After the Fall of France and the establishment of the Vichy regime in 1940, Allied leaders looked to target French colonial possessions in North Africa. The 1942 invasion, codenamed Operation Torch, was the first major joint offensive by American and British forces in WWII. The offensive spelled the end of Vichy France and led to the final battles in North Africa between Allied and Axis forces.The Invasion PlanGeneral Dwight D. Eisenhower with other officers from the War Plans Division of the Department of War during the Arcadia Conference, 1942. Source: National World War II Museum, New OrleansAfter the United States entered WWII in December 1941, the United Kingdom vowed to work with the US and other Allied nations to bring the fight to the Axis powers. From December 1941 to January 1942, Allied military leaders met in Washington during the Arcadia Conference.The British and Americans disagreed on the best course of action. American officials proposed landing troops in France to open up a path to Berlin. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill favored landing on the North African coast to support British forces fighting against the German and Italian forces in Libya and Egypt. Some American officials believed that the North African theater was a mere sideshow designed to benefit the British Empire. Ultimately, President Roosevelt came around to the British plan because of the slow buildup and inexperience of American forces.Ever since France surrendered in 1940, the puppet regime based in Vichy declared neutrality and was allowed to control Frances colonies. In Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, the French colonial authorities were governed by military commanders who declared their loyalty to Marshal Philippe Ptain, the World War I hero who led the Vichy government.Commanders like Admiral Franois Darlan and General Charles Nogus instituted discriminatory laws against Jews, provided information to Axis troops in secret, and closed off their ports to Allied shipping. The Allies hoped to convince these commanders to switch sides and reinforce their advance against the rear of the Axis army in Libya.HMS Seraph, the submarine that took General Mark Clark to Morocco, 1942. Source: US Naval InstituteOperation Torch envisaged a multipronged assault on Oran, Algiers, and Casablanca. Once Morocco and Algeria were taken, the invasion force would advance on Tunisia. The landings were scheduled for November 8, 1942. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was designated commander and French General Henri Giraud was to be given command of French forces once they switched sides. Giraud initially hoped to command all Allied forces but agreed to recognize Eisenhowers authority. To avoid alienating Vichy commanders, Allied commanders did not include the leader of the Free French government, Charles De Gaulle, in planning Torch.The Allies took pains to convince the French authorities that they meant no harm. For instance, British forces were dressed in American uniforms because the French distrusted the British, and Allied troops were ordered not to fire if fired upon. Before the landings, US Major General Mark Clark landed by submarine in Algeria to meet with General Charles Mast. Mast informed Clark that some French units would help, but others would resist a landing. Some Allied diplomats covertly organized underground resistance cells to help the landing.Opposing ForcesMaps of Operation Torch and the subsequent push to Tunisia, 1942. Source: US ArmyThe Allies had three task forces allocated to Torch. Major General George Pattons Western Task Force, consisting of the 3rd and 9th Infantry Divisions and elements of the 2nd Armored Division, was ferried by Vice-Admiral Kent Hewitts fleet from Virginia. Patton planned to land at multiple points in Morocco and seize Casablanca. The Center Task Force, consisting of part of the 1st Infantry and 1st Armored Divisions and a paratrooper battalion, was commanded by Major General Lloyd Fredendall and was ordered to capture Oran in Algeria. Lastly, the Eastern Task Force, led by Major General Charles Ryder, planned to take Algiers. This force included part of the 34th Infantry and the British 78th Infantry Divisions, alongside two British commando battalions.This force numbered well over 100,000 men and had massive naval support, including the only American fleet carrier located in the Atlantic Ocean. Unlike Pattons forces, Ryders and Fredendalls task forces sailed from England with mainly British naval escorts. Most of the Allied troops assigned to the operation were inexperienced and were not sure whether or not the French would resist them.Ashore, the French had a large but poorly-equipped force of 125,000 men across all three colonies. On paper, they had 500 planes and a large fleet, but most of their equipment was poorly maintained. Moroccos garrison contained four infantry divisions while Algerias contained three. Most of these forces were ill-prepared for the coming onslaught and there was little chance that Germany or Italy would send substantial reinforcements to help them repel an Allied landing.Taking MoroccoAmerican tanks in the streets of Casablanca, 1942. Source: Ohio State UniversityPrior to the landings on November 8, French supporters of the Allied cause tried to undermine Vichy rule in Morocco. General Antoine Bthouart attempted to convince French forces to welcome the incoming Allied forces, but was stopped by General Charles Nogus. As a result, when American forces began landing, they faced resistance from the garrison. At the port of Safi, elements of the 47th Infantry Regiment landed and pushed inland immediately. Further up the coast, the 60th and 66th Regiments took control of Port Lyautey and pushed inland to seize the airfield and Kasbah behind the beaches. Lastly, the 3rd Infantry Division landed most of its men on the beaches of Fedala.French forces struggled to react to the three-pronged assault. General Nogus ordered small-scale counterattacks against the beachheads. At the same time, the French fleet in Casablanca launched an attack on Admiral Hewitts escorts. The battleship Jean-Bart was heavily damaged in the battle and forced to return to port while many other warships and submarines were sunk. Allied aircraft from the fleet and Gibraltar gained air superiority over Casablanca. Nonetheless, the Allied push inland faced the most tenacious resistance.By November 10, Pattons forces surrounded Casablanca and prepared to launch an assault on the city. However, French Admiral Franois Darlan ordered a ceasefire, meaning that the worst case scenario was avoided in the city. Despite the Allied victory on land, German U-Boats still exacted a price, sinking several merchantmen off the coast of Fedala.Assaulting AlgeriaUS troops coming ashore near the city of Algiers, 1942. Source: Warfare History NetworkTaking the ports of Oran and Algiers were critical if the Allies wanted to move swiftly towards Tunisia. The Center Task Force hit several beaches east and west of Oran, meeting little resistance. An airborne assault by the 2nd Battalion, 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment struggled due to inexperienced pilots. Nevertheless, General Fredendalls forces pushed on quickly. A landing attempt by two Royal Navy vessels in Oran harbor was stopped by heavy French fire, but the Allies managed to force Oran to surrender by November 10.Major General Charles Ryders Anglo-American force stormed the beaches east and west of Algiers in the face of small-scale resistance. At Cape Matifou, a coastal battery opened fire on the attacking fleet and was neutralized by British commandos. After Ryders forces overran several airfields around the city, Allied planes began flying into the captured runways. Just like at Oran, the Allies made an attempt to land troops in Algiers harbor with two destroyers. The US Army Rangers managed to land but were pushed out of the harbor.In both Oran and Algiers, local resistance elements supporting the Allies tried to oust the Vichy authorities. However, the resistance plots failed because they lacked enough support from the European and Arab communities in both cities. Many of the plotters were caught and were due to be executed when they were liberated by the Allies seizing Algeria. Just like the other cities in North Africa, Algiers surrendered on November 10. The seizure of the major cities of Morocco and Algeria destroyed the Vichy regimes military power in North Africa.The Vichy SurrenderAdmiral Franois Darlan, seen here visiting Hitler at the Berghof, surrendered North Africa to the Allies, 1941. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial MuseumThe Allies hoped that General Giraud would step in quickly to take over all French forces in North Africa once the Allies conquered Morocco and Algeria. However, most French units insisted that Admiral Darlan was the senior officer in North Africa and took their orders from him.As a result, General Eisenhower decided to make a deal with Darlan. In exchange for ordering French forces to stop fighting the Allies and to turn their guns on the Germans and Italians, Darlan was allowed to retain his post as the senior French military and political figure in North Africa. This deal enabled most Vichy civil servants to remain in their positions and many of the governing regulations, including anti-Jewish discriminatory laws, were kept in place.Much of the public in Britain and America, along with supporters of De Gaulle and Giraud, were enraged with the so-called Darlan deal. In Washington, there were calls for Eisenhower to be removed from command and officials in Allied capitals demanded more information regarding why a deal with Darlan was struck. In response, Eisenhower and his staff insisted that a deal with Darlan was necessary if the Allies wanted to march unhindered into Tunisia.Once the deal was signed, the Vichy governments authority in southern France effectively collapsed. Both Hitler and Mussolini ordered military units to disarm the Vichy garrison and impose direct rule over France. French warships at Toulon were scuttled and the Vichy authorities were forced to assist the Axis takeover.Torchs LegacyFrench troops during a training exercise before fighting the Germans, 1944. Source: Warfare History NetworkDarlans agreement with the Allies was short-lived. On December 24, Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, a monarchist and anti-fascist resistance fighter, shot Darlan in Algiers. He was subsequently arrested and executed. Nevertheless, there was relief at Darlans demise, allowing for the Free French to take over much of the colonial administration in North Africa. As Allied forces pushed eastward, they found that Germany and Italy had seized most of Tunisia. This led to a major campaign to defeat the Axis occupiers in which former Vichy units fought with the Allies.Allied commanders had achieved a major operational success in Operation Torch by sending several convoys over thousands of miles across hostile seas. Despite having limited battle experience, the Allied forces in Operation Torch seized several major cities with ease and relatively few casualties. They also managed to avoid significant damage to infrastructure and property. However, the operation led to overconfidence among Allied units who had not yet encountered the Germans in battle. This meant that the initial battles in Tunisia, such as Kasserine Pass, were disastrous for the Allies.Operation Torch also cemented Americas role in North Africa for the rest of the 20th century. Both French officials and Arab royals saw the United States as a formidable power broker and agreed to work with Washington. However, American policymakers made a couple of errors that foreshadowed future mistakes in the region. For instance, they assumed that strongmen leaders were preferable to elected ones. Additionally, they initially refused to lift the restrictions on Jewish communities, fearing that this would inflame Arab opinion. This led to significant tensions in the postwar period. Nevertheless, Torch was a successful campaign that heralded future amphibious operations in the Second World War.

When American military planners began searching for islands they could use to attack Japan from, they identified the Marianas island chain as a perfect location. One of these, the island of Saipan, was very well-defended and also contained a Japanese civilian population. The subsequent battle proved to be a grueling fight that set the stage for Americas air campaign against Japan.Saipan Under Japanese ControlJapanese Governors residence in Garapan, Saipan, Date Unknown. Source: National Diet Library, JapanIn 1914 during the First World War, the Japanese Empire took control of several islands in the Marianas island chain from Germany. The archipelago had previously been colonized by Spain for several centuries. Japan hoped to expand its burgeoning empire and Saipan, the largest island in the Marianas, provided a useful link to the rest of the Pacific. In 1919, Japan was formally granted permission to govern the island by the League of Nations as part of the South Seas Mandate.Japan saw the island as a major hub of sugar production and overseas trade. It also hoped to encourage the settlement of Japanese people in the territory. Japanese businessmen built major sugar plantations, using cheap labor from the native Chamoru (Chamorro) community. The main city of Garapan started to resemble Tokyo and Japanese cultural customs and norms started to take hold on the island. Tens of thousands of Japanese, attracted by the promise of cheap land and business opportunities, moved to Saipan in the 1920s and 1930s.Japans administration of the South Seas Mandate was predominantly civilian for the interwar period until Japans military started to take control of the Ministry of Colonial Affairs. Initially, Japanese rule was benevolent in that it focused on building the islands economy and infrastructure. However, the onset of WWII meant that repression became more intense, especially against the Chamoru people. The increase of Japanese soldiers and sailors taxed the islands resources and led to more pressure on the islands civilian population.The Plan to Take the IslandsAdmirals Ernest King, Chester Nimitz, and Raymond Spruance on the deck of the USS Indianapolis, 1944. Source: US Naval History and Heritage CommandAmerican military commanders held different opinions on how best to expel the Japanese from the Pacific. Many American generals, such as General Douglas MacArthur, hoped to advance from the south by retaking the Philippines, New Guinea, and the Solomon islands. Others, such as US Pacific Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, believed that the best way forward was an offensive through the Central Pacific relying on American naval superiority to gain control of islands that could be used as a springboard to attack Japan directly. In the end, the US government had the military capacity to pursue both courses of action.Before the American entry into the war, US planners had come up with War Plan Orange. This entailed a major strike into the Central Pacific, including Saipan. Admiral Nimitz, with the support of Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Ernest King, began allocating resources for a joint attack on the Japanese garrisons in the Marianas. Several divisions would assault Saipan, Tinian, and Guam with the aim of taking over the airfields on all three islands and destroying the Japanese garrisons. The Pacific Fleet would provide major naval assets to help with the landings and keep the Japanese fleet away.The US Navy was a major force behind the inclusion of Saipan as a target. At the Quebec, Casablanca, and Cairo Conferences, Admiral King pushed Allied leadership to support attacking the Marianas. The introduction of the B-29 bomber helped because they had the range to reach Japan from the Marianas.Opposing ForcesA Marine training in Hawaii before the invasion of Saipan, 1944. Source: imagesofoldhawaii.comOperation Forager, the name of the operation to take Saipan, involved one of the strongest expeditionary forces the Americans employed up to that point in the Pacific. The 2nd and 4th Marine Divisions, both formations with extensive experience, were assigned to spearhead the assault. They formed the V Amphibious Corps, one of two Marine corps-sized headquarters formed in WWII, under the command of Lieutenant General Holland Smith.A very aggressive commander, Smith aimed to land his forces on a set of beaches in Saipans southwest and drive towards the east and north. The 27th Infantry Division was placed in reserve to reinforce either the Guam or Saipan landing forces. These three divisions were backed by a formidable array of weapons including hundreds of artillery pieces and 150 tanks.At sea, the navy assembled a force of several hundred ships including warships and transport vessels. The Fifth Fleet, commanded by Admiral Raymond Spruance, was assigned to cover the Saipan and Guam landings concurrently. Its strongest component was Task Force 58, led by Admiral Marc Mitscher, which contained 15 fleet carriers with hundreds of planes. The Navy was prepared for three possible Japanese counterattacks: submarine attacks on convoys, air raids on the fleet, and a sortie by Japans Combined Fleet.Painting of the Japanese Kido Butai (Date Unknown)In 1944, Japans leaders considered the Marianas island chain to be a pivotal part of the defense of the empire. They knew that the Americans wanted control of the airfields in the region and feared what could happen if the islands were lost. Accordingly, Prime Minister Hideki Tojo ordered the islands reinforced and defended to the last man.On land, the Japanese contingent on Saipan was larger than what American planners had anticipated. The 31st Army was headquartered on Saipan, although its commander was absent during the battle. General Yoshitsugu Saito was the senior army commander and his 43rd Infantry Division was the main element of the garrison. He also had the 47th Independent Mixed Brigade and several ad-hoc battalions of sailors from ships docked at the island. Most defenses were set up on the beach to stop the Americans at the waters edge.The garrison knew that its only hope for victory was if the Navy could come to its rescue. Vice-Admiral Soemu Toyoda, commander of the main Japanese naval force, the Combined Fleet, created a plan to strike the Fifth Fleet in the Philippine Sea. This would involve massive air attacks by hundreds of planes. The core of this fleet was the main force of carriers, known as the Kido Butai. Toyoda, Saito, and other officials in Tokyo believed that if American losses were high enough, they would be forced to sign a peace deal advantageous to Tokyo.The Other D-DayMarines from the first wave bogged down under Japanese fire from behind the beaches, 1944. Source: World War II TodayA mere nine days after the Overlord landings in France, the Fifth Fleets landing force under Rear-Admiral Kelly Turner began pounding the landing zones. Marine units landed on several beaches in southwest Saipan at 8:40 a.m. The 2nd Marine Division had two regiments land abreast on Red and Green beaches while the 4th seized Blue and Yellow beaches. Japanese fire flailed the beaches and inflicted very heavy losses. Dozens of artillery pieces emplaced on the high ground inland fired at the navy landing craft. They were assisted by ranging flags placed by the garrison before the landing and as many as 40% of the landing craft were hit.An attempt to draw the Japanese away from the beaches by feinting landing craft northward proved unsuccessful. The reefs also made disembarkation difficult. Nonetheless, the Marines pushed forward and began clearing pillboxes and trenchlines. By the end of the day, Marine units broke through the 43rd Divisions battalions in the sector and established a foothold several miles deep. Reserve units pushed ashore under naval covering fire and heavier equipment, such as artillery and bulldozers, began to arrive.Japanese forces were committed to retaking the area and driving the Americans back into the sea. General Saito ordered several counterattacks during the night with elements of the 9th Tank and 136th Infantry regiments. These attacks were disorganized and bogged down under heavy fire and failed to accomplish any of Saitos objectives. As a result, the Americans were in a good position to continue their offensive towards the airfields.Pushing InlandJapanese tanks knocked out during Saitos counteroffensive, 1944. Source: The Armory LifeThe heavy losses sustained by the Marines during the landings compelled General Smith to commit his reserves earlier than planned. The remaining Marine regiments were landed and on the 16th, the first two regiments of the 27th Infantry Division landed. The division did not have the stellar combat pedigree of the 2nd and 4th Marine Divisions. Its prior battle on Makin was badly managed and General Smith was very critical of its performance.As the Marines and GIs began consolidating their gains, General Saito decided to continue his counterattacks. 35 tanks from the 9th Tank Regiment along with infantry from the 136th Infantry Regiment launched an attack intending to split the two Marine divisions. The attack again failed because of poor coordination and the lack of support from Japanese marine units around the beach.Repeated counterattacks squandered Saitos strength, enabling the Americans to push further inland. Within the next several days, they seized the area of Lake Susupe and closed in on Aslito Airfield. While the 2nd Marine Division began pivoting northward towards the town of Garapan and Mount Tapochau, the 4th Marine Division and 27th Infantry Division advanced onto the airfield and cut off the Japanese forces in the south from the main element in the north. The 27th sent a regiment to destroy the lone Japanese battalion guarding Nafutan Point in the south and the remaining forces began the main push north after June 20.The Marianas Turkey ShootJapanese plane shot down near an unidentified US carrier during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, 1944. Source: The American AlmanackWhile the fighting raged on the island, the US and Japanese navies were posturing before the biggest carrier battle in history to date. Admiral Toyoda insisted that the Combined Fleet sail regardless of the risks and the fact that most land-based Japanese planes had been destroyed before the landings.Nine Japanese carriers, backed by a strong escort of battleships, cruisers, and destroyers, sailed towards the Marianas. Most Japanese aircraft were old and many of their pilots were inexperienced and poorly-trained. Admiral Mitscher had 16 fleet carriers waiting with nearly 1,000 planes, most of which were qualitatively superior and had better pilots. The Americans also knew that the Japanese were coming thanks to signals intelligence from the naval station at Pearl Harbor.From June 19 to the evening of the 20th, carrier aircraft from both fleets clashed in big aerial battles. The Japanese attacked first with several waves of over 100 aircraft each. The American fighter defenses had little difficulty shooting down the attackers, leading to the battle being coined the Marianas Turkey Shoot. Before the Americans began launching air strikes on the Kido Butai, the submarines USS Albacore and Cavalla fired torpedoes into the carriers Shokaku and Taih, sinking both. In the evening of the 20th, over 220 American planes attacked the Japanese fleet, sinking the carrier Hiy. Despite significant losses in aircraft, the Americans came off far better, with no ships sunk and some 109 dead. Japan lost three carriers and two oilers, with thousands reported dead. The battle cemented American naval dominance in the central Pacific for the rest of the war and doomed the Saipan garrison.The Fighting in the NorthMarines resting before advancing on Japanese positions on Mt. Tapochau, 1944. Source: First Battalion, 24th MarinesDespite the withdrawal of the Japanese fleet, the garrison on Saipan vowed to fight to the last man. By this point, much of the 47th Mixed Brigade and the 9th Tank Regiment had been destroyed, leaving the Japanese garrison with uncommitted units of the 43rd Division alongside navy and marine personnel. They held a line of fortifications in the middle of the island with the strongest positions being located on Mt. Tapochau. While many Japanese heavy weapons had been destroyed already, General Saitos men still had formidable defenses to fight from.On June 22, the three American divisions commenced an offensive to break Saitos line. The 27th Division faced the toughest challenge because much of the terrain it had to cross was broken. As a result, it fell behind, leading to General Holland Smith replacing its commander, Major General Ralph Smith. By adjusting their tactics, the Americans managed to grind forward through areas known as Death Valley and Purple Heart Ridge. By June 25, the Americans seized most of Mt. Tapochau and five days later, the Americans decisively broke through Saitos defenses.At this point, the Japanese struggled to maintain unit cohesion and their defenses were in disarray. General Smiths main objective was the town of Tanapag and the northernmost airfield near Mt. Marpi. The town of Garapan was taken in tough urban battles and by July 7, the Americans had finally caught the Japanese in a pocket north of Tanapag. General Saito decided to order one final attack.Japans Last Gasp and the Fate of the CiviliansGIs rescue a civilian hiding in a cave in northern Saipan, 1944. Source: The Life Picture CollectionBy this stage in the war, some Japanese commanders urged their subordinates not to launch full-scale Banzai charges, claiming that they were doomed to fail and not capable of inflicting serious losses on the Allies. General Saito was not one of them; he repeatedly ordered counter attacks during the battle. Once it became clear that the battle was over, he decided to launch a massed attack called a Gyokusai with the remaining 4,000 men available. Neither he nor Vice-Admiral Chuichi Nagumo commanding the naval contingent joined the attackers; both committed seppuku before the final assault.On July 6, the Japanese stormed out of their remaining positions to attack the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 105th Infantry Regiment. Even wounded Japanese servicemen joined the attack without weapons, walking on crutches towards the American lines. Both defending battalions lost close to 900 men due to the surprise of the attack. It was halted under a hail of artillery fire and American reinforcements arriving to assist the 105th. This marked the end of the battle except for clashes with stragglers.The battle engulfed tens of thousands of civilians residing on Saipan. Japanese troops convinced these people that the Americans would commit terrible atrocities against them if they were captured. As a result, over 1,000 civilians took their own lives, often by jumping from cliffs, at the end of the battle. Close to 10,000 others died from artillery or airstrikes during the fighting.The survivors were placed in temporary internment until the end of the battle, when they were allowed to go home to rebuild. The battle proved to be one of the bloodiest in the Pacific so far: nearly every Japanese combatant died while the Americans suffered 16,500 casualties of their own. Nonetheless, the victory was complete, and the Americans could use the airfields to attack Japan. Meanwhile, Prime Minister Tojos government collapsed in Tokyo.

Black Wall Street stood as a testament to African American resilience in a time when equality was seen as an impossibility. Located in Tulsa, Oklahomas Greenwood District, this segregated community blossomed in the early 20th century. In 1921, a devastating massacre tore through Greenwood at the hands of local white residents. The legacy of Black Wall Street endures, reminding us that even in tragedy, the spirit of a community can survive even the hardest of difficulties.The Rise of the Greenwood DistrictSign on Detroit Avenue in Tulsa, Oklahoma, ushering visitors into the historic Greenwood District. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the early 1900s, Tulsas Greenwood District emerged as a beacon of hope and prosperity for African Americans. Drawn by the promise of the booming oil industry in Oklahoma and the opportunity to escape the oppressive segregation of the rural South, many Black families migrated to Tulsa in search of a better life. Once in Tulsa, these determined individuals found racism extended well beyond the Deep South. African Americans were forced into the segregated region of the city, the Greenwood District.Soon, the citizens transformed a modest neighborhood into a flourishing center of commerce and culture. They built banks, retail stores, restaurants, service businesses such as mechanic shops, and even a hospital solely to care for the districts Black citizens.Greenwood quickly earned the nickname Black Wall Street. However, it was not solely about making moneyit was about having dignity, independence, and a sense of community while being faced with racial injustice. This period of substantial growth symbolized a collective dream of economic empowerment and self-determination, laying a foundation that would define the districts legacy as the premier neighborhood for African Americans in the United States even amid future turmoil.Early Successes of EntrepreneurshipThe Williams family, one of the wealthiest families in Tulsa, c. 1920. Source: Tulsa, Oklahoma Public LibraryAt the heart of Greenwoods success was a spirit of entrepreneurship that transformed adversity into opportunity. Local business pioneers such as O.W. Gurley and John Williams became names synonymous with the economic prosperity of the district.Gurley, for example, was one of the districts first entrepreneurs. In 1909, he purchased a 40-acre parcel of land in what became Black Wall Street. Later he established one of the districts most prominent banks, providing essential financial services that many African Americans were previously denied.Meanwhile, Williams and his wife were a formidable duo for their time. John Williams owned the East End Garage along Greenwood Ave, providing mechanic services to the residents of the town. His wife, Loula, managed the Dreamland Theatre and owned several other theaters in nearby Muskogee and Okmulgee.These entrepreneurs werent just focused on profitthey were building institutions that empowered their neighbors and provided jobs, education, and social mobility. Every new business was a statement against the eras practice of discrimination, demonstrating the importance of community support leading to a thriving local economy. Their innovative approaches not only brought wealth to Greenwood but also set an inspiring example for future generations. Unfortunately, the success of Greenwood would lead some in the white community of Tulsa to garner hatred for its residents, leading to a tumultuous outcome.A Growing LandscapeCommemorative plaque for the Greenwood business district, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGreenwoods commercial district was a visual showcase of Black Wall Streets success. Strolling down its bustling streets, one would see elegant storefronts, stately banks, and carefully maintained buildings all of which were adorned with lavish furnishings similar to the affluent areas of cities such as New York.Businesses such as O.W. Gurleys bank towered over the residents as they went about their daily lives and stood as a testament to financial independence at a time when access to capital was often denied to African Americans. These buildings served as markers of economic achievement and served as a daily reminder that, to those within the district and those on the outskirts looking in, that despite white Oklahomians best efforts, the community had built an independent world of its own and was in a better economic situation than the rest of the city.The Tulsa Race MassacreFront page of the Boston Daily Globe (Boston, MA) highlighting the Tulsa Race Riots, June 2, 1921. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn the night of May 31, 1921, Greenwoods prosperity was violently shattered by one of the darkest chapters in American historythe Tulsa Race Massacre. What had been a thriving center of Black innovation and success was engulfed in flames as white mobs attacked the district without mercy.Fueled by jealousy of the districts success and racist sentiments, homes, businesses, and community institutions were set ablaze, reducing a once bright beacon of hope to smoldering ruins within hours. The Williams home was bombed, but luckily none of the family was injured, and Dreamland Theatre was burned to the ground during the riots.Other prominent figures within the community witnessed their lifes work vanish in a single, horrific night. Survivors recounted the terror of fleeing burning buildings and the sadness and anger of watching generations of progress vanish right before their eyes.The massacre was more than a local tragedy; it was an assault on the very notion of Black independence and pride and impacted society well beyond Oklahoma. Newspapers as far away as Boston, Massachusetts, reported the horrific tragedy that unfolded in Tulsa. The devastating event not only destroyed structures but also inflicted deep psychological wounds that would take generations to heal. The determination of Greenwoods residence would be on display in the weeks, months, and years following the massacre as they began to rebuild from the smoldering ashes.An Era of RebuildingBlack Wall Street, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 2023. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the aftermath of the 1921 massacre, the people of Greenwood faced an uphill battle to reconstruct not only their physical neighborhood but also their shattered sense of community. With their homes, businesses, and institutions reduced to rubble, survivors banded together in an extraordinary display of resilience and determination.Despite limited financial resources, as African Americans were unable to obtain loans from white owned banks, and the deep emotional scars left by the violence, community members organized fundraisers and worked tirelessly to rebuild what they had lost.The reconstruction efforts were as much about restoring dignity as they were about economic recovery. Neighbors helped neighbors, pooling their resources and knowledge to establish new businesses and rebuild schools and churches. The crowning achievement of the era of reconstruction came in 1942, when Mt. Zion Church was rebuilt from the ashes. Just 40 days old at the time of the massacre, Mt. Zion was burned to the ground. The last of many buildings to be rebuilt, Mt. Zion shows that hatred cannot and will never win.Seeking Justice for TulsaMonument in remembrance of the Tulsa Race Riots and the investigation into the mass gravesites. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor decades after the massacre, the truth of what happened in Greenwood was buried beneath layers of silence and neglect. Survivors and their descendants fought relentlessly to bring the events of 1921 to light, demanding acknowledgment from a nation that had a long history of racial injustice. Activists, historians, and community leaders organized rallies, pushed for public inquiries, and established memorials to honor those lost. In 2001, 18 death certificates dated on the day of the riot were discovered. However, their burial location remained a mystery until 2018.With the help of modern technology, a mass burial site was discovered in Oaklawn Cemetery. Through DNA testing, the remains were identified as those of 18 individuals. The struggle of the survivors and their descendants was not just about holding perpetrators accountableit was about reclaiming a narrative.Efforts to document oral histories from the ever-decreasing survivors helped piece together a fuller account of the massacre, challenging generations of misinformation. This fight for recognition became a rallying cry for broader civil rights and reparations, underscoring the importance of confronting painful truths in order to heal.The Legacy of Black Wall StreetFormer United States Secretary of Labor Marty J. Walsh (right) tours the Greenwood Rising Black Wall Street History Center in Tulsa, Oklahoma, on February 9, 2023. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMore than a century after its golden years and subsequent tragedy, the legacy of Black Wall Street continues to resonate as a symbol of both remarkable achievement and loss. Greenwoods story is not just a historical accountit is a call to action for economic empowerment and social justice.In 2021, Greenwood Rising, a museum dedicated to sharing the remarkable story of Black Wall Street, opened to the public. Through Greenwood Rising and various memorials, the spirit of Black Wall Street inspires efforts to address racial hatred. Like many sites associated with tragedy, its legacy challenges us to learn from the past and urges us to confront injustice everywhere.

By the 1260s, the Mongols controlled most of China, except for the Song Dynasty in southern China. Korea (Goryeo) remained independent but as a vassal state. Now Kublai Khan looked to Imperial Japan which lay not far. Kublai sent six diplomatic missions between 1268 and 1273, demanding a relationship but threatening war. The Kamakura shogunate rebuffed each effort, even beheading several Mongols.This continual refusal to acknowledge Kublais authority attacked his prestige, a major insult for the worlds top power. Economically known for its gold and silver, Japan would benefit Kublais growing empire. Plus, Kublai sought to add Japan as a vassal state, viewing the island nation as a tributary state from the Chinese perspective.Angered by Japans non-responses to his overtures, Kublai Khan in 1273 decided to subjugate Japan. Yet preparations would be needed. Though masters of mobile warfare, the Mongols required ships and expertise that only the Khans vassals, China and Goryeo could provide.The Role of Korea and China in the Mongol InvasionsPortrait of Kublai Khan by court artist Araniko in the Album of Yuan Emperor Portraits, c. 1294. Source: Wikimedia Commons (National Palace Museum, Taipei)As subjugated nations, China and Korea had no options. Both supplied men, supplies, and ships for the invasion. Records indicate that many invading soldiers were conscripted soldiers, many reluctant. The Mongols chose Korea as the site for their initial invasion; only 124 miles of ocean separated the two nations. By late 1274, they had completed all preparations.Mongols First LandingMamluks and Mongols Clash 1281 Source: WikimediaIn November 1274, the Mongols fleet appeared off Hakata, Japan. The Mongols first crushed samurai garrisons on the islands of Tsushima and Iki. Next, the 900 ships and 40,000 soldiers sailed for the mainland. The Kamakura Shoguns, anticipating the invasion at Hakata on Kyushu, added defenses. Samurai warriors also reinforced the local noble clans, adding thousands.Establishing a foothold, the Mongols overpowered the samurai with superior tactics and weaponry. The samurai counterattacked fiercely, but individually, not having yet mastered mass combat. Additionally, the Mongols employed exploding shells, poisoned arrows, and more effective tactics. Unable to push the Mongols and their vassals back into the sea, the samurai still inflicted heavy casualties.The samurai retreated, but the Mongol army halted, offering no pursuit. Reasons vary from a lack of arrows, combat losses, or the invasion being a test. The Mongols returned to their ships. That night, a typhoon struck, wiping out one-third of the fleet.Khans Reaction to the DefeatMongol horseman with bow and arrow. Source: Ars TechnicaDespite this setback, Kublai Khan remained determined to conquer Imperial Japan. He refused all advice regarding future invasions, remaining undaunted. Khan did dispatch more emissaries, seeking to bring Japan into the fold. As before, the Japanese executed or dismissed the envoys.Both sides knew a sequel was inevitable. By 1279, the Khans forces routed the Song Dynasty of Southern China. An anxious Japanese Shogunate built better defenses on Kyushu, close to the first attempt. The defenses included the Genko Borui, a 6-foot-high, thick wall running 12 miles.The Second Mongol InvasionMounted Japanese Samurai Source: British MuseumIn June 1281, the Mongols launched a two-pronged attack. Hakata Bay bore the brunt of this attack for a second time. This armada dwarfed the first invasion, involving some 3,500 vessels and 140,000 troops. Sources on actual numbers vary wildly, however. Despite fierce fighting at Hakata, the Japanese halted the Mongols Eastern army. The stout Genko Borui blocked them. The Mongols withdrew to wait for the Southern Route army.Why Did Only One Mongol Army Attack?Chinese Junk Used by Mongols Source: NPRThe landings at Hakata Bay came from the Eastern Route arm commanders impatience. Reinforced by the massive Southern Route force sailing from China, the Mongols struck again in July. Landing on Shikanoshima Island, the Mongols made no headway. Using night raids and guerrilla tactics, the samurai continually harassed the invaders.Despite a numerical advantage, the Mongols couldnt get a decisive win. The samurai refused open battle when possible. Hit-and-run attacks (on land and sea), defensive fortifications, and their superior hand-to-hand fighting abilities contributed to the stalemate. The fighting dragged on into August 1281.Why Did the Fighting End?Mongols at the walls of Vladimir 1238, the Mongol army besieges the city of Vladimir by Vassily Maximov, c. 1900. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Mongol invasion came to a sudden end on August 15, 1281. Again, Japans fate was determined by a chance typhoon. Anchored in Hakata Bay, this massive storm struck, wrecking the fleet and drowning thousands, upwards of half of all the invaders. Only a remnant of the Khans fleet returned to port. The samurai ruthlessly hunted down and exterminated the survivors. The surprised Japanese called these winds kamikaze or divine winds. Luckily for Japan, Kublai Khan turned his attentions elsewhere, ignoring Japan.

From the mountains of the north to the beautiful beaches of the south, Thailand is packed with stunning places to experience. If youre a history lover, youll find no shortage of palaces, ruins, and ancient cities along the way. Plus, most of these sites are easily accessible and offer visitors a comprehensive overview of the tremendous history that happened there. Wander through the historic center of Ayutthaya, an impressive UNESCO World Heritage Site that was one of the countrys ancient capitals, or pay your respects in Kanchanaburi, the site of the infamous death railway.These nine historical must-see sights in Thailand will give you an insight like no other, and youll leave with a new understanding and respect for this fantastic country.1. Ayutthaya: Historical ParkWat Chai Watthanaram, Ayutthaya Historical Park, central Thailand. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIf you want to truly step back in time and get a deep understanding of ancient Thailand, youll need to visit Ayutthaya Historical Park. This collection of ruins contains original Buddha statues, including the famous Buddha head in the tree, and temples that date back centuries. There are several popular ways to explore the park, including touring by bicycle. There are also several impressive ruins outside the park, including Wat Chaiwatthanaram, which you can experience by boat cruise, and is glorious at night. Ayutthaya is just a short train ride from Bangkok, making it an ideal day trip for those looking for a more laid-back pace and a peek into history.2. Bangkok: Wat ArunWat Arun, a temple situated in the city of Bangkok, Thailand. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBangkoks Wat Arun, also known as the Temple of Dawn, is one of the top historical sites in the city, and it looks especially beautiful when its lit up at night. Dating back to the 17th Century, this stunning temple, complete with a towering prang, was dedicated to Aruna, the Hindu god of dawn, and is easily one of the most peaceful and magical spots in the city. You can tour the temple or enjoy views of it from the Chao Phraya River. The temple is open daily between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m.3. Sukhothai: Old TownSukhothai, Thailand, Wat Sorasak. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile not as popular as Ayutthaya, Sukhothai is one of the unmissable UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Southeast Asia. Theres no direct train from Bangkok to Sukhothai, but you can get there by disembarking the train in Phitsanulok and grabbing a bus or taxi the rest of the way. The journey is worth it to see this city suspended in the 13th century. Like Ayutthaya, Sukhothai was once the capital of Thailand, and youll find perfectly preserved pranas and temples all over the old district.4. Lopburi: Old TownPrang Sam Yot in Lopburi, Thailand. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIf youre traveling in Thailand, the name Lopburi is synonymous with monkeys, and these famous residents are one of the key reasons why people make the three-hour trip up north from Bangkok. The monkeys are fairly people-friendly, but still wild animals, so its advisable to keep your distance while you admire the ruins and wildlife. One of the most popular places to spot these creatures, and see some historic architecture, is Wat Phrasi Rattana Mahathat, built in 1357, and one of the key remaining structures from the Lavo Kingdom. Prang Sam Yod is another excellent example of Lavo architecture and a popular climbing site for Lopburis monkey residents.5. Bangkok: Grand PalaceGrand Palace, Bangkok, Thailand. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBangkoks Grand Palace was constructed in the late 1700s and is certainly not as old as some destinations on our list, but it is still incredibly historically important. This palace housed King Rama I, and subsequent monarchs, and is 200,00 square meters large, including the grounds and temples. One of the most impressive areas of the Grand Palace is the Temple of the Emerald Buddha, where you can see a priceless jade Buddha thats considered one of the countrys greatest treasures.6. Chiang Rai: Wat Rong KhunWhite Temple in Thailand. Source: Wikimedia CommonsChiang Rais magnificent Wat Rong Khun is known locally as the White Temple and is one of the most iconic historical sites in the northern part of the country. Opened in 1997, this temple is one of the newest structures on the list, but it has significant historical relevance as a testament to the spirituality and history of Thailand. Containing a meditation hall and prayer hall, plus statues and decorations that feature a fusion of pop culture and mythological and historical symbolism, its a fresh look at Thailands history through a modern lens.7. Kanchanaburi: Bridge on the River KwaiThe River Kwai bridge as seen from the tourist plaza (NNE side) in Kanchanburi, Thailand. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring World War II, the small town of Kanchanaburi played an important role in the war, specifically the Bridge on the River Kwai. Prisoners of war built the bridge as a way to span the distance between Myanmar and Thailand, and it was known locally as Death Railway for the number of people who suffered during its construction. The prisoners forced to construct the Bridge on the River Kwai had to face a host of different tropical diseases, like dysentery, malaria, and cholera, as well as horrific working conditions. Today, you can visit and pay your respects to those who lost their lives there.8. Chiang Mai: Wat Phra That Doi SuthepWat Phra That Doi Suthep, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWat Phra That Doi Suthep is one of Chiang Mais top historic sites, and one of the best examples of Lanna architecture in this part of the country. Created in 1383, this incredible complex is dominated by golden temples and contains a sacred relic from the Buddha. While youll have to travel outside the city to see it, its worth the journey, and the 306-step staircase to get up to the temple complex. Plus, youll enjoy gorgeous views of the city and countryside from the top.9. Korat: Phimai Historical ParkPhimai Historical Park in Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKorat is one of the most exciting places to visit in Issan, an area to the north where not a lot of tourists visit. Its also home to Phimai Historical Park, an exemplary piece of Khmer architecture. Dating back to the 11th Century, Phimai Historical Park has several impressive prangs, sprawling walkways, and carvings that pay homage to Hindu deities. Plus, since this area is not as widely toured as other parts of the country, youre less likely to contend with throngs of visitors, and may even have the ruins all to yourself.If you love history, you should put these nine destinations on your must-visit list next time in Thailand.

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