The Muslim conquest of Iberia began as an intervention. Under Visigoth rule since Romes fall, a fractious civil war broke out by the early 700s. Sensing an opportunity, in 7ll CE the Umayyad Caliphates army crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. At the Battle of Guadalete, the Muslims destroyed the Visigoth army and king, causing all organized resistance to collapse afterwards. By 718, the Umayyad Caliphate controlled the Iberian Peninsula, except for Basque-controlled regions and a small northern part called Asturia.The First Decades Led to a CaliphateCaliphate Map c. 1000. Source: WikimediaPost 718 saw Iberia become a Umayyad Caliphate province with Cordoba as its capital. The enduring name of Al-Andalus emerged for the region, a translation of the Latin name Spania into Arabic. The rise now began.The Umayyad Caliphates hold on Al-Andalus lasted until 750. Overthrown by the Abbasids, one Umayyad prince, Abd al-Rahman I, fled to Cordoba, establishing the Umayyad Emirate. The Emirate remained independent due to remoteness and a Berber population.The Golden Age BeginsMosque-Cathedral of Crdoba. Source: UNESCOAl-Rahmans reign corresponded roughly with the Islamic Golden Age (750 CE-1258 CE). Like similar Muslim areas, a wave of knowledge, enlightenment, and preservation occurredcenters of learning developed in larger cities, like Baghdad or Cordoba.929 CE witnessed the Emirates change to the Caliphate of Cordoba under Al-Rahman III. As the Golden Age flourished, Cordoba transpired into one of Europes greatest cities. The citys libraries became international centers of knowledge, matching Baghdads House of Wisdom. Advancements in algebra, medicine, philosophy, and astronomy occurred concurrently. Islamic scholars made their contributions or updated Greek or Roman knowledge. Scholars like Averroes or A-Zahrawi contributed to scholarly knowledge and medicine. Further achievements by Andalusians also refined astrolabes and contributed to algebra.The Marvel of CordobaSpain in 1037. Source: University of TexasOf Al-Andaluss cities like Seville, Cordoba became a vibrant, multicultural hub. The Umayyad rulers made Cordoba a jewel. By the 10th century, estimates reached over 500,000, with people dwelling around the city, making this one of Europes largest. With lavish gardens, paved streets and even street lighting Cordoba stood apart.Cordoba grew famous for its Moorish architecture, specifically the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Renowned for its unique red and white arches, the Umayyad rulers built the mosque in 786 with later additions.Al-Andalus, and especially Cordoba, exemplified the Spanish term convivencia, or roughly, peaceful coexistence. Muslims, Mozarabs (Christians under Muslim rule), and Jews intermingled on city streets. The city boasted a Juderia, or Jewish Quarter, known for its patios. Other important Andalusian cities included Toledo, Seville, Cadiz, and Granada.Commerce and DisseminationSassanid Mural. Source: BBCThe Moors settling in Iberia placed them within the Mediterranean trading network. Like the Byzantines, the Andalusians connected North Africa, Europe, and the Middle East economically. Luxury, agricultural, and manufactured goods originated or changed hands in the Caliphate.Al-Andaluss location, combined with such a mix of peoples, led to social and cultural exchanges. Ancient Greek, Roman, Indian, and Persian knowledge passed into Christian Europe. This dissemination would later contribute to Europes Renaissance.The Fracture, Decline, and FallThe Capitulation of Granada, by Francisco Pradilla y Ortiz, 1888. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Moors rise and stability ended in 1031. In the Caliphate of Cordoba, the Caliphs assassination by a rival faction caused a twenty-year civil war. The Caliphate fractured into numerous principalities termed taifas. Though independent, each territory now became vulnerable to the growing Christian Reconquista. This not-quite-named crusades first major victory came in 1085 with Toledos fall. The Moors woes in al-Andalus only grew.The Inquisition Tribunal by Francisco Goya, 1808-1812. Source: Public Domain via Bates CollegeThe Taifa royals invited the North African Almoravid dynasty in to fight. These new Muslim forces did, stopping the Christians in 1086. Yet the Reconquista kept gathering momentum, capturing Moorish territory.In 1147, a second Berber Muslim dynasty, the Almohads, seized control of al-Andalus. These stricter yet tougher Muslims stabilized the conflict, if temporarily. Yet Christian victories kept coming after the 1212 loss at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. This defeat opened Iberia for further conquest. Important centers quickly fell, such as Cordoba (1236) and Seville (1248).The Nasrid dynasty, founded in 1232, established the Nasrid Emirate of Granada, al-Andaluss last Muslim unit. The Christian forces continually chipped away during the 13th and 14th centuries. All effective Muslim resistance ended at the 1340 Battle of Rio Salado. Only Granada in southern Iberia stood until the final battles of 1492.The Last ChapterThe Civilization of Cordoba in the Time of Abd-al-Rahman III, by Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer, 1885. Source: University of BarcelonaAl-Andaluss final story played out in the last few decades of the 15th century. Granada craftily paid tribute to Christian kingdoms to buy time. The Reconquistas final push started in 1482, inexorably grinding towards Granadas defenses. The resulting siege ended on January 2, 1492, with Granadas surrender. With this last Muslim bastion gone, and Spain under Christian rule, 700 years of al-Andalus ended.

Books are deeply embedded in what we refer to as human culture. They have been so since ancient times. However, one of the main developments that influenced how we relate to and work with books occurred during the 15th century when the German inventor Johannes Gutenberg developed the printing press prototype. The printing press changed book production deeply. What was before the press, a long and expensive process, became faster and accessible. Books were produced faster, and the printing press gave the middle-class access to books.Who Was Johannes Gutenberg?Johannes Gutenberg: Commemorative of the Erection in New York by Robert Hoe of a Statue of Gutenberg in 1889, Anton Scharff, ca. 1889. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkJohannes Gutenberg (ca. 1400-1468) is considered the main inventor of the printing press. He was born in Germany during the 14th century and worked as a craftsman and inventor. Unfortunately, both the life of Gutenberg and his process of inventing the printing press are not clear. Few documents can offer information regarding his early years. Its only through some transactions and correspondence that we know most of the information regarding his activities.He was the son of a patrician who seems to have been from Mainz. Besides this, transaction documents reveal that he was trained in metalwork, most likely from a young age. During the earlier stages of his career, we know that Gutenberg was exiled from Mainz. Most historians agree that this most likely happened between 1428 and 1430, when there were a lot of tensions between the guilds in Mainz. After being exiled, he moved to Strasbourg.From 1444 onwards, his activity is recorded once again in Mainz, where he worked as a gem cutter, taking on students to train in this craft. Besides his official activities, Gutenberg is reported as having been involved in work that he kept secret from others. He most likely kept his inventions and prototypes secret because he feared that his ideas might be stolen.The Historical Context of Johannes Gutenbergs InventionNew Inventions of Modern Times, Jan Collaert, ca. 1600. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkThe invention of the printing press in Europe emerged in a historical context where manuscript culture was already well-established across most European countries. Before its arrival, the primary method of disseminating information to a wider audience was through the painstaking creation of handwritten manuscripts. This meant that a book had to be copied by hand, and this process of copying was usually undertaken in special workshops where individuals had undergone training as copyists and scribes. The practice of copying material in an orderly manner originated in medieval monasteries, where monks would be trained to do this. They would copy books from the monasterys collection, and then these newly copied books could be kept or sold for extra income. The model of a copying workshop originated thus in this practice initiated by monks and entered the secular world once books became sought after.During Gutenbergs time, copying was happening in a secular setting, with workshops in most towns dedicated to this. However, because replicating the contents of a book was a laborious process, books werent accessible to everyone. The final price of the book was, most of the time, quite high for the common individual as it involved sourcing materials, paying the copyist, and then arranging for a proper binding of the book. Despite the problem of the price, books were highly valued by most city inhabitants and were seen as luxury objects that could prove someones status and erudition.The First Printing PressThe Illustrated Tale of Genji, Yamamoto Shunsho, ca. 1650. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkAlthough the common impression is that the printing press appeared for the first time in Europe, this assessment is inaccurate. For example, the oldest printed text, dating back to ca. 868 AD, was found in the Dunhuang area in China. The printing press that was most likely used to print this text involved pressing paper on hand-carved blocks with reverse characters. The blocks could be made out of wood or metal. During the 10th and 11th centuries, the movable printer was documented in China in the Hubei province. In the work Dream Pool Essays, we are told that the craftsman Bi Sheng molded moveable letters from clay, which he carved and then arranged on an iron plate. He preferred this method as clay didnt absorb as much ink as wood did.Despite Bi Shengs revolutionary inventions, it didnt gain much popularity. In the 13th century, people in China used a printing press with wooden movable characters, while Korea adopted the metal movable type in the 14th century. Despite the many alternative methods of the movable press, these inventions in Asia were not met with the enthusiasm of Gutenbergs press. They didnt have wide usage and remained slightly isolated, while Gutenbergs invention became widespread throughout Europe quite fast, changing the fate of manuscript workshops.How Did the Gutenberg Press Work?The Invention of Book Printing, Jan Collaert, ca. 1600. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkGutenbergs printing press featured a hand-moulded metal matrix for every necessary character. He used the moveable printing system to ensure a shorter production time because this made moving the letters around easy. Another important point of this printing press model was the use of a special ink which was developed to prevent smudging and the ink fromrunning out too fast. The ink that Gutenberg opted for was a type of ink made out of linseed oil and soot. This helped the ink get fixed to the moulds that would then be imprinted on the paper.The process of producing a book was still a complicated one. An entire workshop would work to operate the press. The paper for the pages would be prepared and cut according to the size. Then, another person would make sure that the page of text to be printed would be fixed on the press frame. This would be done letter by letter to arrange the sentences on the page. Once this was done, someone else would verify whether the ordering was correct and according to the model. The final step would be to set the press and start printing. This process would be repeated for every page of the book. Finally, the book would be bound once the pages were dry.The first book which Gutenberg printed was the Bible. This project was financed by Gutenberg and Johann Fust (ca. 1400-1466). This Bible was an instant hit and it effectively launched Gutenbergs press.Patent Dispute: Gutenberg vs. FustGutenberg Bible, ca. 1454-55. Source: University of CambridgeThe documents recorded Gutenberg back in Mainz in 1448 where he borrowed money from a relative for his printing press project. Only by the1450s did his printing press prototype reach a level of functionality, making itan attractive venture for others besides Gutenberg. As briefly mentioned before, the prototype attracted the attention of Johann Fust, who became a money lender for Gutenbergs press. He lent around 800 guilders, which was a substantial sum at the time. To make sure that his money would be returned, Fust agreed to lend the sum only if the printing press and all related tools acted as collateral. Besides this initial sum being lent, Fust is reported to have invested another 800 guilders a few years later. This time, not as a sum to be borrowed but as an investment to make him a partner in the print business.Fusts association with the printing press business became an important factor that led to the dispute between Fust and Gutenberg. After investing 1,600 guilders in the prototype, Fust grew impatient and wished to get his investment back as profit. After all, the printing press had the potential to generate that type of profit. Unlike Fust, Gutenberg was keen on perfecting the prototype even further to make sure it reached its best possible technical form. This made Fust sue Gutenberg, eventually winning the process against the inventor. This meant that, according to the initial terms, Gutenberg had to hand the printing press and the tools.The Gutenberg Press Under FustNew Inventions of Modern Times, The Invention of Copper Engraving, Jan Collaert, ca. 1600. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkUnfortunately, it is uncertain why the trial between the two ended as it did. Some historians believe that the number of printed Bibles should have covered Fusts investment and, therefore, provided the means for this dispute to be settled peacefully. However, this wasnt the case, as the printed books that Gutenberg owned were not taken into account as part of his property. Due to this, he lost the printing press to Fust. As odd as it may seem today, when the trial took place, there was no legal framework for dealing with printed material. It was a new type of object that could not be readily classified by the existing laws.After the settlement, Fust became the possessor of the printing press. The other title printed beside the Bible was a Psalter, which was also quite successful. In order to keep on operating Gutenbergs workshop, Fust hired his son-in-law Peter Schffer who was skilled with the printing press. Schffer was used to the process because he was one of Gutenbergs best workers. Interestingly enough, Schffer also acted as a witness against Gutenberg during his trial with Fust. Because of this animosity, the Psalter only mentions the two men as makers and has no mention of Gutenberg or his contribution on the first page. The Psalter was popular because it imitated the decorations of a manuscript, with two-color initial letters and beautiful decorative page borders.The Historical Impact of Johannes Gutenbergs ModelRecueil de planches, sur les sciences, les arts libraux, et les arts mchaniques : avec leur explication, Denis Diderot, Jean Le Rond dAlembert, Pierre Mouchon, 1762-72. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkThe invention of the printing press in Europe changed how information traveled. The importance of Gutenbergs press is visible from its success in the decades and centuries following its invention. This fast-paced change in how information was reproduced and shared stirred excitement and fear in those witnessing its rise. Among those who were worried about the possible negative effects of the printing press the Catholic Church was one of them. For example, Pope Alexander VI threatened to excommunicate those who would print books without the Churchs approval, fearing that this might lead to heresy. In part, he was right. After all, it was the rise of the printing press that enabled the Reformation to spread so quickly and successfully almost a century later under Luther and Calvin.Despite this, there was enough enthusiasm to support and use the new technology. After all, pillars of scientific discovery like Copernicus or Galileo printed their work instead of writing it in manuscript form. Because of the printing press, most of Europe got to read Copernicus important theory on the movement of heavenly bodies, changing science forever. Its also in print that Newtons discoveries became widespread and debated around the continent, and the importance that the printing press held for knowledge is still visible today. We owe the idea of publishing books to this entire process of the printing press creation in both Asia and Europe.When talking about Gutenbergs historical importance, its difficult to mention all the ways in which the printing press changed the world. The trial between him and Fust was also an important element in popularizing the invention through the controversy it created. Moreover, it was also the first trial where the judges had to decide how to judge printed paper, thus creating a precedent for future laws involving copyright and printed material.

Before Borderlands 4, get Tiny Tina's Wonderlands and its DLC at a huge discount As an Amazon Associate, we earn from qualifying purchases and other affiliate schemes. Learn more. I've been a fan of Borderlands for as long as I can remember, powering through Pandora back when the first game released in 2009. While I...

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Ive been a fan of Borderlands for as long as I can remember, powering through Pandora back when the first game released in 2009. While I enjoyed Borderlands 2 for its chaotic gameplay and hilarious narrative, I didnt think anything was going to quite capture that same special feeling I got from the original. Then Tiny Tinas Wonderlands came along and I realised I could love again. Sadly, despite it being one of the greatest in the series, its a sorely underrated game and one not nearly enough people have played. So with Borderlands 4 on the horizon, now would be a good time to play, especially when you can get it at a huge discount from Humble Bundle. Continue reading Before Borderlands 4, get Tiny Tina's Wonderlands and its DLC at a huge discountMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Tiny Tina's Wonderlands review, Tiny Tina's Wonderlands legendary weapons, Tiny Tina's Wonderlands best builds

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