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The investigation into the historicity of King Arthur often involves trying to identify him with figures who are better attested in the historical record, suggesting that these figures at least partially inspired the stories about the legendary king. One theory identifies Arthur as a figure who appears in medieval records known as Arthwys ap (son of) Mar. Based on information about where Arthwys family lived, along with specific details about his family members, some researchers believe that he is a good match for the legendary king. Does the available evidence really support this conclusion? Or is this theory built mostly on wishful thinking?Arthwys ap Mar, the Possible King Arthur, in the Medieval RecordsBonedd Gwyr y Gogledd containing the earliest appearance of Arthwys ap Mar, center, in Peniarth MS 45, fol. 291, c. late 13th century. Source: National Library of WalesArthwys ap Mar is not a particularly well-attested historical figure. The primary source for this figure is a record known as Bonedd Gwyr y Gogledd, meaning The Descent of the Men of the North. This record provides genealogical information about prominent figures associated with the region roughly corresponding to northern England and southern Scotland.This document was written centuries after the Arthurian period. It also does not provide any extensive information about Arthwys. Nevertheless, due to the nature of the document, it is generally viewed with less suspicion than the records that mention King Arthur, even ones that were written substantially before Bonedd Gwyr y Gogledd. This is essentially because this is just a genealogical record with no obvious legendary influence or purpose. Because of this, scholars are generally far more favorable to the existence of Arthwys ap Mar than they are to the existence of King Arthur. With this in mind, can we plausibly associate the apparently historical Arthwys with the legendary Arthur?The Connection Between Arthwys ap Mar and King ArthurAll Saints Church, Sherburn-in-Elmet, Yorkshire, within the territory of the medieval British kingdom of Elmet. Source: Chris Heaton via GeographWhat basis is there for suggesting that Arthwys ap Mar may be the person behind the legendary figure of King Arthur? At its core, this theory is based on the fact that their names are fairly similar, and they lived in approximately the same place at the same time. The similarity between their names becomes more obvious when we include forms such as Arthurus, Artus, and Arturis. Regarding the location in which they lived, Arthwys is generally connected to Elmet. This was a British kingdom in Yorkshire. The Historia Brittonum records this as being the territory of Ceretic, generally identified as a Ceredig, who appears in the genealogies as a member of Arthwys dynasty.According to legend, King Arthur had some close associations with the Yorkshire area. For example, the Historia Brittonum presents him as fighting several battles in Linnuis, which is the region surrounding Lincoln. This is within reasonable striking range of a king based in Yorkshire.Depiction of St. Edwin inside the Church of St. Mary in Sledmere, East Riding of Yorkshire, England, by Clayton and Bell, c. late 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFurthermore, in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, written in c. 1137, Arthur is associated with the city of York. He is described as fighting a battle there against the Saxons. Furthermore, after his wars were over, Arthur is said to have celebrated Christmas at York. Based on this and other pieces of tradition, some scholars feel that a location in the northern half of England is where the historical Arthur is likely to be found. Since Arthwys ap Mar was from this area, this appears to be a good match.Finally, the core of the theory is also based on the fact that Arthwys and Arthur lived at about the same time. Arthurs battles against the Saxons are placed in the first half of the 6th century by the Historia Brittonum. Arthwys, meanwhile, appears to have been the brother of Lleenog, the grandfather of the Ceredig, who was expelled from his kingdom by King Edwin of Northumbria in the early 7th century. Based on that chronological evidence, Arthwys likely was active in the first half of the 6th century, like King Arthur supposedly was.The Family Members of ArthwysText mentioning Gwallog and his father Lleenog in Jesus College MS 20, fol. 38r, c. 14th century. Source: Bodleian LibrariesThe connections between Arthwys and Arthur are more extensive than just these three basic points. According to the theory, various family members of Arthwys can be identified as associates of King Arthur from the legends. For example, the characters of Lancelot and his son Galahad have been connected with Lleenog, brother of Arthwys, and his son Gwallog. Furthermore, Arthurs infamous nephew Mordred is identified as Morydd, an alleged brother of Arthwys.The problem with this evidence is that the supposed connections are very weak and not really consistent with what the Arthurian legends actually say about the figures in question. For example, Lancelot is never presented as being the brother of King Arthur. He is explicitly shown to have arrived at Arthurs court from another kingdom. Mordred, likewise, is never presented as a brother of Arthur. He is originally presented as his nephew and then in later versions as his son, but never his brother. Therefore, these supposed connections do not convincingly support identifying Arthwys as King Arthur.Arthwys NameThe Modena Archivolt, on which Arthurs name is written as Artus, possibly a Breton form of the name, Modena Cathedral, Italy, c. 12th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnother key factor involved in this theory is the connection between the name Arthwys and Arthur. Can these two names really be connected? This is a very controversial part of the theory, and it is difficult to provide a definitive answer. The reality is that we simply do not know what the origin of Arthwys really is. It has been argued to be a corruption of Arthurus or Artus or some similar form of the name Arthur. Others argue that it is a bona fide name in its own right.Since we do not have any earlier records about Arthwys ap Mar, we cannot demonstrate its evolution. Furthermore, this is not a commonly attested name, although Athrwys and Arthrwys are also occasionally seen in the records. These might all be independent corruptions of a form like Arthurus, or they might all be corruptions of a distinct name.In any case, it is clear that Arthwys ap Mar did have a name very similar to the attested forms of Arthurs name. His name could plausibly be interpreted as a corruption of that of the legendary king.Geographical IssuesSt. Dubricius Church, Archenfield, Herefordshire, within the former territory of Ergyng. Source: GeographAnother issue is the geographical placement of Arthwys dynasty. As we saw earlier, his family appears to have been based in Yorkshire. However, is it really true that King Arthur is closely associated with that region? In reality, the majority of early references to Arthur in Welsh and Latin records place him in the West Country or South Wales. The only exceptions are the nine battle sites mentioned in the Historia Brittonum, but these do not necessarily correspond to where Arthur himself lived.For example, the Mirabilia, a record contemporary with the Historia Brittonum, places Arthur in Ergyng, a kingdom near the border of South Wales. The Vita Cadoci, written in about 1086, places Arthur in southeast Wales. The Vita Carantoci, dating to the 12th century, places Arthur in the West Country. These are just some of the many examples. The key takeaway from this is that Arthur was primarily associated with the southwest of Britain, which does not fit Arthwys ap Mar.Issues of PrestigeText showing the genealogy from Coel Hen to Dunawt, with Arthwys missing from the list, in Jesus College MS 20, fol. 39v, c. 14th century. Source: Bodleian LibrariesOne final point worth mentioning is the fact that Arthwys, as mentioned earlier, does not appear in many manuscripts. To be clear, many documents refer to his dynasty. However, Arthwys himself does not appear in all of the genealogical records. For example, in the earlier Harleian MS 3859, which contains the earliest genealogical list of the medieval kings of the Britons, Arthwys does not appear. His family line does appear in more than one place, but Arthwys is skipped completely in the places that he later appears in Bonedd Gwyr y Gogledd.This would be profoundly unusual if Arthwys really was the historical King Arthur. In Welsh records, Arthur was extremely famous. The idea that he would just be missed in records about his family line is very difficult to defend. Based on this fact alone, it seems very unlikely that Arthwys ap Mar could possibly have been the historical figure behind the legendary Arthur.Was Arthwys ap Mar Really the Historical King Arthur?Bonedd Gwyr y Gogledd showing Arthwys name in the genealogy of several northern princes, in Peniarth MS 45, fol. 291, c. late 13th century. Source: National Library of WalesIn conclusion, does the evidence support the theory that Arthwys ap Mar was the historical King Arthur? Unquestionably, there are some interesting similarities between the two figures. For example, they lived at about the same time, had similar names, and were associated with the same area in some records. However, when we look more closely, the evidence does not hold up particularly well. Notably, the weight of evidence associates Arthur with the southwest of Britain, especially in the West Country and southeast Wales. His connections to Yorkshire, the territory of Arthwys, are mostly transitory. Furthermore, the alleged connections between Arthwys family members and associates of King Arthur in the legends do not really hold up to scrutiny.Perhaps most damaging of all is the fact that Arthwys was evidently not a prominent prince. He is skipped in numerous records about his family line, which is not at all what we would expect for a famous and powerful war leader.

Kublai Khan is arguably the second-most famous name in the history of the Mongol Empire, just behind that of his grandfather, Genghis Khan. Kublai Khans reign oversaw huge changes in the structure and running of the Mongol Empire, and arguably the biggest change of all was the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, which Kublai himself was a part oftransforming not just Mongol, but Chinese history forever. This article will discuss the biggest achievements throughout the terrifyingly excellent reign of Kublai Khan.Early LifeKublai Khan, by Araniko, 1294, found in Portraits from the Nanxun Hall. Source: National Palace Museum, TaipeiKublai Khan was born on September 23, 1215, to Tolui and Sorghaghtani Beki. Tolui was the youngest son of Genghis Khan and Brte, and Kublai was Toluis fourth son, and his second with Sorghaghtani Beki. As a result, Genghis Khan was his paternal grandfather.The young Kublai was raised by a Buddhist nurse upon the recommendation of his grandfather, and Kublai later honored his nurse with high regard later in his life.When he was nine years old, in 1224, along with an older brother and Genghis himself, he undertook his first hunt, successfully killing a rabbit and an antelope. Genghis Khan then took this opportunity to perform a traditional Mongol ceremony on both Kublai and his older brother, smearing the fat of the animals that they had killed on their middle fingers, before saying (allegedly) to Kublai, The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them wellheed them all of you.Genghis Khan died three years after this, in 1227, when Kublai was aged 12. Kublais uncle Ogodei was installed as Khagan in 1229.The Effects of the Mongol-Jin WarKublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Liu Guandao, c. 1380. Source: National Palace Museum, TaipeiThe Mongol-Jin War, sometimes referred to as the Mongol Conquest of the Jin Dynasty, which had been going on since 1211, came to an end in 1234, and by 1236, Ogodei gave the Chinese province of Hebei to the family of Tolui, who had died in 1232. Kublai was given his own estate within the 80,000-household province, which included 10,000 households.Kublai first mismanaged the estate, leading to many Han Chinese leaving (and tax revenues at an all-time high). He then came looking for help from his advisors and family, the issues were rectified, and many of the people who had fled returned.Another after-effect of the Mongol-Jin War was the Han culture that Kublai Khan had become exposed to. This, combined with his management of ethnically Chinese people, piqued his interest in Chinese culture and history and led him to ask Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in northern China, to educate him about the philosophy of Buddhism in 1242.Kublai was years ahead of his contemporaries in his sense of multicultural identity and inclusion. He was conscious not to fill his court with other Mongols, so he employed numerous Han Chinese, as well as Turkic peoples from beyond Mongolia and Chinas western borders, creating a multi-cultural court setup that was incredibly rare in the Middle Ages.Northern China VictoriesMongol helmet, photo by Gary Todd. Source: FlickrDespite his interest in the Han Chinese, Kublai Khan spent most of his adult life attempting to oppress them, and this began to take shape from the early 1250s onward.In 1251, his older brother, Mngke, became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Kublai was sent to China proper, receiving the viceroyalty over northern China. Being more experienced thanks to his years in Hebei, Kublai managed his territory excellently. The agricultural output of Henan was boosted greatly, which was another achievement of Kublai Khans.By 1258, Mngke had put Kublai in charge of the eastern army and ordered him to go to war in Sichuan. However, before he arrived, in 1259, word reached Kublai that Mngke had died. Kublai kept his brothers death a secret and continued his successful attack on Wuhan.It was after this battle that Kublai received word that his younger brother, Ariq Bke, had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plateau. Upon his arrival, he learned that Ariq had been proclaimed Great Khan and that most of Genghis Khans descendants supported his claim.Kublai returned to northern China, and the majority of the northern Chinese population and those in Manchuria supported his claim to the throne. Kublai returned, and civil war ensued.The Toluid Civil War and Kublais AscendanceAriq Bke at war, 1596. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe war itself raged on from 1260 to 1264, with advantages going back and forth between the two brothers and their warring factions.Eventually, on August 21, 1264, Ariq Bke surrendered to Kublai Khan at Xanadu, and Kublais victory was acknowledged in Mongolia. Kublai pardoned Ariq but had his chief supporters executed as punishment for defying him.Kublais reign had just begun, and he planned on taking his warring nature with him wherever he went, and the power of the Mongol hordes was soon being felt throughout Asia and Europe.Kublai sent envoys as far afield as the Balkans in the west to attempt to take territory there, and to the Korean peninsula in the east. This was a huge distance to cover and showed the prowess not just of the Mongol hordes, but of Kublai Khan himself. It would be hard enough to control an empire that size in todays digital age, let alone 800 years ago with incredibly limited technology.This again highlights Kublais power and the resources at his disposal, with some historians claiming that, at the time, he was the richest emperor in the world thanks to the vast empire that he controlled.However, Kublai Khans primary aim was, unsurprisingly, reflected in his passion for all things Chinese: he wanted to unify China.The Mongol Unification of China and the Early Yuan DynastyYuan Dynasty by 1290. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1271, Kublai Khan had achieved his goal. He moved the capital of the Mongol Empire to Beijing, in north-eastern China. This was when Kublai Khan formally proclaimed the Mandate of Heavenwhich was notably a traditional way for Imperial Chinese rulers to establish and legitimize their rule, once again showing the influence that Chinese customs and traditions had on Kublais life.He then proclaimed himself a Son of Heaven, promising to usher in a period of peace, prosperity, and expansion. The following year, 1272, Kublai declared to be the year of the Great Yuanhence the name of his new dynasty: the Yuan Dynasty, ending over 300 years of rule under the Song Dynasty.Kublai was by now a well-experienced statesman and knew how to win over both Chinese and Mongol citizens. As discussed earlier, he used Chinese customs when naming the year, but also Mongol traditions in his leadership style, such as the integration of the Mongol postal system into the Yuan Dynasty.Technological Advancements in Kublai Khans ReignLaborers transporting goods to Khanbaliq (Beijing), Shizao, c. 18th-19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsYet, it was not just the introduction of the Mongol postal system that made Kublai Khans reign such an important turning point in both Mongol and Chinese history.Kublai was an experienced statesman, and he put great effort into the Silk Road, ensuring that trade between the Yuan Empire and Europe thrived, and helping to boost the Yuan and Mongol economies.In fact, Kublai Khan was so successful in his rule of the Yuan Dynasty that the early years are sometimes referred to as the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace) because there was rarely another period in Chinese history where so much peace and prosperity reigned between China and Mongolia.Another interesting development was that Kublai Khan did something that neither his Mongol predecessors nor his Song Dynasty predecessors had been very good at: he openly welcomed foreign visitors to his court. Of course, the most notable of these was the Venetian explorer, Marco Polo, who spent an incredible 17 years in the Yuan court, immersing himself in the culture of the Chinese and Mongols, and providing one of the best first-hand accounts of life in medieval China for westerners.Foreign Policy FailuresJapanese Samurai facing Mongol bombs, Mko Shrai Ekotoba, c. 1293. Source: National Diet Library Digital CollectionsHowever, it was not all sunshine and rainbows during Kublai Khans reign. He did experience some serious setbacks in terms of foreign policy, which might seem unusual given his experience.Firstly, in 1274, he attempted to invade Japan by sea, which was a naval disaster. The Japanese successfully defended their country against the invading Yuan navy, and Kublai again ordered his navy to invade Japan once more in 1281, which also failed.Perhaps the lesson learned in this instance was that the Japanesea seafaring people in the Middle Ageshad significantly more naval experience than the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty.The second attempted invasion of Japan was even worse than the first. An estimated 140,000 Mongol and Yuan soldiers set out to take on the invasion but their ships were hit by a mighty typhoon. Approximately 70,000 of the men died in the wreckage off the coast or drowned at sea. The Japanese took this as a divine sign of their godly-given right to rule over their own lands.Kublai Khan was also keen to take territory further south, this time in Indonesia. In 1293, he ordered an invasion of Java, which again ended in failure. This time it was not due to storms at sea, but rather his Yuan troops inability to deal with tropical diseases, conditions, and terrain.Kublai Khans Final YearsYuan Empress and second wife of Kublai Khan, Chabi, Araniko, 13th century. Source: National Palace Museum, TaipeiThe aging Kublai Khan began to prepare for his death long before it happened. In 1291, he sent his grandson, Gammala, to Burkhan Khaldun to ensure his claim to Ikh Khorig, which was the same place where Genghis Khan was buried.The death of his wife was another turning point in Kublai Khans later years, as well as the death of his chosen heir, Zhenjin, in 1286. Kublai grieved greatly for these personal losses and turned to food and alcohol for comfort.He ballooned in size, becoming extremely obese and dependent on alcohol, eventually suffering from both diabetes and gout as a result of his declining health conditions.He succumbed to his illnesses, but not before trying every available remedy, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and eventually, he could not even take part in the New Year celebrations of 1293 because he was so ill.He named Temr, Zhenjins son, as his heir before he died, and Temr would go on to rule as the second Yuan Emperor.Kublai Khan died on February 18, 1294, aged 78. On February 20, his body was taken to the traditional burial place of the Khans in Mongolia, the exact location of which is still unknown to this day.Kublai Khans LegacyTemr Khan, artist unknown, c. 1350. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWithout a shadow of a doubt, Kublai Khan was one of the greatest Mongol leaders of all time.While his early years were dominated by service to his older brothers and the Mongol Golden Horde, he really came into his element when it came to his leadership characteristics and nature, and the influence of Chinese culture and customs was clear to see throughout his reign.The Yuan Dynasty would go on to rule China until 1368, and this was largely thanks to Kublais introduction of new technologies which helped the empire thrive.Kublai Khan was one of the greatest Mongol and medieval leaders of all time.

The ancient city of Caral-Supe in modern-day Peru is the oldest known civilization in the Americas. Its discovery has dramatically reshaped the understanding of early societies, with highly refined engineering skills and environmental adaptability that enabled the city to thrive in the challenging, arid environment of coastal Peru. Through remarkable archaeological finds such as pyramids, musical instruments, and early writing systems, Caral-Supe offers unique insights into the cultural and technological advancements of a 5,000-year-old civilization that was contemporaneous with the ancient Egyptians.The Americas First CityAerial photograph of the archaeological site of Caral. Source: WorldAtlasOn the north-central coast of Peru, the Caral-Supe civilizationalso referred to simply as Caralflourished as a complex pre-Columbian society between the fourth and second millennia BCE. Evidence of large-scale settlements and constructions can be found from 3100 BCE, but the formation of the first city is even older.The discovery of traces of human activity at the site dating from around 3500 BCE pushes back the beginning of complex societies in the Americas by more than 2,000 years. The civilization of Caral-Supe predates the Mesoamerican Olmecs and the 900 BCE Chavn cultureonce considered the first civilization in South America.Caral is one of the cradles of civilization, six sites where civilization first originated through completely unrelated and independent processes. The site is of central importance to archaeology, as the findings and evidence it hosts can hint at the origins of other Andean civilizations and the processes involved in early urban organization worldwide.Early Archaeological Work at CaralPhotograph of the Supe Valley by Edward Ranney, 1994. Source: Smithsonian American Art Museum and Renwick GalleryDespite the importance of Caral-Supe to South American archaeology, the site received little attention from scholars following its discovery in 1948. This was largely due to the scant evidence of visual art and the complete lack of ceramic remainswhich archaeologists consider a marker of advanced human activity. Additionally, the belief that local environmental conditions would have made the formation of complex societies impossible made scholars skeptical of whether the area would provide interesting findings.However, both of these failings showcase interesting details about Caral-Supe. Its development without ceramics challenges conventional archaeological models, suggesting that other forms of cultural expression can be achieved without pottery. Also, the presence of such a thriving and complex civilization in a harsh environment reveals remarkable agricultural and water management ingenuity that deeply shaped Carals society.Peruvian archaeologist Dr. Ruth Shady in Caral, by Ruth Madelen Luna Cruz, 2014. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSerious archaeological work at Caral-Supe began in the 1990s, led by Peruvian archaeologists who provided the first extensive documentation of the site. Further research in the early 21st century recognized Caral-Supe as the oldest-known civilization in the Americas. This groundbreaking discovery was partially thanks to the radiocarbon work carried out on 95 samples from the site, the earliest dating from 3,200 BCE, associated with large-scale human settlement and architectural construction.Thriving in the Desert: Irrigation and Agricultural Systems in Caral-SupeMap of the archaeological complex of Caral-Supe. Source: Museos de LimaThe agricultural systems at Caral-Supe played a fundamental role in the development of the civilization. As the region is marked by a challenging arid landscape and intermittent and seasonal rivers, proper strategies for water management were required to maximize the limited resources available.The construction of canals and irrigation ditches helped divert the course of the Supe Riverthe most important body of water in the regionto the agricultural fields, enabling the cultivation of crops even during the dry season. Evidence of these irrigation channels has been found in the valley and suggests that these systems were carefully designed and maintained to ensure consistent water distribution.The Caral civilization relied on a mixed farming system that combined the cultivation of both native and domesticated crops that were suited to the dry environment. A key feature for successful agriculture was the use of organic waste and plant residue as fertilizers to enrich the soils, with remnants of plant material and waste being found in archaeological excavations. These recycling techniques were essential for maintaining crops in this challenging environment and showcase an early form of what are now considered sustainable agricultural practices.Architectural Complexity: The Great Pyramids of Caral-SupePyramid in Caral. Source: Inca Trail MachuThe pyramids in Caral highlight the complexity and organization of its society, as the construction of such monumental structures required a highly organized labor force and reflects the existence of hierarchy and specialized roles. The site contains six pyramids in total. The largestthe Pyramid Mayorhas a base of 150 x 160 meters (492 x 525 feet) and rises about 18 meters (59 feet) above the ground.Evidence suggests that the structures were central to the citys religious, political, and social life, used for ceremonies and possibly for astronomical observations. This is supported by the presence of artifacts such as musical instruments, textiles, and ceremonial objects found within the pyramids, suggesting that they played both a spiritual and social role in Carals civilization.Caral-Supes altar of the Sacred Fire, by Hakan Svensson Xauxa, 2004. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Caral pyramids showcase a sophisticated knowledge of architecture and urban planning. Some of their key features include plazas and terraces at the top that were likely used for religious ceremonies, as well as the use of earthquake-resistant engineering. This was achieved using the shicra technique, in which reed bags were filled with rocks to create flexible foundations for the pyramids.Quipu: A Writing and Accounting SystemPeruvian quipu. Source: Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian InstitutionThe quipu consists of a system of strings of different colors, spaced at consistent intervals. The color and position of each string would correspond to a number, and the way they were knotted and then tied to each other represented different mathematical calculations.Although the quipu was the main instrument for administration and record-keeping of the later Inca Empire, evidence shows that it might have already been used by the Caral-Supe civilization over two thousand years earlier. Archaeologists identified remnants of knotted strings similar to the Incas quipus, as well an abundant presence of textiles among the archaeological remains of the city. The system could have been used to keep track of agricultural production, record demographic information, or as a calendar to track agricultural and seasonal cycles.The discovery of quipu in Caral-Supe pushes back the timeline of its usage by millennia and shows the deep roots of this system among the Andean cultures. While the exact degree of sophistication of Carals quipu cannot be fully understood by known archaeological evidence, its existence among the citys remains would make the quipu the earliest known form of communication in the Americas.Flutes: Music in Caral-Supes Spiritual LifeFlutes found in Caral, by Geoge Steinmetz/Focus. Source: GeoThe flutes found at the Caral-Supe archaeological site are among the most fascinating and culturally significant artifacts of this ancient civilization. Dating to around 2600 BCE, these instruments are evidence of the importance and role of musical and ceremonial practices in Carals society.The flutes were primarily made from animal bone, often from native birds such as pelicans and condors, which were chosen for both symbolic and practical reasons. Their long bones could be easily transformed into musical instruments, and these large and majestic birds often had spiritual significance in other Andean cultures. The flutes were expertly crafted, demonstrating an understanding of sound and acoustics.Several flute artifacts were recovered from temples and ceremonial areas of the city, pointing to their use for religious rituals and social gatherings. The most significant finds come from the Pyramid Mayor, where flutes were found carefully placedlikely as offerings during sacred ceremonies.Religious Belief: Discovering the Staff GodGourd fragment from Caral-Supe. The figure may be the earliest known representation of the Andean Staff God. 2003. Source: The Field MuseumA single piece of visual art was recovered from Caral-Supe during an excavation in 2003. Displaying a cartoonish aspect with a leering smile, fangs, and a hood, this finding is one of the only clues through which archaeologists can attempt to understand the deities worshiped in the city.But theories regarding the true nature of the figure are still being debated. Some researchers believe that the image is an early representation of the so-called Staff Goda major deity of later Andean cultures. If so, then the evidence suggests earlier worship and a long-held belief in this deity by the local societies.However, other scholars are not so convinced by this interpretation. Some have hypothesized that the figure could rather represent a priest or religious leader. The ambiguous nature of the image keeps the debate open, with new theories being supported by different scholars.Far and Wide: Exotic Artifacts at Caral-SupeA chair made of blue whale bones found in Caral, Eniol, 2011. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe recovery of objects and artifacts coming from distant regions indicates that Caral-Supe had a far-reaching influence despite its isolated location. Marine shells from the Pacific coast, seeds of tropical fruits, and other non-native materials could indicate long-distance trade and link Caral to both coastal and inland communities.Particularly intriguing is the presence of obsidian tools, an exotic material that likely came from the volcanic regions of the Andes. The presence of these artifacts implies that Caral-Supe had established connections with highland communities and exchanged valuable resources such as minerals, textiles, and agricultural imports.These trade networks not only facilitated the trade of resources but also enabled cultural and technological diffusion. The early exchange of goods and knowledge between Caral and nearby societies demonstrates the integration of pre-Columbian trade systems, and this integration may have been crucial for the development of Carals advanced architecture and complex irrigation systems.City Without War: Peaceful Caral-SupeUndated photo of Caral-Supe. Source: AFARAmong all these impressive archaeological finds, one notable absence stands out to researchers: weapons. There is no evidence of warfare, no weaponry or fortifications surrounding the city, and no traces of mutilation or violence inside the tombs discovered. Caral seems to have been a peaceful city.This makes Caral stand out among other ancient societiesnot only in the Andes but worldwide, as many scholars believe that warfare is inevitable. The Caral-Supe example reshapes the understanding of how early civilizations could evolve: cooperation and economic exchange were preferred over military dominance.Legacy and Modern-Day ImpactVisitors in the ancient city of Caral, by Daniel Barker, 2010. Source: Defense Visual Information Distribution ServiceThe legacy of Caral-Supe extends beyond its age and influences current knowledge of early civilizations both in South America and worldwide. As one of the oldest urban centers, Caral challenges long-held assumptions about the emergence of the first civilizations, providing fascinating insights into pre-Columbian societies.The unique social and cultural structures found in Caral-Supe have influenced modern archaeological thought; the lack of traditional findings such as ceramics and visual art and the absence of traces of warfare demonstrate a new way in which ancient civilizations could thrive.The site was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008. As a symbol of Peruvian culture and history, Caral represents the deep historical roots of Andean civilization and resonates both with archaeologists and the broader public.

Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington, has gone down in history not only as a capable politician and exceptional military leader but also as a coveted lover and notorious womanizer.There is no question about it. Wellington possessed everything needed to attract the many wealthy women in his social circle. Good looks, quick wit, easy charm, impressive wealth, shocking intelligence, and great power were all on his side. If he was attractive as a young man, he only became more so as he aged. His victory at the Battle of Waterloo only enhanced his appearance and becoming one of the heroes of Europe certainly did his love life no harm.Wellington the Womanizer?The Duke of Wellington and Harriet Arbuthnot, 1834. Source: Heritage AliveWomen of all ages, classes, and occupations fell victim to the allure of the hero Wellington; it seems that he was almost impossible to resist. Upon returning from each battle, Wellington was accosted by practically every girl who crossed his path. Of Wellington, Countess Granville remarked, the fact is that I really believe that the Duke finds so few women that do not kneel to him, that he must feel a sort of respect [for any who do not].As a result of his many talents, Wellington also acquired more than his fair share of mistresses. His name became romantically attached to those of many women. The Italian opera singer Giuseppina Grassini, the French actress Marguerite Georges, the Duke of Portlands daughter Charlotte Greville, and professional Courtesan Harriette Wilson are just a few of the lucky ladies rumored to have shared his bed.The Cambridge Dictionary describes the term Womaniser as a man who often has temporary sexual relationships with women. To demonstrate, it provides an example of its usage: he was a womaniser who never let his marriages get in the way of a good time. Many flattering alternatives are offered: Casanova, seducer, philanderer, lothario, lady-killer.The Duke of Wellington wearing his Field Marshals uniform, by Thomas Lawrence, 1815-16. Source: English HeritageObviously, these descriptions are not exactly complimentary to any man. However, some historians may argue that they would be fitting when it comes to the Duke of Wellington. Did he really have an unhealthy fixation with ladies in general, or was he simply seeking comfort and relief from an unhappy marriage?In this article, we will rediscover Wellington as a man rather than as a politician or general. We will view the private persona rather than the public figure. Let us delve into the romantic relationships of Arthur Wellesley, review his marriage and affairs, and reveal a little of what went on behind the closed doors of his bed chamber.What Do We Need to Know About the Duke of Wellington?The Duke of Wellington, by Francisco Goya, 1812-14. Source: The Goya FoundationBefore we find out more about his marriages, friendships, and romantic liaisons, we must first attempt to understand the Duke of Wellington himself. So, what are the most important facts about his life?Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, was a British soldier, military leader, and statesman who lived between May 1, 1769 and September 14, 1852. Throughout his life, he saw the reign of four Monarchs: King George III (1760-1820), King George IV (1820-1830), King William IV (1830-1837), and most significantly of all, Queen Victoria (1837-1901).The Duke of Wellington is now largely remembered for three reasons.Firstly, he is famous for his rivalry with Napoleon Bonaparte, and his success in leading the British army to victory at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. He had a vast amount of experience in the ways of warfare. It is known that, throughout his career, he participated in over 60 battles.Secondly, he is famous for being the prime minister of Britain on two separate occasions. He led the country from 1828 until 1830, and then once again for a very brief spell in 1834. His most memorable achievement as prime minister was passing the Roman Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829.Finally, he is remembered for his unhappy marriage to Catherine Pakenham, and for his many affairs with the prettiest, cleverest, and most sought-after ladies of the English aristocracy.So acclaimed is the Duke of Wellington that the Encyclopaedia Britannica describes him as the conqueror of the worlds conqueror. Queen Victoria also had high praise for Wellington. She went as far as to call him the pride and bon genie of England, and the greatest man the country ever produced, and the most devoted and loyal subject.Arthur Wellesley: Early Life and WomenAnne Wellesley, by Thomas Hodgetts, 1839. Source: National Library of WalesLet us venture back to the very beginning of Arthur Wellesleys life.The exact location of Arthur Wellesleys birth is unknown. However, thanks to small snippets of evidence taken from contemporary newspapers, it is assumed that the event took place on May 1, 1769, in Dublin. It is likely that he entered the world in the warmth and comfort of Mornington House on Merrion Street.It was on his second day of life, when he was possibly no more than a few hours old, that Arthur Wellesley was baptized in Saint Peters Church on the nearby Aungier Street. Still, Arthurs place of birth has been the subject of much dispute amongst historians. In 1873, Sir J.D Burke wrote that nowadays, the theory that he was born in Dublin is generally accepted but by no means proved.One thing we do know for certain about Arthur Wellesley is his parentage. His father was Garret Wesley, the first Earl of Mornington, and his mother was his wife, Anne Wellesley. Anne Wellesley came from a fairly prestigious family in Ireland and was the eldest daughter of the banker and politician Arthur Hill.Arthur Wellesley grew up alongside his many brothers and sisters. His elder brothers were Richard (1760-1842) and William (1763-1845). His younger brothers were Gerald Valerian (1770-1840) and Henry (1773-1847). It was these two brothersGerald and Henry Wellesleywith whom Arthur is thought to have been most friendly. He also had another brother, Arthur Gerald, who died young around a year before his birth.Arthur also had three sisters: Anne (1768-1844), Francis (1768-1770), and Mary Elizabeth (1772-1794).William Wellesley, by Thomas Lawrence, 19th century. Source: BonhamsAnne Wellesley, who was just one year older than her brother Arthur, eventually married Henry Fitzroy, the younger son of the first Baron Southampton. Both his other sisters died young: Mary Elizabeth at 22 and Francis at just 3.Despite being part of a large family, Arthur Wellesley spent much of his childhood alone. He attended schools for boys, but was largely disliked by his fellow pupils, and therefore became lonely and withdrawn both at school and at home. A psychologist may claim that his childhood experience with other young men made him more inclined to female company in his adulthood.Garret Wellesley, 1st Earl of Mornington, 18th century. Source: Trinity College DublinLord Mornington, Arthur Wellesleys father, died in May 1781. His absence left Anne Wellesley and Richard Wellesley (who was by this point just 21), to care for the rest of the family.The twelve-year-old Arthur Wellesley is likely to have relied on siblingsparticularly his sistersfor friendship and support during this time. He had lost his father, and not only was his mother disinterested in children in general, but she also appeared to hate him in particular. Anne Wellesley described Arthur as food for powder and nothing more. As Arthur grew up, she became embarrassed about his lack of academic interest, and claimed that she did not know what to do with her awkward son Arthur.Thankfully, his mothers attitude did not appear to negatively impact Arthur Wellesleys overall impression of the opposite sex. His interest in women, and his love of female companionship in general, had both begun at an early age and would last until his death many decades and many relationships later.His phase of loneliness does not appear to have lasted too long. In his youth and young adulthood, Arthur Wellesley and his family were often invited to social events such as picnics. According to many well-known anecdotes, young girls of his age would regularly question the host as to whether that mischievous boy Arthur would be present at each party.Arthur quickly gained a reputationin a good wayfor being a ladies man. One such young woman named Mrs St. George noted publicly that Arthur was extremely good humoured and the object of much attention from the female part of a very gay society.Kitty Pakenham: Courtship, Marriage, and Final PartingApsley House, the Duke of Wellingtons London Residence. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt was in the year 1792 that the future Duke met his future wife. When Arthur Wellesley first laid eyes on Catherine Pakenham, he was a debt-ridden, 23-year-old captain. She was the 19-year-old daughter of an Irish peer, the Earl of Longford.Initially, the pair seemed fairly well-matched. He was dashing; she was said to have been more than averagely pretty. He already excelled socially and was well-liked within his circles; she was kind, popular, and had a sweet disposition. He harbored a great love for music and literature; she shared in his interests wholeheartedly. He was exceedingly clever, and although she did not match him in this area, that was of no concern. Intelligence was not typically thought of as an essential quality in an 18th-century wife.It would be fair to assume that Arthur Wellesley experienced an infatuation. He may even have been in love with Kitty. He twice asked her father for her hand and was twice refused. Thinking Wellesley was not yet good enough for his daughter, the Earl of Longford suggested that he attempt to make something of himself before proposing again.Pakenham Hall, family residence. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the year 1796, the two were separated for a painfully long time when Wellesley and his regiment were sent to India. When he returned in 1806, although they had corresponded, they had not seen each other in the flesh in nearly eleven years. Catherine Pakenham still adored Wellesley, had remained dedicated to their relationship, and had even refused other suitors in the hope that he would return to her. On his way back to Dublin, Wellington felt bound by his initial promises. Having finally made something of himself and his career, as Kittys father had instructed, he sent another letter of proposal.Kitty was overjoyed but did not accept his offer straight away. Instead, she explained by way of a letter that she looked somewhat different from how she had appeared a decade previously. She warned him that in so many years I may be much more changed than I myself am conscious of. She assured him that she would still love to be his wife, but only if he still desired her after spending time with her on his return.Kitty was right she had changed a lot. Upon first sight of her, Wellington notably and rather amusingly exclaimed to his brother Gerald, She has grown ugly, by Jove! But he was a man of his word, and despite his misgivings, he went through with the marriage as planned.Harriet Arbuthnot, by John Hoppner, 1805. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough the union produced practically nothing in the way of happiness, it did produce two children. Wellesley and Kitty got on well enough to create offspring. They had two sons: Arthur Wellesley second Duke of Wellington (1807-1884), and Lord Charles Wellesley (1808-1858).The couple attempted to make the best of a bad marriage and were happiestby all accountswhen they lived apart. Rumor had it that when they were about to change residencemoving from town to countrythey would send each other messages regarding their whereabouts so that they might avoid each other. When it did happen that they were in the same house, they certainly did not share a room.Harriet Arbuthnot, one of Wellesleys closest friends, bore his complaints about his marital woes. In response, Harriet publicly called Kitty the most abominably silly and stupid woman that was ever born. In return for this comment, Wellesley confided in Harriet that Kitty made his house so dull that nobody would go into it.The Duke of Wellington was widowed on April 14, 1831, after 25 years of marital misery.Wellington and His Many MistressesGiuseppina Grassini, by Elizabeth Louise Vigee Le Brun, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Duke of Wellingtons habit of taking mistresses began early on in his military career. There is solid evidence that, by the year 1796, he was already participating in brief but passionate affairs. While working in India with his regiment, for example, he is known to have enjoyed a long string of flirtations and liaisons.Of Wellesleys interest, a fellow officer noted that Colonel Wellesley had at that time a very susceptible heart, particularly towards, I am sorry to say, married ladies. He also described how he and Wellesley would help each other in their antics. Wellesley once kindly assisted me in a little affair of gallantry I had, the unnamed officer confessed, but this was in a spirit of gratitude, I having assisted him on a like occasion.This was a pattern that continued throughout his life. Below are just a few of the women he became associated with at varying points. The professional Courtesan Harriette Wilson it was in response to her threats to publish her memoirs that Wellington said Publish and be damned!; the Italian opera singer Giuseppina Grassini it was she who he paraded publicly in place of his wife; Marguerite Georges it was she who claimed that Wellington was a stronger lover than her former partner, Napoleon Bonaparte; Lady Frances Wedderburn-Webster it was her husband who brought a libel action against a notable newspaper for presenting the affair as fact.Others worth mentioning include Lady Frances Shelley, Lady Caroline Lamb, Lady Charlotte Greville, Marianne Patterson, Dorothea Lieven, Frances Gascoyne-Cecil (Lady Salisbury), and Lady Georgiana Fane. It is worth noting that although these have all been romantically linked, very few of these potential affairs have been proven true.Wellington the Womanizer: Dispelling the MythsAngela Burdett-Coutts, 1840. Source: National Portrait Gallery, LondonThere is no denying that the Duke of Wellington enjoyed the companionship of multiple women. Neither is there any doubt that he had a great deal of experience when it came to mistresses and courtesans. We have already explored a significant number of his romantic relationships. However, there is also much evidence to suggest that he actually cared for each of his lovers individually.Like most men, Wellington adored attractive women. However, to remain interested, he had to see something more. A pretty face may have been enough to attract Wellingtons attention, but it certainly was not enough to keep it. Wellington wanted intelligent companythat which he lacked from his wifeand he valued the company of women he could communicate with in a meaningful way.Wellington was not so obsessed with the ideas of romance and sex that he sought out new conquests at any opportunity. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he was not willing to climb into bed with any girl who took his fancy. In fact, he notably once declined some offers of intimacy from a lady he was not truly taken with.In the year 1839, for example, Wellington happened to meet the 25-year-old Angela Burdett-Coutts. She was one of the most attractiveand certainly one of the wealthiestwomen in England. She absolutely adored Wellington and with boldness almost unheard of in her era, even proposed to him. Obviously touched by the sentiment, Wellington kindly turned her down, saying I entreat you not to throw yourself away upon a man old enough to be your grandfather.The Duke of Wellington, as portrayed by Peter Bowles in Victoria. Source: Twimg.comTo conclude, we may ask ourselves the question: is it fair that Wellington has been marked as an early-19th-century womaniser? Even in the 21st century, many historiansboth amateurs and academicsbelieve the description to have been accurate. While there would be no point in arguing that he did not accumulate a wide range of extramarital relationships, one may argue that he entered these relationships with good intentions. It was said of Wellington that he was always in love with someone.Wellington himself explained his affairs by stating that Kittys lack of warmth toward him drove him to seek abroad that comfort and happiness that was denied at home.Wellington was not totally heartless when it came to his unwanted wife. An example of his feelings toward heras a friend rather than as a lovercan be found at the end of her life. During Kittys final moments, Wellington sat at her bedside. Before taking her last breath, she had chosen to run her fingers up his sleeve, feeling for an armlet she had given him when they were in love. She found it, Wellington said, just as she would have found it any time these twenty years, had she cared to look for it.Contrary to popular opinion, some historians may argue that the Duke of Wellington genuinely cared for each of the women he courted. We may also point out that due to the loving and considerate nature of Wellingtonin the way of his personality, attitude, and temperamentit would be unfair for him to go down in history as something so uncaring and roguish as a womanizer.Wellington may have had the experience of a womanizer, but he certainly did not have the intentions of one.The Duke of Wellington: His Death and LegacyThe Battle of Waterloo, by William Sadler, 1815. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Duke of Wellington died of natural causes, (probably suffering the aftereffects of a stroke), on September 14, 1852. He had reached the grand age of 83.Wellington was one of only a small number of British subjects (others including Horatio Nelson and Winston Churchill), to be granted the honor of a state funeral. This ceremony took place at St Pauls Cathedral in London, where he was also buried.Even in the 21st century, the British public has daily reminders of Wellingtons life and work. Statues and monuments can be found all over England, Wales, and Ireland. Just a few of the most famous include the Wellington Monument on Park Lane in London and the Wellington Arch on Hyde Park Corner, also in London. A portrait of Wellington even adorned the British five-pound note between 1971 and 1991.Whether for his quick wit, his memorable quotes, his military victories, his political prowessor his womanizing tendenciesthe Duke of Wellington will likely be respected and revered for many centuries to come.

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