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George Washington lived a life of many firsts. Fellow Virginian Light-Horse Harry Lee described Washington as first in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countrymen (OBrien, 2010, 3). Lee could have mentioned several concrete firsts. For starters, in April 1789, Washington became the first American to assume the office of president.Washingtons life has been the subject of much mythmaking and legend, and was the subject of many tall tales even in his lifetime. This article answers some of the most common questions about George Washingtons life and legacy.1. When Was George Washington Born?George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Westmoreland County, Virginia, photograph by Hugh Talman, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGeorge Washington was born along the Potomac River near Popes Creek, Westmoreland County, Virginia, in February 1732.Washington was born into a prominent Virginia family with roots in the colony going back to the 1650s. By the time Washington was born on February 22, 1732, his family had been established in the area known as the Northern Neck in Virginia for more than three generations (Johnson, 2009, 5).Historian Alexis Coe points out that Washingtons mother, Mary, encouraged young George to become a land surveyor (2020, 9). Land surveying became a passion for Washington and a common activity he pursued throughout his life.According to Paul Johnson, Washington saw himself from a young age as a member of a ruling elite used to managing its own affairs without interference from London. Therefore, any change in that power arrangement required resistance (2009, 5).Historians do not know precisely where Washingtons birth took place. The current memorial site at Popes Creek features a reconstruction of a home typical of the region at the time of Washingtons birth. The house and historic site were founded on the occasion of the bicentennial of Washingtons birth in 1932.2. Was George Washington British?Portrait of George Washington in Virginia Militia Uniform, by Charles Wilson Peale, 1772. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, Washington DCGeorge Washington was a (mostly) loyal subject of the British Crown for much of his life.Indeed, the young George Washington wanted nothing more than to become a British officer. Historian Fred Anderson points out that it can be difficult today to appreciate that George Washington once considered himself a loyal British subject (2005, xxiii).However, in the 1750s, Washington hoped his military service to Virginia would translate into a commission in the regular British army during the French and Indian War (1754-1763).Earlier, we mentioned the many firsts in George Washingtons life. One of those firsts involved Washingtons pivotal role in the first battles of the French and Indian War, the second phase of the Seven Years War fought in North America.Unfortunately for Washington, these early battles were British disasters. Washington ultimately became a colonel in the Virginia militia and retired from Virginia military service in 1758 (Anderson, 2005). He never received a British officers commission.Even in the 1760s, when unpopular British taxation policies caused turmoil across the colonies, Washington took a moderate position.However, British policies increasingly brought Washington to support a decisive separation from Britain. Ultimately, historian David Hackett Fischer explains that the battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 drove Washington to support the American Revolution (2004, 16). Two months later, in June 1775, Washington assumed command of the American forces outside Boston, preparing to resist the British army.3. Where Did George Washington Live?George Washingtons Mount Vernon Mansion, photograph by Martin Falbisoner, 2013. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWashington inherited the estate of Mount Vernon outside Alexandria, Virginia, from his half-brother, Lawrence, upon the death of his widow in 1761. Washington had been leasing the property from Lawrences widow since the early 1750s. In 1759, Washington married the wealthy widow Martha Dandridge Custis.Joel Achenbach points out that Mount Vernon boasted five distinct farms over nearly 8,000 acres of land along the Potomac River (2004, 2).According to Achenbach, during the Revolutionary War (1775-1783), Washington only visited Mount Vernon briefly on two occasions. Both visits occurred during the Yorktown campaign in late 1781 (2004, 3). Martha Washington oversaw the day-to-day running of Mount Vernon in Washingtons lengthy absence.Despite being among the most well-traveled Americans of his generation, Washington only left the shores of the future United States once to visit Barbados with his half-brother Lawrence. As historian Nathaniel Philbrick explains, Washington would have preferred to stay at Mount Vernon, but he was repeatedly called upon to serve in a leadership role in the young United States. He oversaw many renovations and expansion projects, including a piazza and the iconic cupola on the roof (2021, 13).4. How Tall Was George Washington?George Washington at Princeton, by James Peale, ca. 1782. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityGeorge Washington was quite tall for someone living in Colonial America. According to journalist and historian Joel Achenbach, Washington stood at least 6 feet 2 inches tall, and no one ever looked more like a general, more naturally commanding (2004,3).Indeed, Washingtons height impressed most people he met. Many contemporaries wrote about his imposing height and military bearing. Nathaniel Philbrick notes that Abigail Adams described how Washingtons dignified bearing mixed with an easy affability that creates love and reverence (2021, 30).5. Did George Washington Have Children?Engraving of the Washington Family, by Edward Savage and Robert Wilkinson, 1798. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityGeorge Washington had no biological children. However, he was stepfather to his wife Martha Dandridge Custis children, John Parke (Jacky) and Martha Parke (Patsy). Nathaniel Philbrick points out that Washington was also very fond of his step-grandchildren, George Washington Parke Custis (Washy) and Eleanor Parke (Nelly) Custis (2021, 30).George Washington Parke Custis daughter married Robert E. Lee, a future Confederate commanding general in the American Civil War (1861-1865).During the Revolutionary War, in addition to his family at Mount Vernon, Washington embraced what he called his military family. According to historian David Hackett Fischer, at first, these were his closest aides, who mostly came from similar class backgrounds in Virginia and Maryland (2004, 17).Over time, Washington became close to several senior officers in the Continental Army, including Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox, and the Marquis de Lafayette. Indeed, as historian David A. Clary notes, Lafayette became like an adopted son to Washington (2007).6. When Did George Washington Die?Apotheosis of George Washington. Print by John James Barralet, after Gilbert Stuart, ca. 1800-1802. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityGeorge Washington died on December 14, 1799. He was buried four days later at Mount Vernon. As stipulated in his will, Washington provided for the eventual emancipation of his (but not Marthas) slaves (Philbrick, 2021, 115).The nation plunged into mourning following the news of Washingtons death did not immediately grapple with the question of slaverys future in the United States. According to Joel Achenbach, by the time of his death, Washington believed slavery to be morally wrong and desired the institution to slowly disappear from American society. However, abolition came only after over 600,000 American lives were lost in a bloody civil war in the 1860s (2004, 272).7. How Old Was George Washington When He Died?George Washington Reviews Troops during the Whiskey Rebellion. Attributed to Frederick Kemmelmeyer, ca. 1795. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityGeorge Washington died in December 1799 at the age of 67. According to Joel Achenbach, he endured many brushes with death in his lifetime. For example, Washington was nearly killed on an arduous winter diplomatic mission to meet French officials in the Ohio Country in 1753 (2004, 16-17).For Achenbach, Washingtons ability to survive adventures that would surely be lethal to others had given him the aura of an immortal. He believed he had a special destiny (2004, 15).Washington risked his life multiple times while commanding the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. He was nearly killed in battle on several occasions during the struggle for American independence.8. How Did George Washington Die?Life of Washington- Deathbed, by Junius Brutus Stearns, 1851. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, OhioModern medical experts believe George Washington died from a throat infection called epiglottitis. Many agree that he died as much from the treatment he received as much as the illness. Washington received a typical treatment of the day for many diseases: bleeding. However, this only made his condition worse.Washington fell ill after riding for several hours amid cold rain, developing a sore throat and fever. According to historian David Clary, near midnight on December 14, 1799, Washington spoke his last words, Tis well, and died (2007, 432).9. What Is George Washingtons Legacy?George Washington Official Portrait (Lansdowne Portrait), by Gilbert Stuart, 1796. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The National Portrait Gallery, Washington DCGenerations of Americans idolized George Washington in the 19th century. They revered him as the father of the country, a noble, dignified war hero who forged Americas destiny as a republic with a future focused on westward expansion.Historian Paul Johnson described Washingtons legacy in terms of his central role in the American Revolution, drafting, ratifying, and enacting the US Constitution, and serving as the first president to put that federal Constitution to work (2009, 1).Scholars today view Washingtons life as mirroring many important threads in the larger story of the United States highest and lowest moments. Washington reflects many of the countrys triumphs and shortcomings, from the lofty ideals expressed in the struggle for independence and the Constitution to the inherent inequalities and contradictions in American society.Like generations of Americans, Washington wrestled with the paradox of forging a nation of liberty while upholding the fundamentally unequal institution of slavery.Moreover, historian Colin G. Calloway argues that George Washington prioritized seizing Native American lands for the countrys westward expansion projects (2018). Indeed, the first conflicts fought by the United States during Washingtons presidency involved Native American coalitions attempting to resist American conquest of tribal lands.Historian Nathaniel Philbrick explains that while Washington was far from perfect, his ability to unite Americans from across the diverse former colonies deserves to be remembered (2021, 311-312).ReferencesAchenbach, J. (2004). The Grand Idea: George Washingtons Potomac and the Race to the West. Simon & Schuster.Anderson, F. (2005). The War that Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War. Penguin.Calloway, C.G. (2018). The Indian World of George Washington: The First President, the First Americans, and the Birth of the Nation. Oxford University Press.Clary, D. A. (2007). Adopted Son: Washington, Lafayette, and the Friendship That Saved the Revolution. Bantam.Coe, A. (2020). You Never Forget Your First: A Biography of George Washington. Viking.Fischer, D.H. (2004). Washingtons Crossing. Oxford University Press.Johnson, P. (2009). George Washington: The Founding Father. Harper Perennial. Original Work Published 2005.OBrien, C.C. (2010). First in Peace: How George Washington Set the Course for America. Read How You Want.Philbrick, N. (2021). Travels with George: In Search of Washington and His Legacy. Penguin.

France has gone through many wars and conflicts. But if you were to ask the average French person to identify the nations deadliest war, chances are they will point you towards the trenches of the Somme or Verdun. And thats because those locations featured prominently during World War I. Notably, the conflict led to about 1.3 million French deaths and is widely regarded as the deadliest war that France has ever experienced.Analyzing the Demographic DisasterBirds-eye view map of Verdun, 1916. Source: Staatsbibliothek-Berlin / Wikimedia CommonsTo understand how World War I crippled France, demographic data offer more details regarding the mortality of the conflict. In August of 1914, France was full of patriotic energy. Under the banner of the Union Sacre, civilians and soldiers stood united for France. But that sentiment was destroyed on the banks of the Marne, the Somme, and in the hills above Verdun, as the war preyed disproportionately on one specific group young men.While every nation involved saw fewer births during the war, France was hit hard, resulting in what historians refer to as the birth deficit.French men born around 1894, for example, who had just reached adulthood by 1914, died in large numbers, with studies indicating that roughly 30 percent of that specific age group died during the conflict.A Nation out of BalanceFrench infantry pushing through enemy barbed wire, 1915. Source: Cassowary Colorizations / Wikimedia CommonsIt should come as no surprise that France experienced countless war widows as a result of the First World War. With over a million dead, how did French society recover from the heavy loss of young men?In a notable shift in French population trends, there were simply not enough men to go around. In the age groups most affected by the war (ages 20 to 35 in 1918), there were roughly 0.88 men for every French woman. What gets forgotten is that there were just as many women who did not become war widows because their potential husbands were never around to be lost.As a result, France suffered from hundreds of thousands of missing marriages due to the lost generation of soldiers. What did these missing marriages mean for France? A crisis of labor. During the early 1920s, France faced a shortage of manual labor that could not be met by its own citizens. To fill jobs that would have otherwise gone to the lost generation, the country relied heavily on immigration. Between 1921 and 1931, France accepted more than one million immigrants, mainly from Italy, Poland, and Spain, to bridge the gap left by its fallen soldiers.How the War Compared to the Napoleonic WarsNapoleon Crossing the Alps by Jacques-Louis David, 1801-1805. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe war devastated a generation. When comparing it with the Napoleonic Wars, it is easy to see a tragic progression. While Napoleons era saw a demographic decline that France struggled with, World War I worsened Frances population problems. By the end of the conflict, millions of families suffered the loss of fathers, sons, and breadwinners. For perspective, France lost a higher number of men compared to Britain. The physical and psychological losses also cannot be understated.It is estimated that World War I cost France roughly 1.3 million dead soldiers. While Napoleon fought on a much grander scale, the Napoleonic Wars caused fewer long-term changes to Frances population than the Great War. France recovered more quickly from the losses of the Napoleonic era and regained its power. That said, the nation took many decades to recover from the losses sustained during the First World War. And even when it did, it still had more immigrants than before 1914.Why the Great War Changed France ForeverAlfred Sauvy in 1983. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrance was the European nation with one of the highest numbers of immigrants in the years following the First World War. By 1939, when it went to war again, the French population graphs were still hollow. One generation of lost fathers equaled one generation of lost sons. Frances top demographer at the time, Alfred Sauvy, called it a nation aging before its time. So when the Second World War came two decades later, they were fighting with far fewer young men than France should have had. In many ways, WWI remains one of Frances deadliest conflicts.