Over the course of a little more than 20 years, Philip went from pursuing Elizabeths hand in marriage to plotting her downfall. The ultimate manifestation of this plan was the Spanish Armada, whose mission was to link up with Spanish troops in the Netherlands and ferry them across the English Channel, where they would defeat the local defenders and remove the queen. A confluence of forcessome natural, some human-causedprevented the armadas success. If some or all of these circumstances had been different, could things have turned out differently?What Led to the Enterprise of England in the First Place?Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 8 August 1588, by Philip James de Loutherbourg, 1796. Source: Greenwich MuseumsPhilip II had been married to Queen Mary of England (sometimes known as Bloody Mary) for most of her reign. However, only a child of theirs, not Philip himself, could succeed to the throne. Thus, when Mary died childless in 1558, Philips hopes of adding England to his familys patrimony died with her, despite a brief and unsuccessful attempt to wed her sister, Elizabeth, after her succession to the throne.By the time of Marys death in 1558, Philip was one of the most, if not the most, powerful men in Europe. All of the vast territories he ruled he had inherited from his father, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (the empire being a state that Voltaire once famously described as neither holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire). His far-flung holdings included the Spanish possessions in the New World, Naples, Sicily, Milan, the Netherlands (which included the modern Netherlands and Belgium), as well as lands as distant as the Philippine Islands (which were named after Philip himself). But Europe knew him first and foremost as the king of Spain.Philip II, Titian, 1549-1550. Source: Wikimedia Commons; with Portrait of Elizabeth I, Queen of England, ca. 1550-1599. Source: Rijksmuseum AmsterdamThe 1560s, 70s, and 80s were years of increasing inter-religious strife in Europe, especially in France and the Spanish-ruled Netherlands. This could lead to episodes of horrifying violence, such as the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre in Paris in 1572. Added to this was the rivalry between Spain, France, and England, which waxed and waned depending on who felt threatened by whose territorial ambitions or gains, or who was meddling in whose internal religious or political affairs.Among other things, it was Englands supportsometimes direct, sometimes indirectfor rebellious Protestants in the Netherlands, as well as English harassment of Spanish shipping, which led Philip to conclude that Englands protestant queen, Elizabeth, must be removed by force and replaced with a Catholic monarch (perhaps even himself) who would bring England back into the Catholic fold. This plan became known as the Enterprise of England.1. Mary Queen of Scots: The Babington PlotMary, Queen of Scots, by Francois Colet, ca. 1558-60. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs the Enterprise of England took shape in the mid-1580s, one possibility that Philip entertained was the replacement of Elizabeth on the throne of England with Mary Queen of Scots. Like Philip, Mary was a devout Catholic. Furthermore, she had, in Catholic eyes at least, an even stronger claim to the English throne than Elizabeth. On her fathers side, she was a direct descendant of Henry VII, founder of the Tudor Dynasty.Elizabeth was also a direct descendant of Henry VII, her mother was Anne Boleyn, whom Henry VIII had married after declaring himself head of the Church of England and annulling his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. However, as Catholics believed that only the pope had the power to annul a marriage and did not recognize the authority of the Church of England, they saw Elizabeth as illegitimate and therefore disqualified from the throne.The problem was that Mary had been a prisoner in England since fleeing Scotland in 1568. It was widely believed in Catholic lands that there was still a large (probably exaggerated) number of Catholics in England and Scotland, mostly practicing their faith in secret for fear of persecution. Philip believed that if Mary could be freed, these Catholics would rise up in rebellion against Elizabeth and place Mary on the throne. An opportunity to realize this possibility arose in the form of the Babington Plot, named after Anthony Babington, who was at the center of the intrigue.Through correspondence smuggled into and out of her prison, Mary agreed that if she was freed, Elizabeth was assassinated, and she herself was placed on the throne, then she would name Philip her heir instead of her son, who was a Protestant (and who would ultimately succeed to the English throne as James I in 1603).Mary, Queen of Scots kneeling on the scaffold, by William Nelson Gardiner, 1790. Source: The MET, New YorkIf successful, this would have eliminated the need for the exorbitantly costly Spanish Armada since Philips objective would have been achieved. However, all of the correspondence between Mary and her co-conspirators, including Philips agents, had been monitored and indeed directed by Elizabeths spymaster, Francis Walsingham. By signing off on the plot, Mary had effectively signed her own death warrant. She was executed in 1587. Ironically, Philip was partially responsible for the death of the one person who could have most easily (or least expensively) brought his plans to fruition.2. Enter Sir Francis DrakeSir Francis Drake wearing the Drake Jewel at his waist, by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, 1591. Source: Greenwich MuseumsPhilip did not lose the opportunity to exploit Marys execution for his own purposes. As he gave the go-ahead to begin assembling the Spanish Armada, he framed himself as the avenger of the true queen of England, murdered by the heretical Elizabeth. Planning of the colossal undertaking was underway in April of 1587 when Sir Francis Drake, the famous English privateer, led a fleet in an attack on the Spanish port city of Cadiz which would have far-reaching consequences.Elizabeth had given Drake orders to attack Spanish ships, including in their harbors, in an effort to disrupt the assembly of the armada (Philips enterprise was hardly a secret). Drakes fleet sank or captured upward of 30 Spanish and allied ships, striking fear into the Spanish and Portuguese and disrupting the flow of supplies into Lisbon for the outfitting of the fleet.Drakes predations caused serious concerns about the Spanish treasure fleet coming from the Americas and a large part of the already forming armada sailed from Lisbon to the Azores to protect it in June 1587, not to return until September of that year with many ships in need of repair.These events caused serious delays to the outfitting of the armada, actually pushing the launch date into the following year, 1588. This was certainly a painful blow, but perhaps equally as painful if not nearly as headline-worthy was the loss of a great quantity of barrel staves.The Surrender of Pedro de Valds to Francis Drake, by John Seymour Lucas, 1889. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring the Cadiz raid, Drake came across several ships carrying barrel staves (among other supplies) and burned them all. Barrel staves were used to make, as the name implies, barrels. Provisions of all typesfood, water, alcohol, etc.were stored in wooden barrels aboard ships for the use of the crew. Barrel staves had to be seasonedwhich took timein order to seal properly during barrel production. Thus, a large quantity of seasoned barrel staves could not be swiftly replaced.The result was that many of the barrels produced for the provisioning of the Spanish Armada were made from improperly seasoned staves, which caused the barrels to become leaky before long, leading to spoiled water and food. This led to provision shortages and illness on the armadas ships, especially as once out of Spanish waters there was nowhere for them to resupply with fresh, unspoiled provisions.3. Sometimes the Weather Just Will Not CooperateMap showing the route of the Spanish Armada, from the History Department of the United States Military Academy at West Point, 2020. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen the Spanish Armada got underway in early May 1588, the weather did not provide a good omen. The fleet was sailing out of Lisbon, down the Tagus River toward the Atlantic, when a fierce wind arose out of the west, preventing it from entering the open seas. The wind did not relent for three weeks. When the wind finally did let up, allowing the fleet into the Atlantic to sail up the Iberian coast, a strong wind out of the north arose, forcing the ships to sail directly into the wind at a snails pace. Thus, when the armada should have already been in the English Channel, it had only made it as far as the northwestern corner of Spain.Shortly after this, the armada ran into a fierce storm at La Coruna which scattered ships in all directions. Some vessels were heavily damaged, while others went unaccounted for. It took several days to gather up the surviving ships. This loss of ships and men, in addition to swiftly diminishing provisions (partly caused by all the delays, partly by the lack of good barrel staves), caused the captain-general of the armada, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, to write to Philip II suggesting that the entire enterprise be abandoned. This was, of course, denied.Launch of Fireships against the Spanish Armada, 7 August 1588, Netherlandish School, ca. 1590. Source: Greenwich MuseumsWhen the Spanish Armada finally entered the English Channel at the end of July, the wind was in its favor, blowing out of the west. The Spanish skirmished with the English defenders several times while making their way east toward their intended rendezvous with the Duke of Parma and his army in the Netherlands. However, sitting at anchor at Calais (northern France) on the night of August 7th, the Spanish were attacked by English fireships (ships intentionally set on fire and sailed toward an enemy formation) which had a strong wind at their backs. This spread terror among the Spanish crews, leading the majority of the ships to flee in disarray.The following day the English, with the wind at their backs (known as having the weather gauge in naval terminology), drove the disordered Spanish ships along the Flemish coast, hoping to force them onto the shoals where they would wreck. The wind for once shifted in the Spaniards favor, allowing them to sail into the North Sea and escape, though hotly pursued by the English and essentially abandoning their mission altogether.4. An Invasion Without an Invasion ForcePortrait of the condottiere Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma, Governor of the Netherlands, by Otto van Veen, ca. 1585. Source: RKD ImagesIt is indeed ironic that perhaps the most crucial part of Philips grand plan seems to have received the poorest planning. After entertaining several different ideas of how the invasion of England should proceed, Philip ultimately decided that the Spanish Armada would meet up with an army of roughly 30,000 men under the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands and convey them across the English Channel.The problem was that the specific logistical issues surrounding the meeting up and conveying part had never been specifically addressed. Parma had indeed pointed this out to Philip on several occasions, but his objections were consistently rebuffed. Thus, when the armada set sail, the orders from Philip were for Parmas army to be ready to cross in barges on the Flemish coast and for the Spanish fleet to meet up with them and protect their crossing of the channel against the English.Parmas main objection to the plan was that the coastal waters he would have to initially cross were too shallow for the Spanish vessels to approach sufficiently near (they had too deep a draft). However, a group of rebel Dutch sailors, known as the Sea Beggars, had shallow draft vessels with which they regularly harried the Spanish along the coast, and with which they could easily attack the unarmed barges which would serve as troop transports.Not wishing to see his army decimated as soon as it hit the water, Parma insisted that the Spanish Armada must eliminate the threat of the Sea Beggars first, which was essentially impossible since the larger Spanish vessels could not chase the smaller Dutch vessels into shallow coastal waters.The Relief of Leiden by the Sea Beggars, 1574, by Johan Bernard Wittkamp, 1860. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnother problem was communication, which was never particularly reliable in the 16th century in the first place. There needed to be clear coordination between the two commanders as to when and where this conjunction would take place, even if they could have surmounted the logistical issues. Despite repeated letters to Parma, no reply was received until the armada was at anchor at Calais. The tidings the letter brought were not good: nothing had been done to prepare the army to cross. Within two days, the Spanish Armada was dispersed by fireships and was retreating to the North Sea, away from the army which was not ready to cross anyway.And the Final Verdict IsEnglish Ships and the Spanish Armada, August 1588, 16th century. Source: Art UKSo, could the Enterprise of England have actually succeeded? Let us address each of the four circumstances covered here which conspired against its success.1. The Babington Plot. If the Babington Plot had succeeded as planned, resulting in the death of Elizabeth and the crowning of Mary Queen of Scots, then Philips goal of Elizabeths removal would have been achieved. But would Mary have in turn honored her end of the bargain and kept Philip as her successor, and if so, would the English have accepted him as king? Given that the English never really accepted Philip when he was married to Elizabeths sister, Mary Tudor, this seems unlikely.2. Sir Francis Drake. Had Drake not attacked Cadiz (or been unsuccessful) then many delays would have been avoided and there would not have been a barrel stave issue. Perhaps the armada could have even sailed in 1587 instead of 1588 as originally planned. But would this have been enough to ensure success? Probably not on its own, but it certainly would have helped.The Spanish Armada off the English Coast, by Cornelis Claesz van Wieringen, ca. 1620-1625. Source: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam3. The weather. The weeks of delays at the very outset of the Spanish Armada and the storm at La Coruna had severe consequences, both in ships and sailors lost and in the much heavier consumption of provisions (those that were actually unspoiled). Plus, without the wind in their favor, the English fireships at Calais would not have had their devastating effect, which caused the armada to lose cohesion and eventually be driven off. Had the weather been favorable to the Spanish throughout then the armada would have entered the English Channel with more ships, more men, and more provisions and would likely not have been scattered by fireships. But favorable weather alone would not have delivered a victory.4. The failure to link up with Parma. This seems to be the major factor guaranteeing the failure of the Spanish Armada. If this had been well-plannedincluding a way to deal with the Sea Beggars and with constant communication between the two commandersthen the armada could have protected the barges as they crossed the channel with Parmas army. Of course, whether the Spanish vessels would have been able to protect the barges from the English is open to debate.Thus, the short answer to the question Could the Enterprise of England have succeeded? is yes. However, every circumstance mentioned would have had to have gone in favor of the Spanish, so the probability of success would still have been extremely low. So, is it possible? Yes. Likely? Definitely not.

Bishop of San Salvador, El Salvadors capital, in 1980, scar Romero was shot to death by a member of the governments notorious death squads while delivering mass. In the years since, he was declared a martyr and then canonized by Pope Francis in 2018, becoming Central Americas first saint. Due to an amnesty law passed in 1993, no one was ever held accountable for his murder, but his dedication to justice for the countrys poor and oppressed has made him a national hero.Romeros Early LifeA young scar Romero celebrating mass, undated. Source: Catholic Agency for Overseas Developmentscar Romero was born in 1917, one of eight children who, in his youth, apprenticed with his father as a carpenter, perhaps a fitting career for a man who would go on to defend and champion El Salvadors impoverished and oppressed majority. Ultimately feeling drawn to the Church, he entered the seminary at age 13, moving to the national seminary in San Salvador and then to Rome, where he completed his studies and was ordained in 1942.For the 25 years that followed, he ministered in San Miguel, one of El Salvadors largest cities and a center of industry, where his exposure to the rural poverty plaguing El Salvador, particularly its Indigenous people, was limited. He was then moved to a more bureaucratic position in San Salvador, largely devoid of ministerial work, before spending a short period as Bishop of Santiago de Maria. It is at this point, scholars suggest, that his eyes were opened to the plight of El Salvadors campesinos, not only toiling in poverty but targeted and murdered by the governments security forces.In a move that seemed to surprise everyone but was perhaps driven by his tendency to toe the line handed down by Rome, Romero was named Archbishop of San Salvador in 1977, to the disappointment of the countrys increasingly progressive clergy.El Salvador: A History of Poverty and RepressionSecurity forces patrolling a village in El Salvador in 1979. Source: NPRAs Romero settled into his new position, El Salvador was on the brink of civil war. The country had long been plagued by severe socioeconomic inequality that placed the vast majority of the countrys wealth in the hands of a tiny percentage of landed elites. To uphold this power imbalance, it had been governed by a series of military dictatorships or military-backed elected civilians. Meanwhile, resentment among the poor and middle class had been festering since the last major uprising against the landed class in the 1930s, during which thousands had been slaughtered by security forces in an event known as La Matanza.Cracks in the elite-military coalition began appearing in the 1970s when a reform-minded urban middle class began pushing for change through peaceful electoral means. The governments response was to further crack down on dissent and violently repress grassroots organizations, ostensibly in the name of maintaining public order. As the Cold War raged and the United States was eager to stop the spread of communismor any pro-left sentimentin Latin America, El Salvadors military juntas retained outside support despite growing human rights violations. At the same time, any opposition group or movement could be labeled communist to justify action against it.Opposition continued to grow, however, mostly underground, but hopes for peaceful change dimmed as repression increased and elections were held with blatantly fraudulent results. Though popular organizations would continue to be targeted by the government in the run-up to and throughout the countrys impending civil war, they found an unlikely ally in the 1970s: the Catholic Church.Romeros Conversion and Liberation TheologyA mural of scar Romero on a building in Panchimalco, San Salvador. Source: The Irish TimesThe Catholic Church in Latin America had long been allied with conservative governments and elites when Vatican II (officially the Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican) gathered Catholic leaders from around the world in a series of meetings to discuss modernizing the Church. Clergy in Latin America pushed a more progressive approach to political and social justice issues. From these meetings, as well as a meeting of the Latin American Episcopal Conference in Colombia in 1968, liberation theology was born.Proposing a preferential option for the poor, the Church was encouraged to extend its work to directly address the struggles of the impoverished and to work specifically to ameliorate physical and spiritual oppression. (Sigmund 1988, pp. 21-22)As this was happening, scar Romero was just beginning his service in San Salvador and was reportedly skeptical of the movement. He was compassionate toward the poor but, long a religious conservative, wary of a progressive movement that demanded a dramatic change in ministry. Though his contemporaries maintain that he never adopted the banner of liberation theology, his more conservative views did seem to be tempered by his experience as Bishop in Santiago de Maria. Then, just weeks after being ordained Archbishop of San Salvador, a life-changing experience led to a dramatic shift.Undated photo of scar Romero in San Salvador. Source: The Catholic SunFr. Rutilio Grande, a long-time friend of his, was gunned down by government forces for helping peasants organize. The tragedy seemed to open his eyes to not only the government repression being carried out by military and paramilitary forces but also the exploitation and abject poverty people were being punished for trying to free themselves from. He later told a colleague, If they killed him for doing what he did, then I too have to walk the same path.Returning from Fr. Grandes funeral, Romero took swift action. He announced his decision to boycott all events with the countrys president until an investigation into his friends death was undertaken. The following Sunday, he suspended all masses in the country, holding a single mass in the capital to honor Fr. Grande and the cause he supported. From that point forward, he became a staunch advocate of the oppressed and a voice for the voiceless.Targeted From All SidesRomero in San Salvador, 1979. Source: LA TimesFor the next three years, as El Salvador teetered on the brink of civil war, Romero railed against the violence that was plaguing his country. While the countrys left-wing groups had begun organizing counterattacks, the overwhelming majority of the violence was being carried out by and on behalf of the right-wing governmentthe post-war UN Truth Commission found 85% of the wars 75,000 deaths and other violent atrocities were carried out by the government and its allies.Romero used his pulpit, and later his radio presence, to denounce the murders and disappearances of community organizers, broadcasting the names of the victims. While demanding justice that would never be delivered, he stepped in where the government failed, creating legal aid projects and other programs to support victims. For his efforts, he was repeatedly tattled on to the Vatican, vilified in the press, and denounced by some of his peers.In 1979, a more moderate military junta replaced the military-backed president, also named Romero, who had fallen out of favor. Initially promising to protect human rights, enact land reform, and hold elections, offering a brief glimmer of hope for the country, the junta quickly fell apart under pressure from the countrys far right. Left-leaning groups that hoped for more space for political activity organized peaceful protests, only to be met yet again with violent repression; the belief that armed insurrection was the only viable option grew. Moderates in various center-right parties were ousted and sometimes murdered.scar Romero working in a makeshift radio studio in San Salvador, undated. Source: America MagazineRomeros long-time secretary notes that, while he was an outspoken voice for the poor, the countrys increasingly agitated left-wing factions who also sought justice for the poor werent necessarily enamored with him either. They threatened to kill him because, they said, he blessed the coup detat and the agricultural reform proposed by the 1979 coup detat. While this was not true, Romero always remained a proponent of peaceful solutions and did not sanction anti-government violence from the countrys growing guerrilla movement either.In February 1980, Romero announced in his radio address that he had written to the president of the United States, Jimmy Carter, asking him to cease military aid to the new government, stating the contribution of your government, instead of promoting greater justice and peace in El Salvador, will without doubt sharpen the injustice and repression against the organizations of the people who repeatedly have been struggling to gain respect for their most fundamental human rights. The countrys Catholic radio station was bombed the next day, but military aid continued and would ultimately increase. Colleagues recount that Romero was receiving death threats and had come to see his murder as inevitable.In what would be his final Sunday sermon, on March 23, 1980, Romero delivered a stern appeal to El Salvadors military, paramilitary, police, and security forces, demanding they stop the violence.I want to make a special appeal to soldiers, national guardsmen, and policemen: each of you is one of us. The peasants you kill are your own brothers and sisters. When you hear a man telling you to kill, remember Gods words, Thou shalt not kill. No soldier is obliged to obey a law contrary to the law of God. In the name of God, in the name of our tormented people, I beseech you, I implore you; in the name of God, I command you to stop the repression.Death Comes for the ArchbishopPhoto of the chaos at scar Romeros funeral, 1980. Source: The Irish TimesOn the evening of March 24, while saying mass in the chapel of a hospital in San Salvador, scar Romero was shot to death by a lone gunman. Many scholars argue this was the moment that made the outbreak of civil war unavoidable; if not even church was safe, what recourse did the countrys oppressed have but armed insurrection? The events of his funeral a week later further cemented this. Presided over by Mexican cardinal Ernesto Corripio Ahumada, Romeros funeral was attended by thousands of Salvadorans. The service was interrupted by bombs and gunfire as the military opened fire on mourners. Dozens were killed and hundreds more wounded.A farcical investigation into Romeros murder was begun but never completed; the presiding judge received death threats and resigned. The United States, still pouring military aid into El Salvador, publicly insisted the culprit be held accountable but took no action for fear of jeopardizing its anti-communist crusade. The arrest of an army intelligence officer and known paramilitary leader, Roberto dAubuisson, several months later netted documents that implicated him in organizing Romeros assassination. But right-wing pressure led the government to release him. He would go on to found the ARENA party and become one of El Salvadors most prominent politicians during the 12-year civil war.Once the war ended, a 1993 amnesty law prohibited criminal trials related to the war; no one was held accountable for the thousands of deaths and disappearances. A UN Truth Commission determined dAubuisson had ordered Romeros execution, but he had died of cancer by then, and further information about who had actually pulled the trigger was unknown. As details slowly trickled out and the amnesty law was rescinded, attempts were made to bring Romeros killer and others involved in the plot to justice, both within and outside El Salvador, but to no avail.Sainthood and scar Romeros LegacyA portrait of scar Romero hangs at St. Peters Basilica for his canonization, Oct. 14, 2018. Source: CNS photo, Paul HaringClaims of Romeros martyrdom and calls for his canonization began shortly after his death but, for a long time, went nowhere. Romeros activism in support of El Salvadors impoverished and oppressed had the whiff of the controversial liberation theology that had become associated with Marxism and was opposed by Pope John Paul II. Similarly, the countrys right-wing held staunchly to the belief that Romero was a communist, even a terrorist. The pope did ultimately go on to visit Romeros grave twice and, in 1997, declared him a Servant of God, the first step toward canonization.Progress froze there until 2013, with the election of a new pontiff, Pope Francis, an Argentine who, some scholars argue, better understood the politics of Latin America, having lived through his own countrys dirty war against the left. Francis beatified Romero as a martyr in 2015 and canonized him in 2018. The government of El Salvador also formally offered an apology for Romeros death, and he has since been embraced as a national hero.Though El Salvadors civil war ended in 1992, violence still plagues the country, now predominantly from gangs like MS-13 that formed in the US among refugees fleeing the war who were then deported back to El Salvador in the 1990s. Amidst the violence, Romero remains a prevalent and powerful symbol, particularly for those fighting for human rights and social justice who look to him as an example. Not limited to El Salvador, a number of ministries and organizations worldwide are named in his honor, often to support his legacy by continuing to seek justice for the marginalized and oppressed.ReferencesModern Latin America, 5th edition, Thomas E. Skidmore and Peter H. Smith, Oxford University Press, 2001.Sigmund, Paul E. The Development of Liberation Theology: Continuity of Change?. Ed. Richard L. Rubenstein and John K. Roth. The Politics of Latin American Liberation Theology: the Challenge to U.S. Public Policy. Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute, 1988.

Its been 15 years since the remains of an 18th century ship were discovered 22 feet below of the surface of the World Trade Center site, and at long last it has arrived at its new home: the New York State Museum in Albany. It will be the centerpiece of the museums celebration of the 250th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.Built near Philadelphia in 1775, the ship is a gunboat that patrolled the shallow waterways of the northeast. The discovery of shipworms in the timber indicate it traveled to the warm, wormy waters of the Caribbean, and British regiment buttons found inside the boat may mean it was captured by the British and sailed south before making the journey back up north to New York. It was deliberately abandoned along the Hudson River shoreline.It was originally about 50 feet long with a raised deck. A section 30 feet long was preserved in the muddy soil of the shore. As soon as it was discovered in the excavation of Ground Zero before construction of One World Trade Center, the timbers were exposed to oxygen and began to deteriorate. Archaeologists worked feverishly in shifts over two weeks to disassemble the ship and recover more than 600 pieces wood so they could be stabilized for eventual reconstruction.The first year after the excavation, the timbers were studied and conserved at Maryland Archaeological Conservation Laboratory. They then moved to Texas A&M Universitys Center for Maritime Archeology, the countrys foremost experts in nautical archaeology, where the remains were conserved in a multi-stage process 14 years long. It was soaked in fresh water for five years to desalinate the wood. The timbers were then freeze-dried to ensure there was no water left in them. The team laser-scanned each timber to create a 3D model of the ship, and removed every piece of iron, every nail, to keep the wood from being damaged by rust.The stabilized pieces of the ship have now been transferred to Albany where they are being reassembled on public view in the South Lobby alongside a selection of the artifacts found in the excavation. The reconstruction is being led by Dr. Peter Fix, Principal Conservator of the World Trade Center Ship and expert in Archaeological Watercraft Conservation at Texas A&M University, who estimates reassembly will be complete by the middle or end of June. Visitors are encouraged to ask the team questions and there will be a series of lectures and talks given by the conservators while they put the ship back together.

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