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While Jane Austen is often recalled for her depictions of passionate and thwarted love affairs, her work is more consistently and enduringly focused on the consideration of social and moral problems as she observed them. Completing six novels before her untimely death, these books survey issues of class, inheritance, logic and reason, and morality, setting her characters in motion under specific conditions and attitudes in order to play the stories out to their logical conclusion. In this way, Austens writing is both entertaining and instructive.1. Sense and Sensibility (1811)Sense and Sensibility title page, 1884. Source: British Library / FlickrAustens first novel, Sense and Sensibility, tells the story of the widowed Mrs. Dashwood and her three daughters, Marianne, Elinor, and Margaret. Living previously happy and untroubled lives in the family estate, Norland Park, things are thrown into turmoil upon the death of Mr. Dashwood due to the common practice of entailment, meaning that the property must now pass to the male heir: their unscrupulous and selfish brother, John. As John casts the women out in favor of pleasing his own wife, the Dashwoods must now begin again in a small cottage provided by sympathetic friends.Sense and Sensibilitys charting of the lives of the Dashwood women is saturated with humiliation due to the womens much-reduced circumstances as tenants in a small property. But despite their state of degradation, their spirits are often lifted by stoicism and bravery, marking them as impressively dignified in the face of family betrayal.But while the womens dignity is aspirational, perhaps most resonant are the moments in which they are completely undone by their mistreatment. This cruelty comes not only from their brother, John, but also from Elinors hopeful romantic encounter with Edward and, most shockingly, from serial seducer John Willoughbys careless involvement with the too-trusting Marianne.Protect Your HeartThey Sang Together by Hugh Thomson in Sense and Sensibility, 1896. Source: British Library / FlickrIf there is a lesson beyond morality that Austen intends to impart in Sense and Sensibility, it is the necessity for young women to guard their emotions against men who will play far too casually with their dreams. This theme is repeated across not only the backstory of kindly Colonel Brandons beloved yet sexually exploited Eliza but also through Elinors thwarted relationship with cowardly Edward, who often seems to lie by omission, and most explicitly through poor Mariannes emotional destruction by Willoughby.Younger and less skilled at absorbing the indignity of navigating the world of courtship than her elder sister, Elinor, Mariannes inability to brush off Willoughbys mistreatment of her will chime with any reader who has ever been ghosted, strung along, or used as an ego boost by someone they adored. In this sense, Austen is a master of zeroing in on exactly the desperation, creeping fear, and ultimate humiliation that has unfortunately clouded the experiences of many of us trying to navigate the dating scene.2. Emma (1815)Emma was not sorry to have such an opportunity of survey by Hugh Thomson in Emma, 1896. Source: British Library / FlickrUnusually, for one of Jane Austens novels, the author keeps her protagonist, Emma, out of harms way from beginning to end, and the greatest burden she is endowed with is her own inflated self-belief. The classic Austen themes of compromised circumstances and limited choices for women are still at play; however, in this story, there is also an enhanced focus on class through the presence of two central characters, Harriet and Jane.Despite the tragic loss of her mother at a young age, Emma has still benefited from the skilled instruction of her governess, Miss Taylor, and the rich indulgence of her father, Mr. Woodhouse. Growing up in a small community, Emma is the darling of almost everyone and is quick to form connections with any new members of society. When Emma meets the far less sophisticated Harriet, her attempts at instruction and matchmaking are not unlike Henry Higginss project to civilize Eliza Doolittle in George Bernard Shaws later work, Pygmalion. Much like Pygmalion, Harriets friendship with Emma provides a litany of misunderstandings and errors.Assumptions and MisunderstandingsHe stopped to look the question by Hugh Thomson in Emma, 1896. Source: British Library / FlickrEmma also meets, with far less enthusiasm, a governess-to-be, Jane. In contrast to Harriets charming but unpolished character that Emma is so taken with, Jane has been the beneficiary of an elite education and carries with her a reserved and modest personality. Bristling against Janes accomplishments and temperament, Emma evades her in favor of the far more easily manipulated Harriet. Emmas choice to effectively shun Jane while entertaining Harriet becomes one of her greatest moments for learning, teaching her that human lives are far more complex than she has previously understood and that discretion is infinitely more valuable than charm.Harriet and Jane can be read in Emma as two distinct manifestations of the same circumstances. In both cases, the women lack agency and voice due to their far lower social status and conditional access to the landed gentry, meaning they have little bargaining power or influence in romantic engagements. What is clear from the experiences of both women is the degree of passivity and confusion that tails them as they attempt to make their way through the marriage market.3. Mansfield Park (1814)She said nothing but, Sad, sad girl! in Mansfield Park, 1898. Source: British Library / FlickrMansfield Park tells the story of the classic poor relation, Fanny, cousin to the wealthy Bertram Family, who, unlike her wealthy relatives, has grown up in a household far too full of children and short of money to expect much from life. While the Bertram family could easily gift a little of their fortune to the Price family and lift them out of poverty, they choose instead to offer a new life to a single child and raise them on their own estate, Mansfield Park.Distinctive from Austens other novels, Mansfield Park takes a more complicated route from love to marriage, allocating Edmund, Fannys object of desire, to her in ways that sometimes seem outside of his wishes. Unusual, too, in this novel is the status of our protagonist, Fanny, as less of a heroine and more of an outsider or cuckoo in the nest.Fascinating also are the undercurrents of lust and scandal richly depicted throughout the plot in Mansfield Park. These occur not simply as reported events happening only on the periphery to individuals we would expect nothing less from but as actions and urges that all the characters, excluding Fanny, are unable to resist.A Dark TaleI did not know which way to look in Mansfield Park, 1898. Source: British Library /FlickrNotable Postcolonial and cultural theorist Edward Said brought Austens work under the microscope when he highlighted the background of slavery and plantations that funded the lives of the Bertram family, and that goes unquestioned in the narrative. Reading classic literature through a postcolonial lens is now an expected and often necessary process for the modern reader, and the familys studied innocence when discussing overseas plantations without thinking of the humans who power them is fortunately now at odds with the way we relate to European history.However, this distant plantation, the required and risky sea crossings, and the unknown world beyond the secure walls of Mansfield Park certainly contribute to the novels darkness. So, too, does Fannys initial time with the Bertram family, sequestered in the attic rooms with nothing in the way of comfort or warmth to soothe her upon the loss of her own family. The motif of the attic and the estranged figure occurs often in historical literature, and here it is redolent of work such as Charlotte Bronts Jane Eyre and Emily Bronts Wuthering Heights, endowing the text with a gothic tone unmediated by humor or irony.4. Northanger Abbey (1817)Catherine grows quite a good-looking girl by Hugh Thomson in Northanger Abbey, 1897. Source: British Library / FlickrSpending a significant amount of the plot in the Bath, a city synonymous with Jane Austen, Northanger Abbey later decamps to the property from which it takes its title. As with all of Austens novels, much of the action deals with the complexities of courtship that women experienced at that time and highlights several ways in which women can be degraded through participation in the marriage economy. However, in Northanger Abbey, we also understand how income can influence mens abilities to find a match, much as is also illustrated through the character of Edmund in Mansfield Park.Catherines older brother, James, illustrates not only the centrality of finance to matrimonial matchmaking at the time that Austen wrote but also the limits for individuals to fashion their own paths beyond that which their parents had chosen for them. While James believes he has made a successful match with the glamourous and sophisticated Isabella, upon their engagement, she is revolted to discover the meager living he will be entitled to when he takes up his assigned position as a member of the clergy. The choices Isabella subsequently makes are arguably more damaging to her than James, but Jamess narrow options are also striking and illustrate how personal interests and passions have no influence on the ways in which even the child of a wealthy family might plot their life.Society and SnobsMr. Tilney! she exclaimed by Hugh Thomson in Northanger Abbey, 1897. Source: British Library / FlickrCaught also in a misunderstanding about familial wealth and treated with equal disdain is Catherine. At first, the darling of the Tilney family upon her attachment to their younger son, Henry, and entertained due to their overestimation of her family fortune, Catherine is abruptly and rudely cast out of Northanger Abbey once rumors about her familys destitution spread. While neither poverty nor remarkable wealth accurately describes her family circumstances, the shift from being welcome to unwelcome illustrates exactly how integral ones finances were to parental consent being granted for an engagement. In this sense, both Catherine and her brother James plot courses through the novel in which they are marginalized not due to poverty but due to their lower positions within the gentry.With the narrative frequently referencing the gothic and gruesome literature Catherine and her female friends read, Austen is understood, through her own character and plot development, to follow the basic structure of the gothic novel. But in the case of Northanger Abbey, a romantic heroine confronted by horror is made distinctly pedestrian. Catherine is merely a sensible young woman caught temporarily in delusion before learning that the evil she is witness to is merely the self-serving kind that has seemingly infected all of society.While Austen plays with class and status through her peripheral female characters in Emma, here, the author allows Jamess circumstances to foreshadow Catherines, making a wider statement about society, inheritance, and fortune than one specifically pertaining to women.5. Pride and Prejudice (1813)You must allow me to tell you how ardently I admire and love you by C. E. Brock in Pride and Prejudice, 1895. Source: British Library / FlickrPride and Prejudice focuses on Austens probably most lovable character, Elizabeth Bennet, who, despite her judgmental tendencies, is guided predominantly by a love of goodness and fairness and is rewarded for her personal development and growth at the conclusion of the novel. While Elizabeth, often known as Lizzie, charms readers with her quick wit and noble sensibilities, there is a darker background to the plot due to the financial circumstances of entailment, which means that the family home will pass to their dislikable cousin, Mr. Collins, upon the death of Lizzies father.If Pride and Prejudice has a moral lesson, it is that superficial evaluations of goodness often lead to misunderstandings, with Austen instead promoting a more careful search for a quieter and less boastful kind of virtue. This distinction is most apparent in a comparison of the performative morality of Mr. Collins, which contrasts heavily with the quiet diligence of Mr. Darcy. While Mr. Darcy initially fails to measure up to Lizzies exacting standards due to his awkwardness in social occasions being read by her as rudeness, Mr. Collins and his vocal expressions of his goodness and right behavior are equally, and eventually, far more repulsive to her.Virtue as ProtectionI never saw any one so shocked by C. E. Brock in Pride & Prejudice, 1895. Source: British Library / FlickrPresent too in Pride and Prejudice is Austens taste for scandal, in this case, enacted by Lizzies younger and far less moral sister, Lydia, whose mother has failed to effectively teach her right from wrong. As is often the case in Austens fiction, there is the presence of a wolf in sheeps clothing, or undetected rake operating within society, and is so often the case within her plots, a less guarded woman is undone by his seduction, leading to personal compromise and great shame for the family should actions continue unchecked.Despite the turmoil that plagues the characters throughout the novel, ultimately, those who adhere to true morality and goodness are well rewarded, while those who either disregard or only pay lip service to virtue are thoroughly punished. While this pattern gives very little credence to the gray areas and personal freedoms we value more completely in modern literature, Austens skill at building characters and weaving romance and conflict into her plots ensures that the pleasure of the novel endures.6. Persuasion (1817)Placed it before Anne by Hugh Thomson in Persuasion, 1897. Source: British Library / FlickrWhile Pride and Prejudice engages closely and often humorously with the question of true morality, Persuasion considers the consequences of doing the right thing when the right thing is subsequently shown to be wrong. Following the fortunes of Anne, who has previously been convinced to break her engagement to Captain Wentworth, readers first understand her enduring heartbreak at giving up on what she wanted before witnessing the two thrown together once more.Persuasion is interesting in the sense that it challenges ideas of social approval, suggesting that ones own integrity is more valuable than the questionable ideas of those surrounding you. This is seen not only in the case of Anne but in Austens drawing of Annes vain and embarrassing father, Mr. Sir Walter Elliot, who cares little for substance and everything for social status.The Value of Logic and ReasonLooking on her with a face as pallid as her own by Hugh Thomson in Persuasion, 1897. Source: British Library / FlickrAustens criticism of acting against sense and in service of social influence is emphasized in the fate of Louisa, who sustains a serious injury when jumping from the Cobb wall at Lyme Regis. While Wentworth will take this catastrophe as a consequence of his own bad advice to Louisa, in which he suggested one should never be easily persuaded by another, Louisas refusal to take care, despite the imploration of others, reads also as the actions of a woman caught up in impressing those around her, with no concern for safety.In this way, Austen makes an argument not so much for unrestricted willfulness as she does for careful consideration in accordance with what one knows to be right and true. This is not the advocacy of self-serving choices but an argument for the consideration of the unreliability of certain influences and ideas. Themes such as these reflect the dominant cultural ideas that would have influenced Austen, often termed the Age of Reason, and also expressed in the work of thinkers such as Alexander Pope and the author of Gullivers Travels, Jonathan Swift.

The seventeenth century was a turbulent time for Europe with many long wars, religious division, economic conflict, a mini-ice age, poor harvest, plague and pestilence. A perhaps understandable effort was made to understand why people were blighted by such evil times, and across the continent one answer could often be found witchcraft. Through the late medieval and early modern period the mid fifteenth to seventeenth centuries there were perhaps 35,000 people convicted and executed for witchcraft in Europe. Most of them perhaps 70-75% of them were women, and for most of Europe the investigation could (and often did) involve torture, and execution was by burning.Witchcraft Prosecutions in BritainWitches Sabbath, by Jacques de Gheyn II Netherlandish, late 16thearly 17th century. Source: The MET, New YorkWhilst there were around 35,000 convicted witches in Europe, in Britain the numbers were much more modest. There were around 500 people convicted in England, somewhere between 3-4,000 in Scotland and just five in Wales. With that said, it was commonly accepted that magic was real, and that unseen (and often undetectable) creatures were all around from fair folk to angels to ghosts to imps. After all, when things you cannot see have an effect you can there must be a reason. And if they exist then people who could interact with them could have great power.Before the 1540s there werent even laws specifically outlawing witchcraft (the first in England was during the reign of Henry VIII, whilst in Scotland it was James VI); in part this was because if a crime was committed with magic then it could simply be investigated as such, and in part because the Inquisitions of the Catholic Church hadnt ever really gotten a foothold in the British isles.The British Witch Hunt CrazeDmonologie, In Forme of a Dialogue, Divided into three Books: By the High and Mightie Prince, James &c., 1603 reprinting title page. Source: Wikipedia CommonsHeinrich Kramers Malleus Maleficarum (The Hammer of Witches) was published in 1486 and was a foundational text for would-be witch hunters. In Britain it was replaced in the late sixteenth century by the book Dmonologie. This was written by the Scottish king, James VI. King James had been interested in witchcraft since his visit to Denmark sparked fears of witchcraft being used against him, and his book Daemonologie became a key text for witchfinders in Britain and Ireland, along with essential reading for godly folks concerned about the spread of heresy and devil-worship.James VI and I passed a new law on witchcraft; no longer was it necessary to have proof that magic was used to cause harm or death to people or livestock, evidence of a covenant or pact with the devil in the flesh, in dreams, or through the use of familiar spirits was sufficient. And a confession was considered compelling evidence indeed. Both Elizabethan and Jacobean acts had also made witchcraft in England expressly a civil rather than religious crime.The Most Famous English Witch FinderTitle page from the book The Discovery of witches by the witch hunter Matthew Hopkins, 1647, from The British library, London. Source: National Archives UKThere were relatively few prosecutions for witchcraft in England before the civil wars of the 1640s, with the notable exception of the 1612 Pendle Witch Trials (in which twelve people were accused of witchcraft; ten were found guilty and hanged, one was found not guilty and released, and one died whilst in prison). This might be because England was generally peaceful and prosperous, especially compared with the continent, or perhaps because it was a civil rather than religious crime or because the growing number of radical Protestants first concerned themselves with Catholics.It was not until the British Civil Wars, and notably the period after 1644, that the hardships and loses caused by the conflict (along with poor harvests) set the conditions for an English witch panic. The best known of the people who sought to uncover a devilish origin for the peoples misery was Matthew Hopkins.Witches at their Incantations by Salvator Rosa, c. 1646. Source: The National Gallery, LondonHopkins was educated, ambitious, was the son of a radical independent clergyman (what today would be called a Puritan minister) who claimed the title of Witchfinder General. With his associate John Stearne, Hopkins was ruthless in ridding East Anglia (primarily the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire) of witches. Between the two men were responsible for the investigation, prosecution, conviction, and execution of at least 114 people more people than had been hanged in the 160 years before they took up the role.How Witches Were IdentifiedWitch milking the handle of an ax, date unknown. Source: The Wellcome Collection, LondonIn England it required the permission of the monarch for people to be subjected to torture which was the common way to force a confession from an accused witch (after all, the devil would prevent them from speaking truth without it). As such Hopkins and Stearne could not torture the people they accused of witchcraft. Despite this, the majority of people they did charge as witches did confess, and often accused others in turn. There were a couple of techniques which they, and other English witch hunters, relied upon.Woodcut depicting a witch and a devil, 1720. Source: The Wellcome Collection, LondonFirstly, and most importantly, a familiar spirit would need to feed on the blood of their mistress (or, occasionally, master). As such a suspect would be searched for a witchs mark or devils mark (often after all body hair had been shaved) this was a spot or blemish, such as a wart, birthmark, age spot or similar. If one could not be found then they might be subjected to pricking, where likely spots (often the arm) might be cut with a knife or pricked with a needle Stearne was renowned for his skill with a needle (sometimes said to be retractable). When no pain was felt, or blood drawn, this would be proof of an unseen mark the wound on the soul rather than the body. Needless to say, the odds of uncovering this evidence were high.Woodcut of the swimming test. Source: The Stamford AdvocateAccused witches might be swam, often drawn across a body of water by ropes attached to fingers and toes, or by binding the accused to a chair. If they floated, they were rejected by the water (as they had rejected the water of baptism) and were thus guilty. Hopkins had been warned about this, and usually required his victims to given permission for surely an innocent would seek to provide proof of their innocenceregardless it was more a public spectacle than anything ever presented as evidence in court. A court whose jury was doubtless made up of people who had witnessed the test.This is an early modern woodcut that depicts a witch sailing on a wooden plank, on the River Newbury, 1643, from The British Library, London. Source: National Archives UKMost common of all, however, was the simple act of watching. Though benign sounding, the accused would be sat upon a stool and closely observed so that their familiar bringing word to or from the devil would be seen, and their feeding on the blood of their mistress likewise. They would also be spoken with, though some might say interrogated or harangued, censured lest they made a confession. As they would be being observed they were denied food or drink, and if sleep threatened would be stood up and made to walk back and forth. It is said that Hopkins first victim confessed after four days to having five familiars.How Witches Were PunishedPamphlet artwork depicting witches being burned at the stake in Derenburg, Germany, 1555. Source: National Geographic UKWhilst in Europe (and in Scotland) convicted witches who were executed (and not all were, though most suffered that fate) were generally burned sometimes being strangled or beheaded first this was not the case in England and Wales. Because witchcraft was a civil offense they would be executed in the normal way, according to custom.That is to say, commoners would be hanged a process which could be as fast as a broken neck, or as slow as gradual suffocation whilst nobility might be beheaded (which might take several blows from an axe). In some cases, those of petty treason (normally a woman who used witchcraft to kill her husband) a very few convicted witches were burned, this was because the crime they had used witchcraft for was a heresy, not because of the witchcraft itself. The same is true of witchcraft prosecutions in the USA, most famous of which was the Salem Witch Trials.An End to Witch Trials in EnglandHelen Duncan, the last person convicted of witchcraft. Source: Bremen EinsThe last witch trials in England took place in the early 18th centuries, and the Witchcraft Act of 1735, which made it a crime of fraud to claim to have magical powers or to accuse someone of being a witch. The last person to be convicted under that act was Helen Duncan, a medium and spiritualist who was jailed in 1943 who came to the attention of the authorities after apparently contacting the spirits of a sailor whose ships sinking was being kept secret.

There are 118 chemical elements on the periodic table. Just 18 of these elements are named after genuine historical figures. These historical figures were not only scientists and mathematicians but also philosophers, writers, businessmen, prestigious landowners, and engineers.Although there are 18 elements named after real people, 19 people give their names to these elements. This is because one particular elementwhich we will discover more about lateris named after two scientists jointly. These people were chosen for a variety of reasons but shockingly, and despite common misconception, not a single chemical element is named after the scientist who discovered it.1. Ernest Rutherford (Rutherfordium)Photograph of Ernest Rutherford, c. 1920s. Source: Library of CongressErnest Rutherford was one of the exceptional scientists of his era. Not only is he now remembered as the father of nuclear physics, but he is also known as the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday. Even more impressively, in the year of 1908, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his investigation into the disintegration of elements. All things considered, there is little wonder why Rutherford was granted the honor of having a chemical element named after him. Nor is it any surprise that Rutherfordium is the element in question.One may naturally ask, what exactly is Rutherfordium? Rutherfordium is a synthetic chemical element, one of many of its type on the Periodic Table. This means that it does not occur naturally on earth, but must be created through human manipulation. Synthetic elements, otherwise known as artificial or manmade elements, are those with atomic numbers between 95 and 118.Rutherfordium has the atomic number 104, and its symbol is Rf. It is also radioactive.Contrary to popular belief, Rutherfordium was not actually discovered by Ernest Rutherford. There is no record of its existence until nearly three decades after his death. Rutherfordium was first encountered by Georgy Flerov, during the year of 1964, during an experiment at the Russian Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Geory Flerov could also be included in this list, as Flerovium now bears his name.Photograph of Igor Kurchatov. Source: Atomic Energy ArchiveDuring the decades after its discovery, various alternative names were suggested for the new and exciting element that would become Rutherfordium. The JINR put forth Kurchatovium (Ku), to honor Igor Kurchatov, the former head of Soviet Nuclear Research.America, whose scientists had also stumbled upon the same element, suggested Rutherfordium. There was much debate between the two countries over which name should be officially recognized before it was ruled by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry that Rutherfordium should be accepted.After his death in October of 1937, Ernest Rutherford was buried in Westminster Abbey. His body now lies beside the likes of Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin. He is still particularly popular in Britain, partly due to his time spent studying at Cambridge University, and partly due to his Scottish and English heritage.2. Nicolaus Copernicus (Copernicium)Portrait of Nicolaus Copernicus, 1580. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOf all the historic figures with chemical elements named after them, Nicolaus Copernicus was one of only two to have lived during the 15th century. The other is Amerigo Vespucci, after whom Americium is debatably named. Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473, the same year as many other historic figures such as Cardinal Wolsey, Thomas Howard Duke of Norfolk, and King James IV of Scotland.Nicolaus Copernicus is now best remembered as a Polish polymath, mathematician, and astronomer. Most notably, he was the first European scientist to put forth the theory that the Earth and other planets in the Solar System revolve around the Sun.Predictably, the element named after Nicolaus Copernicus is Copernicium. It was first created during 1996 in Germany, at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt. 13 years later, in 2009, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry proposed for it a name and a symbol. Copernicium, otherwise known as Cp, was chosen to honor an outstanding scientist who changed our view of the world.3. Dmitri Mendeleev (Mendelevium)Photograph of Dmitri Mendeleev. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDmitri Mendeleev. This name is not only familiar to scientists and historians, but also to people of all ages, nationalities, and professions. We all learned about him in our chemistry lessons at school.Debatably, Mendeleev is the most important figure on this list, for it was he who devised the Periodic Table of chemical elements in the first place. It would be wrong to put together a list of historic figures with chemical elements named after them without including the creator of the Periodic Table himself.Dmitri Mendeleev lived between 1834 and 1907. By the time he had begun work on what would become the Periodic Table, there were 56 known elements to be included. New elements were being discovered at the rate of approximately one per year. It was on March 6, 1869, that Mendeleev officially shared his creation for the first time. He formally presented his Periodic Table to the Russian Chemical Society; his lecture was entitled The Dependence Between the Properties of the Atomic Weights of the Elements.In 1955, the element that would soon become known as Mendelevium was discovered by American chemists Albert Ghiorso, Bernard G. Harvey, Gregory R Choppin, Stanley G Thompson, and Glenn T. Seaborg.Photograph of Glenn T. Seaborg, c. 1964. Source: NARAGlenn T. Seaborg explained the reason behind the choice of name. We thought it fitting that there be an element named for the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, who had developed the periodic table. He confessed that Mendeleev had helped the discovery of the element, in nearly all our experiments discovering transuranium elements, wed depended on his method of predicting chemical properties based on the elements position in the table. Some years later, in 1974, Glenn T. Seaborg was chosen as the namesake of element 106, Seaborgium.Mendelevium is a synthetic, radioactive element. Its symbol is Md; its atomic number is 101. Dmitri Mendeleev is now remembered as the father of the Periodic Table.4. Albert Einstein (Einsteinium)Photograph of Albert Einstein, by Arthur Sasse, 1951. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOf all the historic figures with chemical elements named after them, Albert Einstein is undoubtedly the most famous. Einstein is now remembered as one of the most influential scientists of all time. He is one of very few figures to be considered, pretty much worldwide, as a genius.Albert Einstein lived between the years of 1879 and 1955. Most notably, he won the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of photoelectric effect. His most famous work, however, is his development of the theory of relativity, which he published in 1905. Which of us can say we are not familiar with the phrase, E = MC2? Even if we are not sure about its meaning?It was in 1952, three years before Einsteins death, that element number 99 was first recorded. The discovery was made by a group of scientists headed by Albert Ghiorso at the University of California, Berkeley.The Periodic Table of Chemical Elements. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter considering many options, the name Einsteinium was chosen by the team to honor Albert Einstein. Other possibilities were Fermium (in honor of Enrico Fermi), and Pandamonium (to honor the team that had operated under the acronym PANDA).According to the Royal Society of Chemistry, Einsteinium has no uses other than scientific research. Its chemical symbol is Es.5. George Berkeley (Berkelium)Portrait of George Berkeley, by John Smibert, c. 1727. Source: SmithsonianThere are three things that make George Berkeley different from the other historical figures we have reviewed so far. Firstly, he was not a scientist but a philosopher. Secondly, he lived during the 17th and 18th centuries in Ireland. And finally, George Berkeleys chemical element was not named after him directly, but by default. Nonetheless, he still appears among the other figures 19 who have elements named after them.George Berkeley is now best remembered for being an Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he referred to as immaterialism. The theory questions the existence of material substance and suggests that familiar objects are perceived by the mind, and cannot actually exist without being perceived within a human thought. Berkeley also served as Bishop of Cloyne between 1734 and 1753.Had he been alive to see it, having a chemical element named after him would have come as something of a surprise to him. Berkelium was not named after George Berkeley himself, but after the University of California Berkeley, where the element was discovered.Campus of the UC Berkeley in Berkeley, California, United States, photo by Charlie Nguyen. Source: FlickrBoth the city and the university stand on the Eastern shore of San Francisco Bay in California. However, since both the city and the university were named after the philosopher George Berkeley, the chemical element is also considered to have technically been named after him.So, why were a city and university in America named after an Irish, 17th-18th century philosopher? Well, on May 24, 1866, the trustees of the College of California held a meeting on the site that would soon become the campus. As the group stood looking out into the distance, trustee Frederick Billings brought to mind a poem written in 1726 by George Berkeley, entitled Verses on the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America.83 years later, in December of 1949, Berkelium was discovered at the same university. So, first came the philosopher, then came the Californian university, then came the city, then came the element.Berkelium is another of the synthetic elements; it has the chemical symbol Bk and the atomic number 97.6. Niels Bohr (Bohrium)Photograph of Niels Bohr, 1922. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBohrium is another of the synthetic elements. It has the chemical symbol Bh and the atomic number 107. Like many of the elements on this list, it has no uses other than scientific research.Two groups of scientists claim to have discovered Bohrium. The first reported discovery was made in 1976, by a Soviet research team led by Yuri Oganessian. The second reported discovery was made in 1981 in Darmstadt, Germany. The latter is now generally accepted to have been the definitive discovery.Of course, like all chemical elements, element number 107 required a name. Two names were considered, and both honored the Danish physicist Niels Bohr.The first name suggested for the element was Nielsbohrium, but the name was later changed to Bohrium by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.Niels Bohr lived between the years of 1885 and 1962. He is now best remembered for his contributions to the understanding of atomic structure. Niels Bohr also received a Nobel Prize in physics for his work on quantum theory.7. Amerigo Vespucci (Americium)Amerigo Vespucci finding the Southern Cross, c. 1600. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAmerigo Vespucci is another historical figure who only shares only a loose connection to the chemical element that bears his name. Just like George Berkeley and Berkelium, Americium is indirectly named after Amerigo Vespucci. The country of America was named after Amerigo, and the element was named after the country.So, first came Amerigo the explorer. Then came America the country. Last came Americium the element.The naming of America the country occurred shortly after Christopher Columbuss first voyage to the Americas in 1492. It is generally accepted that the name of America derives from the name of Amerigo Vespucci, in honor of his exploration of the new continents on behalf of Spain and Portugal.Of all the historic figures with chemical elements named after them, it is Amerigo Vespucci who lived the longest time ago. He was born in 1443 in the Republic of Florence and now, just over 500 years after his death, he is best remembered for being an exceptional explorer and navigator.Americium was first produced in 1944 by Glenn T. Seborga name which should be familiar to us by nowat the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, as part of the Manhattan project. Americium is a highly radioactive element, and must only be handled in an assigned lab under special regulations.8. Alfred Nobel (Nobelium)Photograph of Alfred Nobel, before 1896. Source: Dictionary of Swedish BiographyAll lovers of science and history are familiar with the work of Alfred Nobel. Partly thanks to the various things that bear his name, he is now remembered as one of the best known scientists in the world. Nobel has been described not only as an inventor, chemist, and engineer but also as a skilled entrepreneur and businessman. He lived between the years of 1833 and 1896, and during this time, held 355 patents for new inventions.Among these were patents for gunpowder, artificial rubber, artificial silk, gas meters, and apparatus for measuring water. Despite his hundreds of patents, he remains best known for making dynamite.The Encyclopaedia Britannica sums up the life and works of Alfred Nobel in one short entry. Alfred Nobel was a Swedish chemist, engineer, and industrialist who invented dynamite and other more powerful explosives, more importantly, and perhaps more famously, it states, he also founded the Nobel Prize.The Nobel Prize is one of the most coveted and prestigious awards it is possible to claim. They were first given out in the year of 1901. As instructed by Alfred Nobel himself, the awards were separated into five categories: physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and peace. A sixth prize for economic sciences was added in 1969.In 1957, 61 years after Alfred Nobels death, a new chemical element was discovered by a research team in Stockholm. The elementoriginally known simply as element 112was later named Nobelium to honor the life and achievements of Alfred Nobel.9. Maire and Pierre Curie (Curium)Photograph of Marie and Pierre Curie, 1895. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCurium is unique because it is the only chemical element to be named after two people. It is also the only chemical element to be named afterat least in parta woman. Yes, Curium is named after both Marie and Pierre Curie, the married couple known equally for their exceptional study of radioactivity.Pierre Curie is best remembered as a French physicist, and a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism, and radioactivity. He jointly shared a Nobel Prize in physics with Marie in 1903.Debatably, Marie Curie is the better known of the partnership. Certainly, it is she who is best remembered for her incredible achievements. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize. She remains the only person ever to have won a Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. Most astonishingly of all, it was Marie Curie who discovered chemical element number 84. It was named Polonium, after Poland, to honor her home country. After her death in November 1934, she became the first woman to be entombed in the Paris Pantheon on her own merits.Photograph of Irene Joliot-Curie, 1921. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCurium itself was discovered in the year of 1944. The discovery was made by a team at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, which included many familiar names such as Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso. Curium has the symbol Cm and the atomic number 96.Irene Juliot-Curie, the daughter of Marie and Pierre Curie, continued the family legacy by earning her own Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1935.10. Yuri Oganessian (Oganesson)Photograph of Yuri Oganessian, 2016. Source: Wikimedia CommonsYuri Oganessianhe is by no means the best-known figure on this list. He is not a household name, in the same way as Afred Nobel or Albert Einstein. However, he is unique in many ways. For example, of all the historical figures with chemical elements named after them, he is the only one still living today (aged 91 at the time of writing).Furthermore, Yuri Oganessian is one of only two people to have had a chemical element named after him during his lifetime, and to have been aware of the final decision. The other was Glenn T. Seaborgelement 106 was given the name Seaborgium before his death.It was said by Gregory Flyorov that Yuri Oganessian was a remarkable physicist and experimentalist, whose work is characterised by originality, and who possessed an ability to approach a problem from an unexpected side, and to achieve an ultimate result.Oganessian was born in April 1933. He is best known for his research on superheavy chemical elements, so much so that he has been dubbed the grandfather of superheavy elements. Fittingly, the element that bears his nameOganessonis the heaviest element on the Periodic Table.Oganesson is the newest of the chemical elements. It was announced in November of 2016 that it would be named Oganesson, to honor Yuri Oganessian. The decision was made by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Oganesson has the atomic number 118 and the atomic symbol Og.Other Historic Figures With Chemical Elements Named After ThemTantalus, by Gioacchino Assereto, 1640s. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn this article, we have reviewed just some of the historic figures with chemical elements named after them. The other eightwhich have been omitted from this particular list at random are included below.They are Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets (Samarium), Enrico Fermi (Fermium), Ernest Lawrence (Lawrencium), Johan Gadolinium (Johan Gadolin), Glenn T. Seaborg (Seaborgium), Lise Meitner (Meitnerium), Wilhelm Rontgen (Roentgenium), Gregory Flyorov (Flerovium), and Robert Livermore (Livermorium).This is to say nothing of the chemical elements named after mythological figures, for example Promethium (Prometheus) and Tantalus (Tantalum).

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