe, many monarchs claimed they had a so-called divine right to rule. Believing God had appointed them, only he could judge them; thus, they were above the earthly laws.During the second half of the 18th century, dissatisfaction grew rapidly and spread throughout the country. Indeed, Frances political, social, and economic system faced several challenges, and the revolutionary atmosphere could be felt way before 1789.On top of the unbalanced and unchecked concentration of power, France had a substantial national debt due to wars and taking part in the American Revolution (1775-1783). The taxation system was extremely unequal because the aristocracy and clergy were mostly exempt from paying taxes, while the lower classes were heavily taxed. Besides the problems caused by poor government, bad infrastructure, and wars, food shortages increased the peoples extreme dissatisfaction.Prise de la Bastille, by Jean-Pierre Houl, 1789. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisIn 18th-century France, the Enlightenment was one of the most significant forces that led to the spread of revolutionary ideas and the rise of movements such as the Jacobins.During the Enlightenment, scholars and philosophers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire challenged absolutism, calling for the separation of powers and sketching a political and social system based on natural rights.After the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, the abolition of feudalism, and the Declaration of the Rights of Men and the Citizen in August of the same year, the political situation and landscape changed drastically. Initially, the main revolutionary forces were less radical than the Jacobin movement. However, in the following years, the Jacobins rose to power due to the harsh economic situation and extreme dissatisfaction and became one of the most dominant political forces of the French Revolution.Origins of the Jacobin MovementSeal affixed by the Jacobins of Paris on their manuscripts and publications, c. 1792. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Jacobins were initially known as the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, as they opposed absolute monarchy and advocated for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.In the beginning, the movements supporters were moderate. The Jacobins then became progressively more radical with the relocation to Paris and peoples dissatisfaction with the revolutions leadership and progress.In Paris, the members and supporters of the Jacobin group started meeting in a former convent of the Dominicans, known in the city as Jacobins. Thus, they earned the nickname Jacobins. As the revolution progressed and their program spread, the Jacobin movement grew, gaining members from different parts of life and social classes.With the ongoing revolution, the Jacobin movement started to fraction and develop different ideas and political goals. In particular, the division was between a more moderate part, led by Antoine Barnave, and a more radical part, led by the famous Maximilien Robespierre. The moderates supported the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. On the other hand, the radicals called for a republic, ultimately leading to the complete separation of two fractions in 1792. From this moment, the Jacobin movement would be led by Robespierre and the radical republicans.Meanwhile, the Jacobins ideas spread throughout France, which resulted in the formation of local Jacobin Clubs in several provinces. The clubs functioned as strongholds of republicanism, distributing newsletters and pamphlets listing the benefits of the republican system and the disadvantages of absolutism while denouncing the abuse of power by the aristocrats, clergy, and the king.Through their work, the Jacobin clubs aimed to remind people they had the power to overthrow the tyrannical government and had the right to participate in the political processes by voting and electing their representatives.Ideology and Goals of the Jacobin MovementPortrait of Maximilien Robespierre, unknown author, c. 1790. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse Carnavalet, ParisAfter parting ways with the more moderate faction of the movement in 1792, the Jacobins firmly advocated abolishing the monarchy and establishing a republic with a government of representatives elected democratically. The Jacobins were influenced by the democratic and republican ideas from the Enlightenment. Indeed, it is generally believed one of the Jacobins ideological forefathers was Jean-Jacque Rousseau with his concept of the general will.In January 1793, the Jacobins and their leader, Robespierre, supported the execution of King Louis XVI, believing that the monarchy was in direct opposition to the revolutionary ideas. In June 1791, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette had tried to escape. However, they were arrested at Varennes. In August 1792, the sans-culottes, with the support of the Jacobins, stormed the Tuileries Palace and arrested the royals. In September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, and France became a republic.The Jacbonis also wanted to abolish the feudal system and fight economic inequality, calling for the introduction of economic policies that would benefit all, especially the lower classes that struggled due to food shortages.They ultimately sought to enlarge their support among the wage earners and peasants, aiming to include them in political life and encourage them to elect governmental representatives. The Jacobins came to power through different political plays and, especially, through the radicalization of the masses.Une excution capitale (An Execution), by Pierre-Antoine Demachy, c. 1793. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse Carnavalet, ParisIn the 1790s, they formed a front with the sans-culottes, the radical urban crowds of the revolution. This alliance was crucial to their political success. In August 1790, the sans-culottes and the Jacobins organized the storming of the Tuileries palace, where the royal family was held, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy.After this event, the monarchy was abolished, and the First French Republic was formed. Radical revolutionaries were looking for blood and revenge. In September of the same year, thousands of royalists, or even suspected royalists, were executed. In January 1793, even the king was guillotined.With ample support and big expectations, the Jacobins came to power. However, their political rule would be remembered as the Reign of Terror. The Jacobins came to power with the aim of building a state based on republicanism, democracy, and radical virtue. However, their use of terror and authoritarian tactics led to their downfall.The Reign of TerrorDeath sentence of the Sisters of Charity of Arras in 1794. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Church of Saint-Pierre de Miniac-Morvan, ParisThe Reign of Terror (1793-1794) marked the period when the Jacobins were the most influential political force in Frances First Republic. The name comes from the harsh measures taken to deal with political opponents and cement the new political system.The Jacobins, by then well into their radicalism, took over the government in 1793. At that moment, France was in a tough position in terms of both international and national politics. On the one hand, the country had been engaged in a war against a coalition between Austria, Prussia, and Britain since 1792. Within its borders, the situation was also challenging, with uprisings of royalists and federalists, especially in the Vende region, that turned into a civil war.Brissot and 20 of his accomplices at the guillotine, unknown author, October 31, 1793. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisIn June 1793, a popular uprising led to the overthrow of the Girodins, the moderate front of the revolutionary forces, from the National Convention, the assembly that governed France until 1795. From this moment, the Convention was controlled by the Montagnards, a more radical faction whose members were closely associated with the Jacobin Club.In the following months, the Montagnards, assisted by the Jacobins and sans-culottes, started to target their political opponents and all those who were even slightly rumored to support royalists. The symbol of this period in French history is the infamous guillotine. In October 1973, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed. In the same month, Georges Dantone and Camille Desmoulins, former friends and comrades of Robespierre, were also guillotined.Portrait of Marie Antoinette, unknown author, after Jean-Baptiste Andr Gautier-Dagoty, after 1775. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse Antoine-Lcuyer, Saint-Quentin, FranceMaximilien Robespierre famously said: Terror is nothing but prompt, severe, inflexible justice; it is therefore an emanation of virtue. The Montagnards and Jacobins formed the Committee of Public Safety, a political body tasked with defending France (and the Revolution) from external and internal enemies. During the Reign of Terror, the Committee of Public Safety, the de facto ruling body of the country, persecuted and executed thousands of people accused of being counterrevolutionaries.The radical ideology of the Jacobins was based on the idea that the revolution, and with it, the republic, could not survive with opposition and enemies. Albert Soboul, who analyzed the French Revolution within a Marxist framework, argued that the Terror resulted from the class antagonism between the aristocracy and bourgeoisie and the lower classes asking for basic human rights.The End and Legacy of the Jacobin MovementThe Roll Call of the Last Victims of the Terror, by Charles Louis Mller, 1850. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse des Beaux-Arts de CarcassonneThe Reign of Terror brought a lot of dissatisfaction with and fear of Maximilien Robespierres leadership among the French population. No one felt safe during the de facto dictatorship of the Committee of Public Safety. It became clear that Robespierre and his allies went too far. In 1794, they started to lose support even among revolutionaries. At the same time, Maximilien Robespierre also cut ties with the sans-culottes, alarmed by their increasingly radical demands.The internal divisions within the revolutionary forces came to a head in the summer of 1794. Robespierre and his close supporters were arrested on July 27, 1794, and a day later, they were executed.The overthrow of Robespierre is commonly remembered as the Thermidoran Reaction, and it marked the end of the Reign of Terror and the Jacobins rule and influence. Thermidor was the term for the eleventh month in the French Revolutionary calendar that was in use from 1793 to 1805. It lasted from late July to late August.The execution of Robespierre and his supporters on 28 July 1794, by an unknown author, July 28, 1794. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisThe Jacobin club and its activities were forbidden by law in 1794, and sans-culottes lost the political upper hand in France. The Reign of Terror was followed by the White Terror, the prosecution of the Jacobins. The government and leadership of the First French Republic started to adopt a more moderate approach and policies.Closing of the Jacobin Club by Louis Legendre in the early morning of 28 July 1794, engraving by Claude-Nicolas Malapeau after Jean Duplessis-Bertaux, 1802. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisWhile the Jacobins radicalism resulted in the execution of thousands of people, they also greatly influenced the French Revolution and the development of democratic ideals and revolutionary ideologies across the world. The Jacobins were often credited for impacting the fight for political and human rights.They played a crucial role in the establishment of the First French Republic and promoted a government and rule based on the will of the people. The Jacobins also supported the abolition of slavery in French colonies, the introduction of laws protecting human rights and making all citizens equal before the law, and economic policies to ensure that everyone had access to food and shelter.

In the early modern period, it was not rare for the ruler to claim the divine right to rule and to proclaim himself above the earthly laws. Absolute monarchy was one of the common political systems and had a lot of sympathizers not only among the rulers and kings but also among political scholars such as Thomas Hobbes. Eventually, people started to protest the abuse of power and demanded democratic reforms and institutions. This article will delve into what absolute monarchy represents and what is a political power without restraints.What Is Absolute Monarchy?Portrait of Peter I, attributed to Jean-Marc Nattier, 1717. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Hermitage Museum, St. PetersburgAbsolute monarchy is a form of political government in which the monarch has absolute authority and is not bound by the limitations of laws, a constitution, or any other political institution. This absolutist political system originated in early modern Europe, when the new nation-states replaced the old medieval order.Some of the main characteristics of absolute monarchy are complete authority and sovereignty. In this system, the monarch has absolute authority, and his government is centralized. Even though certain institutions can exist, they have no authority over the monarch, whose power is not checked or balanced by any other agency. Since absolute monarchs were ruling alone, they needed to establish a complex bureaucracy so they could control the whole state, even the territories far from their residence and the capital city.The frontispiece of the book Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, engraving by Abraham Bosse, 1651. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAbsolute monarchy had supporters in some of the most prolific political minds and philosophers of the early modern period, such as Jean Bodin (1530-1596) and Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Jean Bodin is considered one of the first political theorists to write about sovereignty as a concept. He wrote about the characteristics and importance of the absolute monarchy in his famous work Six Books of the Republic (1576). Bodin was a proponent of absolute monarchy and monarchs having absolute authority. He defended the idea that rulers must have supreme power over their subjects and the state. When challenged, some absolute monarchs referred to Bodins theories to defend their right to rule.Another famous political thinker who defended absolute monarchy was Thomas Hobbes. In his famous work Leviathan (1651), he argued the monarch had to have absolute power since it was the best way to prevent civil wars and keep civil society. According to Hobbes, the opposite state of civil society was the so-called State of Nature, where people lived in chaos and were constantly in danger.Political Institutions in the Absolute MonarchyThomas Hobbes, by John Michael Wright, c. 1669-1670. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, LondonThe monarch is the first and most important political institution in absolute monarchy. His powers extend to the legislative, judicial, and executive branchesan absolute monarch answers to no one. Unlike feudal monarchs, the absolute ruler did not share his authority and power with the nobles and aristocrats.The second important political institution in an absolute monarchy is bureaucracy and administration. They were tools for the absolute monarch to rule his territories. The monarch and his advisors would appoint governors and officials to assist him with various matters, including tax collection, law administration, and keeping order in the kingdom. As the Age of Exploration led to the first wave of colonialism, absolute monarchs began to appoint governors in the newly colonized lands. Absolute monarchs also created a sound legal system to ensure their will and laws were obeyed.Additionally, absolute rulers had to rely on strong military support. They often kept a professional army to help them keep their authority, peace, and control over their territories. To have such an army, the absolute monarch often introduced an extensive taxation system.Absolute monarchy also established a state-managed economic system. During the early modern period, an economic policy known as mercantilism promoted the establishment of trade barriers and colonial domination to achieve national power and glory. Mercantilism played a key role in sustaining absolutism in early modern Europe, allowing rulers to consolidate and finance their power.The Theological Aspect of the Divine Rights of KingsKing Charles I, by anonymous, late 17th/early 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, LondonAbsolute monarchs defended their right to unchecked power by claiming that it came directly from God. The concept of divine right was based on the idea that the ruler was the representative of God on earth to guide his subjects. According to divine right, defying the monarch was sinful and against the Christian faith. This kind of theological and political doctrine was extremely popular in the Middle Ages and lasted until the Enlightenment, when the idea of individual liberty was born.The Catholic Church initially supported the theory of the divine right of kings. However, the temporal rulers authority started clashing with the papacys power and interests over time. Popes also claimed to have a so-called papal supremacy over the Christian world. Thus, the idea of having supreme power based on divine right became a complicated issue, especially as monarchs started challenging papal power and establishing national churches. The most famous conflict between the pope and a temporal monarch occurred when King Henry VIII established the Anglican Church while keeping his divine right to rule over his subjects.Some of the most famous theologians, such as St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Jean Bodin, wrote about the divine right of kings. Their works would often be referenced whenever rulers had to defend their divine right to rule.The Decline of Absolute MonarchyStorming of the Bastille and arrest of Governor M. de Launay, by anonymous, July 14, 1789. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museum of the History of France, Palace of VersaillesThe system of absolute monarchy started to decline with the rise and spread of Enlightenment ideas. Many factors contributed to this process, such as economic and social ones. People began developing ideas of democracy and individual rights. The birth of constitutionalism and the concept of limiting the monarchs powers were extremely influential, with many arguing that rulers should be held accountable and obey laws just like any other man. The concept of constitutional monarchy was explored and finally realized in England in 1689 with the Bill of Rights, which limited the kings unchecked power, making Parliament one of the key institutions in the kingdom.Another significant factor in the decline of absolute monarchy was the fact that some of the most influential political minds started challenging the absolute rights of monarchs. John Locke, for example, promoted the idea that the government was responsible for protecting its citizens, their liberty, and their rights to have property. Another famous Enlightenment philosopher who left a significant mark on the birth of democracy and modern philosophy was Montesquieu. He argued for the separation of powers and against any kind of abuse.Enlightenment ideas were extremely influential in the upcoming revolutions and the abolition of the absolute monarchy. Indeed, enlightenment thinkers and ideologies were prominent during the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the American Revolution (1775-1783). Both events permanently changed the political landscape and peoples view of absolute rulers.Who Were the Most Powerful Absolute Monarchs?Portrait of Louis XIV, by Hyacinthe Rigaud, c. 1700/1701. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Louvre Museum, ParisSome of Europes most influential absolute monarchs left an everlasting impact on world history. They are known not only for their absolute political power but also for building vast empires, military conquest, and strong leadership. Undoubtedly, some of the most powerful absolute monarchs were Philip II of Spain (1556-1598), Louis XIV of France (1643-1715), Peter the Great of Russia (1682-1725), and Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-1796).Portrait of Philip II of Spain, by Sofonisba Anguissola, 1565. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museo del Prado, MadridPhilip II of Spain was known as the protector and defender of catholicism. He ruled the largest empire of the 16th century that spread across Spain, Portugal, the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily, the Duchy of Milan, Sardinia, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the Spanish colonies in America. Philip II intensified colonial expansion and accumulated a lot of gold and silver from his American colonies. During the religious conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, Philip II positioned himself as the fearsome protector of the Roman Catholic Church and prosecuted Protestants. Philip II also strengthened the Spanish Inquisition, which became feared across Europe.King Louis XIV of France, also known as The Sun King, is often portrayed as the embodiment of absolutism. During his reign, he strengthened his authority by centralizing the government and making Versailles his residence. At the same time, he weakened the influence of the nobility and made himself the true symbol of the state. His famous words were: I am the state. A good military leader, Louis XIV expanded French territory during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). However, because of some of his political and economic decisions, Frances power started to decline after his rule.Peter the Great of Russia was remembered as the ruler who modernized the state and took it from medieval to modern times. He reformed almost every aspect of the Russian state and society. From military, bureaucracy, technology, and church, Peter the Great turned Russia into a true European force. He was also a powerful military leader who defeated the Kingdom of Sweden and brought Russia to the Baltic Sea.Portrait of Catherine II of Russia, after Alexander Roslin, the 1780s. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Kunsthistorisches Museum, ViennaCatherine the Great of Russia was another monarch who embodied absolute power. Through her careful politics, Catherine reformed the education system and the economy. One of the so-called enlightened despot, she was fascinated by Enlightenment ideas. Even though she was an absolute ruler, she revolutionized some aspects of the Russian government and laws based on the Enlightenment ideas found in the works of famous scholars such as Montesquieu, Diderot, and Voltaire. She was also a feared military leader who expanded Russian territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and Poland.Absolute monarchy started to decline at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. However, its legacy and influence left an everlasting impact on world politics and the development of democratic political systems.

Pope Urban II (1088-1099) was a key figure in the process of initiating the First Crusade by calling upon the Christian world to gather together in the name of God and defend the Christian faith against the non-believers who had control over the Holy Land and the Holy City, Jerusalem. The First Crusade lasted from 1096 to 1099, ultimately leading to the formation of Crusade states and Christian control of Jerusalem. This article will explore the conditions leading to the First Crusade, its main objectives, legacy, and consequences.The Holy Land Before the First CrusadeSt. Anselme Before Pope Urban II, photograph by Thesupermat, July 25, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons/St. Corentin Cathedral in Quimper, Finistre, Brittany, FranceWhen we talk about the Holy Land, we refer to Jerusalem, Palestine, and the surrounding territories. This land has a turbulent past, and it was controlled by various rulers, including the Byzantine Empire, the Rashidun Caliphate, the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Seljuk Turks.Between the 4th and 7th centuries, Jerusalem was part of the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Theodosius I (347-395) proclaimed the city one of the leading centers of Christianity and made the Christian faith the empires official religion. In 614, the Sasanian Empire attacked and conquered Jerusalem; however, the Byzantine Empire recaptured the city again in 628.After being conquered by the Sasanian Empire, however, the city and the surrounding region were never the same again. The Byzantine power and influence weakened, and the city was captured again in 637 by Caliph Umar ibn al-Khab from the Muslim Rashidun Caliphate. During Umar Is reign, Jerusalem had religious autonomy as long as it paid taxes to the caliphate, meaning the Christian and Jewish people could openly practice their religions and live in peace.Afterward, the Umayyads controlled the region from 661 to 750 and the Abbasids from 750 to 969. During the reign of the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt (969-1070), the situation for Christians and Jews became more complicated as they were prosecuted and faced dangerous circumstances.The Seljuk Turks captured Jerusalem in 1073. Two years earlier, in 1071, they faced the Byzantine Empire and defeated Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes in the Battle of Manzikert (present-day Malazgirt, Trkiye). It was then that the Byzantine Empire asked the rest of the Christian world for help defending the empire and the Holy Land.Pope Urban II and the Call for the Holy WarPope Urban II preaching at the Council of Clermont, by Jean Colombe, c. 1474. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Gallica/Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisPope Urban II was the head of the Roman Catholic Church at this pivotal time in medieval history. He had political and religious ambitions and saw the Byzantine Empires call for help as an opportunity to restore papal supremacy and authority over Christian people, not only in Western and Southern Europe but also in Byzantine territories. Indeed, supporting the Byzantine emperor could strengthen the bond between the Western and Eastern churches after the Great Schism, the 1054 split caused by a series of theological differences and political reasons.The pope organized the Council of Clermont in 1095, exhorting Christian rulers to rescue Jerusalem from the Turks and defend Christianity against the non-believers. Pope Urban II rallied them based on moral duty and highlighted Jerusalems importance. The pope also promised eternal salvation and the forgiveness of sins for all those who joined the Holy War and went to the Holy Land to defend Christianity.The popes call was enthusiastically received. Monarchs and nobles wanted eternal salvation, of course. However, they also saw the possibility of getting wealthier, as war usually included a fair share of pillaging and sacking. Younger sons of aristocratic families also saw the crusade as an opportunity to gain wealth and glory.Pope Urban IIs message spread across Christian Europe, reaching different social levels. Nobles, knights, and common people took up arms and started their journey to the Holy Land to defend Christianity and receive eternal salvation. Due to strong messaging and the promise of salvation, in 1906 there was also the so-called Peoples Crusade led by the preacher Peter the Hermit. It was composed of minor nobility, knights, peasants, and poor people. Most of them were annihilated by the Turks before reaching Jerusalem.Traveling to the Holy LandPope Urban II, by anonymous, 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTraveling to the Holy Land was complicated at the time. Indeed, at the beginning of the First Crusade, the Crusaders had to cross an incredibly long distance, all the way to Byzantium and the Levant. Traveling and moving during medieval times was challenging, especially with all the supplies and weaponry the Crusaders had with them. During their travel, they faced bad weather and terrain conditions, diseases and illnesses, starvation, and conflicts with locals in the territories they were crossing.When traveling to the Holy Land, the Crusading forces took two main routes: the overland and maritime routes. The former was the most used, and it led the Crusaders through France, the Holy Roman Empire, the Italian peninsula, and the Balkans, arriving directly by foot in the Byzantine Empire. Some of the most famous leaders of the First Crusade were Godfrey of Bouillon, Baldwin of Boulogne, Raymond IV of Toulouse, and Robert of Normandy. The travel was harsh and lasted months, claiming many Crusaders lives even before they reached the Holy Land.The Crusaders Cross the Bosphorus, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSome Crusaders opted to use the maritime (and more expensive) route to reach Jerusalem. In particular, contingents from France and Italy traveled by boat since the Mediterranean Sea was the fastest way to reach the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Land.In addition to enduring difficult weather and terrain in the Balkans and Anatolia, the Crusaders struggled with a lack of vital supplies, such as food. Hungry and exhausted, they often looted the territories they crossed.After reaching Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, the Crusading soldiers clashed with the local population because of their pillaging habits. The Byzantine emperor faced a difficult situation; the people who were supposed to help him fight the Seljuk Turks were instead busy committing crimes and destroying his lands. He made sure to transport them to Anatolia as soon as possible.The First Crusades Main Conquests and BattlesSige de Nice, by anonymous, 1337. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Gallica Digital LibraryDuring the Holy War, the Crusaders had different targets and objectives. The first was Nicaea, the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. Together with the Byzantine emperors forces, the Crusading soldiers managed to cut off the city from its primary resources and supplies. The Seljuk Turks were driven to desperation and surrendered the city to the Byzantine Empire on June 19, 1097.The next famous stop was Antioch, one of the most important cities under the control of the Seljuk Turks. The Crusaders launched a long siege of the city that lasted multiple months and required extensive resources and military strategy.According to historical sources, the city fell due to the betrayal of the Armenian guard, who opened the city gates to the Crusaders. The hungry and angry soldiers started storming and pillaging the city, causing much devastation to its inhabitants. The Crusading forces entered the city on June 3, 1098, but a couple of days later, they were attacked by a Muslim army. However, they launched a counterattack, defeated the enemy forces, and claimed Antioch.Varqa fighting on horseback, by anonymous, 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe following conquest, and the most important one, was the Holy City itself, Jerusalem. Jerusalem, at that point, was under the control of the Fatimid Caliphate. The Crusading forces started the siege in June 1099, and the city finally fell on June 15, 1099. Just like in Antioch, the soldiers started pillaging the city, killing many civilians, and stealing everything they wanted. According to historical chroniclers, Jerusalem was ruined, and so many people were murdered that blood was running down its streets.The Legacy of the First CrusadeBaldwin of Boulogne entering Edessa in February 1098, by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury, 1840. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe legacy of the First Crusade is complicated, and it shaped political and religious relations across continents and countries. One of the most consequential results of the Holy War was the creation of the Crusader states: the Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1291), the Principality of Antioch (1098-1268), the County of Edessa (1098-1144), and the County of Tripoli (1109-1289). These new territories were highly vulnerable and saw constant conflict. They also led to other crusades.Another consequence of the First Crusade was the worsened relations between Christians and Muslims. Crusaders were extremely brutal while pillaging the cities and territories where Muslims peacefully coexisted with other religious groups.Some writers and chroniclers, like Ibn al-Athir, described the devastating brutality and massacres of the Crusading forces in Jerusalem, killing Muslim and Jewish people without hesitation and mercy. The behavior of the Crusaders and the formation of the Crusader states brought Muslim people together and ultimately led to the fall of the Crusaders-controlled territories.The Guiding Creed, by Ibn Tumart, March 8, 2011. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPope Urban II increased papal influence by calling for the Holy War. The Catholic Church broadened its authority and received a lot of land and gold from monarchs and nobles who answered the popes call. At the same time, the behavior of the Crusaders and the papacy worsened relations between the Eastern and Western churches. The popes intention to spread his influence in Byzantine territories in the Middle East also played a role in exacerbating the situation.The First Crusade left an everlasting impact on religious relations and politics. The newly formed Crusade states did bring a European presence to the Holy Land. However, this caused more religious conflicts and accelerated the weakening of medieval empires such as Byzantium.

The racing genre has seen a modern renaissance due to the success of the Forza Horizon series, with both simulation and arcade racers shifting to an open-world style reminiscent of that series.

Noctua has just come up with an ingenious way for gamers with sweaty hands to keep their palms cool when theyre in the heat of battle, with a new gaming mouse design that not only features a chassis full of holes but also sports a cooling fan inside it. Designed in conjunction with Pulsar Gaming Gears, the new mouse is also clad in the classic (but also divisive) beige and brown Noctua livery, and is currently at the prototype stage.As the manufacturer of many of the best CPU cooler designs you can buy right now, Noctua has a grand reputation when it comes to thermal engineering, with its products nearly always offering premium build quality, quiet operation, and superb cooling performance. The company has been branching out into other areas recently, including a Noctua AIO cooler, and now with this new gaming mouse, which its now showing off at the Computex tradeshow in Taiwan. Continue reading This new Noctua gaming mouse stops sweaty hands, thanks to a clever additionMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best graphics card, Best gaming PC, Best SSD for gaming

The super-fast movement. The incredible shotgun. Those beautiful, pixelated torrents of gore. The original Doom, from 1993, was groundbreaking for dozens of reasons. But it also spearheaded modern speedrunning. Those end-of-mission screens, where you could compare your time with id Softwares own, in house par, were a gauntlet thrown down - how fast can you go? Between Half-Life, Quake, and the latter-day Fallouts, some of the best speedrun games are also FPS games. The record for Doom Eternal is a staggeringly tiny 17 minutes. Now, with Doom The Dark Ages still relatively fresh on Steam, one player has already gotten ids latest down to a lean 70 minutes. Continue reading It's possible to complete Doom The Dark Ages in just over 70 minutesMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Doom The Dark Ages review, Doom The Dark Ages weapons, Doom The Dark Ages missions

Are you looking for the best Elden Ring mods? The beauty of mods is that theyre highly versatile tools that allow players to tweak their experience. In the case of Elden Ring, you might wonder why anyone would want to mod a game that's so well-received. Well, if you find Soulslikes difficult, the Easy Mode mod is a surefire way to tone things down a notch. Some players might consider this goes too far, so why not remove the death mechanic, which stops you from losing your Runes instead?What makes the best Elden Ring mods stand out is that they have the power to drastically improve someones experience of the open-world game. Whether you want to change the way ranged weapons work, or you want the option to pause Elden Ring, weve got the mods for you. Heres everything you need to try out the best Elden Ring mods, including seamless co-op, the Convergence overhaul mod, and more. Continue reading The best Elden Ring modsMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Elden Ring builds, Elden Ring bosses, Elden Ring weapons

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