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York is one of Englands most famous medieval cities, with its cobbled streets and wobbly buildings. Originally a small Celtic settlement before the Romans left their 400-year-long mark, by the Anglo-Saxon Period, York was a thriving medieval city. Today, visitors to the city can see evidence of every part of Yorks 1,000-year medieval past, from the Anglos who took over the city after the Roman withdrawal, all the way to the grand architecture of the High and Late Medieval Period.The Middle Ages in Northern EnglandA recreation of daily life in 10th century York, from the Jorvik Viking Centre, photo by author.The Kingdom of England was one of the most centralized European states throughout the High Medieval Period. Without the powerful dukes of France or the patchwork of counties, bishoprics, and republics of medieval Germany (the Holy Roman Empire), the Kings of England were able to manage a well-oiled bureaucracy that saw the nobility and the clergy mostly working in harmony for the governance of the land.Nonetheless, the north of the country was markedly separate from the south; a tradition which northern Englanders proudly maintain to this day. This can arguably be traced to the Roman division of the island of Britain into Britannia Superior (in the south) and Britannia Inferior (in the north).Following the Anglo-Saxon invasions, the northernmost kingdom of Northumbria was one of the most powerful in England, maintaining independence while the southern kingdoms came under the dominion of Wessex and Mercia. The subsequent Viking attacks and settlements in the north of England, and the establishment of a separate area of Dane Law helped to further distinguish this part of Britain from the rest an effect which can still be seen in the place names across Yorkshire and the surrounding counties.Even after the unification of England under Aethelstan and the conquest by William of Normandy, the kings of England, based in London, were forced to accept a degree of autonomy for the northern regions. The most independent of these was the city of Durham, governed by a cleric with the title prince-archbishop, and with the necessary independent powers to ensure a stalwart defense against any Scottish incursions. Yorks position as a center of royal and ecclesiastical power in the north of England ensured its relevance and flourishing during the whole Medieval Era.Dark Age YorkThe Anglian Tower is the only nonreligious stone building surviving from Anglo-Saxon England, it gives a glimpse into life in the Anglian city, photo by the author.Yorks Medieval Period begins in the Dark Ages the period between the withdrawal of the Roman army in 410, and the Norman Conquest in 1066. After the end of Roman Britain, migrants and invaders began to arrive from Germanic Europe, beginning the Anglo-Saxon Period. York and the north of England were largely settled by the Angles, a tribe from the north coast of Germany.Anglian York is somewhat hard to locate among the later medieval architecture, yet one of Yorks best-kept secrets is the Anglian Tower. This unassuming stone tower, sandwiched between the Yorkshire Museum Gardens and the Kings Manor, is thought to have been part of the royal fortifications of the Anglian kings.Extant structures from this period are rare enough in England: only around 50 of Englands churches are visibly Anglo-Saxon in origin, and more often than not, just a single wall or entranceway remains of the pre-Norman stonework. The Anglian Tower is special because it is the only secular, non-church stone building from the entire Anglo-Saxon Period. Equally, the impressive Coppergate Helmet (Yorks rival to the Sutton Hoo helmet in the British Museum!) dates from this period and demonstrates the wealth and power projected by the rulers and nobility of Anglian York.This sock found in the Coppergate excavations opens a window into domestic life in Viking York, photo by author.Yorks Viking history is perhaps its most famous; indeed, the modern name of the city comes from the Norse name, Jorvik, rather than the Anglo-Saxon Eoforwic, or Latin Eboracum. Viking York needs a whole article of its own, but the best place for any visitor to start is the Jorvik Viking Centre. This interactive museum contains the artifacts recovered from the excavation of Coppergate and a ride that takes visitors through a faithful reconstruction of the streets as they would have looked in the 10th century.The second half of the museum contains the finds themselves. Though there is much evidence of the violent part of Yorks Viking history in swords, axes, and wounded skeletons, by far the most interesting part of the Coppergate artifacts are the items that grant a glimpse into the everyday life of residents 1,000 years ago. Highlights include a single woolen sock and a shabbily repaired frying pan.The High Middle Ages in YorkThese statues recovered from the site of St Marys Abbey hint at the level of grandeur this building once had, photo by the author.Yorks importance continued into the High Middle Ages. One of the great centers of wealth in the city was St Marys Abbey, first built in 1088 under the instruction of William the Conqueror to assert control over the region. Though all that remains visible today are some romantic ruins in the gardens of the Yorkshire Museum, St Marys was once one of the wealthiest and most powerful Benedictine monasteries in all of England.The abbot was comparable in power to the Archbishop of York, and the two great church buildings would have formed an impressive and imposing pair over the city. Unfortunately, the destruction of the Reformation and the dissolution of the Monasteries by Henry VIII and his children left the abbey stripped of its wealth and then left to ruin.The history of the Kings Manor can be seen in its brickwork bricked-up windows and modified stonework show its changing usage through the centuries, photo by the author.Another enduring reminder of Yorks High Middle Age is the Kings Manor, mere meters from the site of the ruin. This building was originally built in 1270 as a house for the influential abbot of the neighboring monastery, but the earliest remains of the present building date from the 15th century.Upon the dissolution of St Marys, King Henry VIII instructed that the building host the Council of the North, until the organizations abolition in 1641. The Council of the North was first established by Richard III of York, with the aim of controlling the legal affairs of Yorkshire and the northern counties. Henry VIII reestablished the council once more in 1537 after resistance to his reformation spurred mass Catholic revolts, notably a 30,000-strong rebellion in York. King James I also stayed in Kings Manor, during a three-day visit to the city.In modern times, the manor was rented out to private tenants, then home to the Yorkshire School for the Blind, before coming under the ownership of York City Council. The council leased the building to the University of York, where it became home to the universitys Centre for Medieval Studies, though a recent announcement has suggested their plans to move education out of the historic building.The Walled CityCliffords Tower is the most evident reminder of York Castle, the mighty Norman keep was used for many purposes across its history, from defensive, to residence, prison, and tomb, photo by the author.As with a lot of cities in the Medieval Period, York was protected by a network of walls around its perimeter. Unlike most of these towns in England, however, York still retains its historic walls. Though heavily restored and smartened up by the Victorians (with the occasional fantastical restoration, like the Robin Hood Tower), Yorks walls demonstrate its rich history, with many segments displaying the medieval defenses built atop the previous Roman ones.Visitors to York can walk the complete circuit of the walls and get a sense of the boundaries of the old parts of the city. Yorks walls retained their integrity and purpose right up to the English Civil War. As a Royalist stronghold, the city was besieged by Cromwells Parliamentarians on July 16, 1644, and evidence can be seen in both musket holes and modified musket loops, used to fire outward. The walls were then repaired upon Parliaments taking of the city.Section of Yorks walls in front of York Minster. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe walls come to a halt between the River Foss and Yorks castle, Cliffords Tower. In times gone by, the river was used to flood the area around the castle to create a natural moat. Cliffords Tower is a typical Norman castle, with its motte (the mound with the keep on top), and a bailey of supportive buildings and outside ring wall.Through the years, the castles purpose has changed with the citys needs. It played a part in the Royalist defense of the city during the English Civil War and the outer walls and bailey buildings were deconstructed to make room for a womens prison in the 18th and 19th centuries, which are now part of the York Castle Museum.Cliffords Towers darkest period came in 1190 when antisemitic riots forced 150 of Yorks Jews into the castle where they committed suicide and burned the wooden keep to the ground. The stone keep, built afterward by Henry III in the 13th century, stands to this day.York MinsterView of the three towers of York Minster from just outside Bootham Bar the northerly gate to the medieval city, photo by the author.York Minster is one of the greatest cathedrals in Britain and one of the largest medieval Gothic churches in all of Europe. York Minster was actually built atop the site of the basilica of the old Roman fortification. A trip below the floor of the church into the Undercroft Museum reveals evidence of the Roman site, but also many signs of the earlier constructions which stood before the present structure today.The church of York Minster can be traced back to its original structure from 627, which was probably a temporary, wooden building for the sole purpose of the Northumbrian king, Edwins conversion to Christianity, and his marriage to Ethelburga of Kent. A stone building soon followed in the late 7th century and, despite numerous raids and attacks from the Vikings in the succeeding centuries, it appears to have survived up until the Norman Conquest. As with every other facet of society, Williams conquest brought about huge change, and the Saxon building was demolished in favor of a grand new minster in Norman Romanesque style.By the High Middle Ages in the 12th century, York Minster was looking somewhat dated compared to the fashionable new Gothic style popular throughout Europe. This began an over 200-year-long process of rejuvenation, in which an outer skin of Gothic masonry was built outside the Norman building, and the older, inner walls were subsequently demolished. York Minster was only declared finished in 1472. Despite the destructive English Reformation, and several fires both natural and arson the minster stands proudly at the center of York to this day.The chapter house is the oldest part of the present-day minster, its octagonal vaulted ceiling is one of the most impressive in the whole cathedral, photo by the author.Aside from its stunning architecture, York Minster boasts the greatest single collection of medieval stained glass in the world. The Great East Window is one of the most impressive, depicting the Biblical Creation and Apocalypsethe beginning and the end of all thingsand was designed and executed by esteemed glazier, John Thornton. The bottom of the window depicts historical and important figures, notably Bishop Skirlaw (1330-1405) who is credited with the windows donation. The above 81 panels in a nine-column grid depict the Apocalypse Cycle, and the 27 above that, depict the Old Testament account of creation.Finally, in the arching Gothic curves of the top of the window sit the company of Heaven: angels, Moses, Abraham, and the other prophets; the disciples and the Four Evangelists; saints, popes, and priests from across Christian history; and God at the very top as Alpha and Omega (the beginning and the end).Yorks GuildsAs one of the richest guilds in all of York, the Merchant Adventurers guildhall was the largest in the city, to this day it is an impressive building, photo by the author.Guilds were at the center of life in the medieval world and York was no exception, boasting 96 of them at their height in 1415; surprisingly, nowadays, seven still remain. To do business in medieval York required joining a guild and failure to do so could have severe consequences, like social ostracization or even getting hounded out of the town.Joining a guild came with benefits for a medieval craftsman too, however, such as a guaranteed fair wage, and a pension to ensure a members wife and children were cared for after the individuals death. Guilds also offered a forum for price-setting, controlling competition, ensuring fair wages, and negotiating disputes between tradesmen.A few guildhalls survive in York, but none are as magnificent as the Merchant Adventurers guildhall. No medieval tour of York is complete without a visit to the hall, which is rare in its survival, let alone its included chapel most guildhalls fell foul to religious persecution during the English Reformation due to their participation in Catholic tradition. Yorks Merchant Adventurers Guild continues to this day, offering charitable funds for the city and young entrepreneurs.The Barbers Play: The Baptism, mystery play, performed on the streets of York, 2014. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThese guilds also collaborated together once a year to put on a fantastic performance for the people of the city and beyond. Yorks so-called mystery plays were a spectacle and one of the most costly and impressive across England.These plays recounted 48 biblical scenes and toured around the city, with each guild taking ownership of the actors and baggage trains for their allocated performance. Viewers would have therefore seen these plays in the wrong order perhaps seeing Jesuss crucifixion before his birth! Organizing such an event in a time before radios, instant messaging, and GPS would have been a feat in itself. Historians have estimated that the spires of Yorks many churches would have made excellent watchtowers for marshals with flags and smoke signals to communicate with and direct the processions below.Today, efforts have been made to recreate the plays, which were suppressed by 1569 after the Reformation. Though nothing of the scale of its medieval might has been achieved, several modern revival attempts have taken place, most recently in 2022.

Throughout English history, there have seldom been many kings with the same warrior prowess as King Edward I. Born as the eldest son of King Henry III and his wife Eleanor of Provence in 1239, Edward would go on to rule as king of England from 1272 until his death in 1307. Edward Is reign was largely characterized by his conflicts with the Scots. He is often thought of as being one of the finest rulers in medieval English history.Early Life of King Edward IEdward I, artist unknown, found at Westminster Abbey, c. 1272-1307. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEdward was born on either the 17th or 18th of June 1239, as the eldest son of King Henry III. Interestingly, Edward was often referred to as Lord Edward prior to his coronation, which was relatively unusual for medieval princes at the time, as so many died before their fathers.Henry IIIs reign is generally remembered as uneventful although when looking at the bigger picture, this is clearly untrue. Henry oversaw the early construction of Westminster Abbey, as well as the opening of Londons first menagerie at the Tower of London (where it was reported that he had lions and even a polar bear that swam in the River Thames). But there was one stand-out feature of Henry IIIs reign that was the most significant: the Baronial Revolts.How does this relate to Edward? Well, in 1259, Edward openly supported a baronial revolt against his father something which would surely have put the 20-year-old prince out of the running for kingship. Nevertheless, Edward reconciled with his father, and would also stay loyal to the Crown for the remainder of the conflict.During the Second Barons War (1264-67), at the Battle of Lewes on May 14, 1264, Edward was captured by the rebels and held hostage yet he did not change his loyalty to the Crown.In fact, Edward actually escaped after just a few months, and at the Battle of Evesham (August 4th, 1265), a troop of soldiers commanded by Edward on his fathers behalf captured and killed Simon de Montfort, the leader of the rebellious barons.Drawing of a stained glass window of Chartres Cathedral, depicting Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, 1250. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy 1267, the rebellion had been extinguished, and Edward was held in high regard by his contemporaries.With England back at peace, Edward left the country in 1270 to join the Ninth Crusade, which in English history is sometimes referred to as Lord Edwards Crusade one of the last attempts at a traditional crusade in the Middle Ages.While he was making his return from the Holy Land in 1272, he was informed of his fathers death, after 56 years on the throne.However, knowing his position as king was secured, Edward made no rush to hurry back to England and claim the crown, delaying his return and eventually arriving back in England almost two years later, when his coronation was held at Westminster Abbey on August 19, 1274.Edwards Early Reign: Welsh TroublesCaernarfon Castle, photo by Reinaldo Sture. Source: UnsplashIn addition to his frosty relations with Scotland, Edward was also not on good terms with the Welsh.In particular, Llewellyn ap Gryffyd was a thorn in Englands and Edwards side. He refused to do homage to Edward, and then he planned on marrying Eleanor de Montfort daughter of the former rebellious baron, Simon.In October 1276, Edward declared war against Llewellyn ap Gryffyd. Remarkably, Llwellyn actually had little support for his cause in Wales: 9,000 out of Edwards 15,000-strong army were Welshmen. While the campaign never resulted in an actual battle, Llwellyn knew he had little choice left but to surrender, and in November 1277 he did, although he was still allowed to use the title Prince of Wales.War broke out again in 1282, but this time it was really war: the Welsh had united behind the banner of national identity, and it was up to Edward I to put this rebellion down.Llewellyn ap Gryffyd statue, Cardiff Castle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the most significant moments came at the Battle of Orewin Bridge on December 11, 1282, when Llewellyn ap Gryffyd was killed, thus putting an end to Welsh autonomy. However, the war was far from over.In June 1283, Dafydd, Llewellyns younger brother, was captured and executed as a traitor the following autumn Edward I ordered his head to be publicly displayed on London Bridge.From 1283 onward, Edward began to establish his military presence in Wales in the process, building some of the finest castles of the age, which still stand today; Caernarfon and Conwy were just two of the castles built on Edward Is instruction.Significantly, his youngest son, Edward (who would go on to rule as King Edward II of England) was born at Caernarfon Castle in 1284. This made a statement to the Welsh that this was land that now belonged to the English Crown. Edward II was also the first monarch to be given the title Prince of Wales, a tradition that continues to this day.The Death of EleanorEdward I and Eleanor of Castile, early 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1254, Edward I married Eleanor of Castile, and the couple had a happy and fruitful marriage producing 14 children (some estimates put this figure at 16), with five daughters surviving into adulthood and one son.In 1290, Eleanor died, and unlike many medieval monarchs, Edward I genuinely loved his wife and grieved her death. Throughout the country, he had so-called Eleanor Crosses built in her memory, one at each place that her funeral cortege stopped at during the funeral proceedings.He would eventually go on to remarry, this time marrying Margaret of France, daughter of King Philip III of France, as a peace treaty measure in 1299.The Expulsion of the JewsMiniature showing the expulsion of Jews following the Edict of Expulsion by Edward I of England, 14th century. Source: The British LibraryThat same year, Edward I issued what was called the Edict of Expulsion, which ordered that all Jews in England were to be expelled: it was issued on July 18, 1290.This is significant as it was the first time that a European state had expelled Jews. The Jews had to leave England by November 1st (All Saints Day) and were allowed to leave the country with cash and personal possessions. However, all outstanding debts, and synagogues, were forfeited to the Crown.The Edict remained in force for a staggering 365 years and was only overturned in 1656 under the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell when he permitted the resettlement of the Jews.The Scottish IssueStatue of William Wallace at Edinburgh Castle. Source: Wikimedia Commons1290 had been a huge year not just for Edward I, but for the British Isles as a whole. Yet arguably, the biggest event of 1290 was still to come.Edward Is son, Prince Edward, had been betrothed to marry Margaret, Maid of Norway, when they were both children. Margaret was the daughter of King Eric II of Norway, who himself was married to Margaret of Scotland, Edward Is niece.The two were supposed to marry, although a strong storm sank the ship that Margaret, Maid of Norway, was on while on her way from Norway to Scotland, landing a huge dynastic blow to the futures of both Scotland and England.With the Scottish throne having no heir presumptive (King Alexander IIIs only other child was posthumous), Edward I was invited to dispute the succession.He claimed sovereign lordship of Scotland, and in 1292, Edward and his supporters gave the crown to John Balliol as the claimant closest to the royal line.This began what was known as the Anglo-Scottish Wars.The Early Anglo-Scottish WarsEnglish Herald approaches Scottish soldiers, from Froissarts Chronicles, 15th century. Source: BnFIn 1294, Balliol lost his authority over the Scottish magnates by going to Westminster after Edward had summoned him there, so the magnates turned to France to seek to relight the Auld Alliance which would effectively stay in place for the next three centuries.Edward led a force to Berwick-upon-Tweed in March 1296, and a month later Balliol renounced his homage to Edward. The English began to besiege the town of Berwick and various southern Scottish settlements, including Edinburgh, where the Stone of Scone which had been used to crown Scottish monarchs for hundreds of years was stolen. It was not sent back until 1996.Balliol spent the rest of his life in exile, but as with Wales in his earlier reign, Edward did not stop there. Interestingly, he never built great stone castles like he had done in Wales, partly because his money had begun to run out.William Wallace: Edward Is NemesisBattle of Stirling Bridge, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn order to fill the gap that Balliol had left, one of the most famous names in Scottish history emerged: William Wallace.Following the Scottish victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge on September 11, 1297, William Wallace was appointed Guardian of Scotland. He would stay in this role until his defeat at Falkirk a year later.Following his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk on July 22, 1298, William Wallace resigned as Guardian of Scotland, but Edward Is ruthless pursuit of him was far from over.Wallace was finally captured in 1305, where he was brought down to London to answer King Edward I for his treasonous behavior. Wallace faced the shocking medieval punishment of being hanged, drawn and quartered, for committing high treason against the English Crown.For many Scottish people, Wallace was seen as a martyr and a national hero and he still is to this day.Edward Is Last YearsRobert the Bruce Statue, Edinburgh Castle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFollowing the capture and execution of William Wallace in 1305, Edward Is health began to decline. A year earlier, in 1304, a council had been established in Scotland to discuss the future of Scotland and any settlements. One of the counselors had a name that would become just as famous as William Wallaces in Scottish history: Robert the Bruce.In 1306, Bruce rebelled and killed a fellow counselor, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone.Edwards health was on the decline, but being the warrior king that he was, he was carried north to wage war against Bruce. However, while en route to Scotland, the aging Edward I could not make it, and died in Cumberland on July 7, 1307, aged 68. He was succeeded by his son, Edward, who would go on to become King Edward II of England.Edward Is LegacyStatue of Edward I in Cumbria, by Christopher Kelly. Source: Art UKWithout a doubt, Edward I was one of the greatest warrior kings in English history. His reign was characterized by one word: war. Whether it was putting down a rebellion in Wales, or attempting to stop the Scottish rising up, Edward I is surely at the top of any list of great English warrior kings.However, while some historians view his sons legacy as damning when compared to that of his father, it is important to realize that Edward I did not leave the country in the best state possible for his son, regardless of how poorly Edward IIs reign is deemed to this day.Nevertheless, Edward I should be remembered as a great warrior king, at least from an English perspective.