Basil II ruled the Byzantine Empire for almost half a century between 976 and 1025 CE. As a military leader, he broke the power of the First Bulgarian Empire and expanded his frontiers to Georgia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia. As a political reformer, he centralized power and replenished the imperial treasury. However, he died without an heir and the emperors who followed him lacked his abilities and struggled to defend the empire from the Seljuk Turks or the Latin Crusaders.Basils Early LifeProcessional Cross, 1000-1050. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkBasil was a member of the Macedonian dynasty, which ruled the empire for almost two centuries from 866 to 1056. The dynasty was founded by Basil I, a Macedonian peasant who became emperor after finding favor with his predecessor, Emperor Michael III.Basil II was born in 958 to Prince Romanos and his wife, a Greek woman named Theophano. Basils father became Emperor Romanos II in 959, and the two-year-old Basil was crowned co-emperor the following year.A fun-loving monarch who played too much polo, went out hunting night and day, and was fond of drinking, Romanos was not interested in government affairs and did not make much of an impression on Basils life (Lygo, p. 181). The Empress Theophano had far greater influence on her son. She dominated the brief reign of Romanos II, convincing her husband to exile his sisters to different convents and prevent their marriages into aristocratic families. She controlled government affairs with the assistance of her ally, the eunuch Joseph Bringas.When Romanos died unexpectedly in 963, Basil and his younger brother Constantine VIII were too young to rule. As a result, the young monarchs were subject to cutthroat palace intrigue. Rulers were deposed, blinded, and exiled to monasteries if they displeased the officials who held the reins of power behind the scenes.The Pale Death of the SaracensCoin depicting Nikephoros II Phocas, Mint of Constantinople, 963-969. Source: Cleveland Museum of ArtTwo generals, Nikephoros Phokas and his nephew, John Tzimiskes, provided military training and shaped Basils leadership style. After his father died in 963 CE, Basil watched his mother curry favor with the generals and arrange protection for him and his brother.Nikephoros had built a reputation for grand victories. He returned Crete to Imperial control after an Islamic emirate had ruled there since the early 9th century CE. When Theophano became regent, she arranged a political marriage to Nikephoros. Then, she appointed him emperor, with the understanding that Basil would assume full power at age 18.Emperor Nikephoros was beloved by his soldiers, who revered him as a warrior-monk. Soldiers praised his military strategies and nicknamed him the Morning Star. They followed him into battle wherever he led them (Lygo, p. 185). His prowess on the battlefield struck fear into the hearts of the Saracens, earning himself the nickname The Pale Death of the Saracens.Nikephoros reveled in life on the battlefield. As an ascetic and pious man, he despised the luxury of the imperial capital and preferred campaigning against the empires enemies. Being very devout, he placed great value on holy relics and sought to bring examples back to Constantinople wherever he could find them.Nikephoros II Phokas in the Rock-Cut Church of Cavusin in Cappadocia, Turkey, Late 10th-century CE. Source: National Gallery of Art, Washington DCSoon after marrying Theophano, Nikephoros returned to campaigning in Cilicia and Syria. After he annexed the Armenian state of Taron in 968, he turned his attention toward Tripoli. Later, he placed the city of Antioch under siege. Theophano celebrated the military triumphs, but wanted a younger, more handsome man to help her forget the loneliness of a widows life.An opportunity for companionship presented itself in John Tzimiskes who was eager to share her company. Soon, a plot formed to remove Nikephorus from his role as Emperor.On the night of December 11, 969, a group of conspirators broke into the emperors chambers and assassinated Nikephoros as he lay sleeping (Lygo, p. 187). The inscription on his sarcophagus was fitting. It read, You conquered all but a woman.John Tzimiskes Becomes EmperorGold coin of Emperor John Tzimiskes, Mint of Constantinople, 969-76. Source: Harvard Art MuseumJohn Tzimiskes had to make multiple concessions to the Patriarch of Constantinople to be crowned with his blessing. First, he had to rid himself of Theophano. All the co-conspirators were punished, and previous increases in church taxes were reversed. The only one allowed to stay in place was a eunuch who was ironically called Basil.Empress Theophano disappeared from historical accounts. Exiled to a remote part of Armenia, she left cursing and screaming at both John and the Patriarch. She remained in confinement until her son, Basil II, brought her back to the capital. John Tzimiskes built upon his uncles success with the church by strengthening the monks position on Mt. Athos and regularly donating money to help the poor, the sick, and the needy (Lygo, p. 190).As emperor, Tzimiskes combined diplomatic and military tactics to defeat his enemies. He forced the Rus Prince Svyatoslav of Kyiv to agree to a face-to-face meeting and gained concessions for a peace treaty in Byzantiums favor.The last campaigns of Tzimiskes were focused on the area of modern day Israel, known as Palestine in the Byzantine era. From negotiations with Rus rulers or challenges from Arab armies in Syria, John met them as an emperor. He left a legacy as one of the most brilliant Byzantine generals and an exemplary emperor. The vicious murder of his uncle, Nikephoros Phokas, was the sole negative note sounded by critics.Basil Assumes Full PowerDouble-Sided Pendant Icon with the Virgin and Christ Pantokrator, made in Constantinople, 1100 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkDouble-Sided Pendant Icon with the Virgin and Christ Pantokrator, made in Constantinople, 1100 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkWhen John Tzimiskes died in January 976, Basil II reached his majority and assumed full power as emperor. His younger brother and co-emperor, Constantine VIII, was content to stay out of imperial politics. Rather, he preferred the social aspects of palace life: attending banquets, planning hunts, and living a luxurious life in Constantinople.As a young, untested emperor, Basil encountered rivals from powerful military families and threats from foreign enemies like the Bulgars or Islamic empires like the Fatimids. The initial threats came from two men connected to the army and the late emperors Nikephoros and John Tzimiskes.The first, Bardas Skleros, waged a three-year civil war from 976 to 979. While Basil eventually defeated Skleros, his victory came at a high cost and diverted crucial military resources from the frontier. In 987 Nikephoros nephew Bardas Phokas launched another uprising. After two years, Basil vanquished Phokas and successfully consolidated his rule at home.The Formation of the Varangian GuardModern replica of a helmet and chain mail from the warriors grave at Gjermundbu in Norway. Source: National Museum of Denmark, CopenhagenDuring the Phokas civil war, Basil negotiated an alliance with Grand Prince Volodymyr of Kyiv. His agreement included the marriage of his sister Anna to the Kyivan prince, who agreed to convert to Orthodox Christianity.The alliance allowed Basil to strengthen his power, retain his throne, and deal with both rivals simultaneously. The Rus were vikings who originally came from eastern Scandinavia, and by the 10th century the princes of the Rurikid dynasty controlled a vast stretch of territory in present-day Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine.Basil gained 6,000 Rus mercenaries from these regions. These soldiers became the Varangians, the emperors famous bodyguards. The Varangians were invaluable since they were foreign outsiders who had no local allegiance to the powerful families of Constantinople and were loyal only to the emperor.Basil organized them into an imperial regiment of elite troops. For the next two centuries, this unit would draw its recruits from Scandinavia, and they returned home with rich rewards from imperial service (Kaldellis, p. 100).The Bulgar SlayerMap of the Byzantine Empire (c. 1000 CE) and Tsar Samuils Kingdom (993-1018). Source: University of Texas, AustinBy 989, the emperor was ready to expand his empire into the Caucasus, the Balkans, and Southern Italy. The city of Antioch was a crucial base for the eastern expansion of the empire, while in the west, he secured Venices maritime assistance against the Muslims of Sicily.These diplomatic and military achievements were overshadowed by his conquest of the Bulgarian Empire under their fearsome Tsar Samuil. The tsar ruled a large part of the Balkans, and he had revived Bulgarian independence (Herrin, p. 216). To combat the Bulgarian rulers ambitions, Basil reorganized the administration of the imperial territories bordering Bulgaria.Basil II campaigned against Samuil from 991 to 995. In 997 CE, his general, Nikephoros Ouranos, defeated the Bulgarians at the River Sperchios. To consolidate his victory, Basil returned to the region three times from 1001 to 1005 to put down local uprisings. Finally, a major Byzantine victory was achieved at Kleidion Pass in 1014, though the triumph was offset when another Byzantine army commanded by the local duke was defeated (Herrin, pg. 217).In 1018, Basil defeated Tsar Samuils successor, John Vladislav, decisively at Dyrrachium (present-day Durrs, Albania). The Bulgar nobility realized that further hostilities were pointless. According to legend, Basil ordered several thousand enemy soldiers to be blinded as a demonstration of his ruthlessness. Such a barbarous deed would have undermined Basils efforts to incorporate the Bulgarian provinces into his empire. In fact, Basil II gave generous titles and land to defeated Bulgarian nobles, but he reduced their threat by relocating the most powerful men to the Anatolian regions far away from their homeland.Wooden icon of Saint Demetrios, 950-1000. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkTo mark his great victory over the Bulgarians, the Emperor journeyed to Athens. He held worship in the ancient Parthenon, now converted into a church, and gave thanks to the Holy Theotokos or Mother of God (i.e. the Virgin Mary). Basil presented splendid offerings taken from the Palace of Samuil in Ohrid.After this visit, he returned to Constantinople, where he celebrated in the triumphal Roman fashion displaying the riches from the Bulgarian campaign and parading Samuels family in front of the people. At the end of his celebration, he entered the Hagia Sophia, the largest church in Christendom at this time, and thanked God for his success.Basil IIs LegacyCoin of Basil II, Mint of Constantinople, 1005-1025. Source: Harvard Art MuseumBasils successes expanded and enriched his empire. He conquered Bulgaria, parts of Armenia, and Georgia, absorbing their elites into the imperial system. In true Byzantine fashion, he posted Iberians (Georgians) to the Balkans, Bulgarians to Vaspurakan, and kept Varangians always by his side (Kaldellis, p. 139).Half a century after Basils death, the historian Michael Psellos described him as a model emperor for the army and the treasury. Still, Psellos noted that Basil scorned literature and intellectual life. Basil II was not remembered simply as the Bulgar Slayer. During his lifetime, he brought effective government, peace, and great wealth to the empire.During his almost constant military campaigning, the emperor observed the dangerous results of landowners extending their property at the expense of poorer villages. He attempted to create laws against this to help the poor under his rule.Basil failed in one respect: the succession. Basil never married and remained childless. While his well-established administration continued beyond Constantine VIIIs brief sole reign, the male line of the Macedonian dynasty died out with Constantine in 1028.Basil IIs legacy rests in his ability to subdue rivals that threatened his rule: external powers such as the Bulgarians; ambitious generals in his military; factions within the imperial court, noble families, the Church; and popular discontent in Constantinople. These centers of power returned in force during the 11th century as soon as they sensed weakness around the throne. As a result, none of Basils successors enjoyed as much power as he did (Kaldellis, p. 141).BibliographyHerrin, J. (2008). Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. Penguin Books.Kaldellis, A. (2017). Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood. Oxford University Press.Lygo, K. (2022). The Emperors of Byzantium. Thames & Hudson.

Few empires in history have grown as large or lasted as long as the Ottoman Empire. It was founded in the medieval era and only disappeared in the first decades of the 20th century (Quataert, 2005, 3). Ottoman history is, in many ways, marked by contradictions. It was a Sunni Islamic empire noted for centuries of religious toleration and some of the most bitter ethnic and religious violence in the modern era. Ottoman sultans held powerful titles, which made them supposedly absolute rulers, but they often faced internal opposition.This article provides a brief overview of the history and legacy of the Ottoman Empire.What Was the Ottoman Empire?Uniforms of the elite Ottoman soldiers, Janissaries, by Richard Kntel, ca. 1890. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Ottoman Empire was a vast and powerful Sunni Islamic state that spanned much of the present-day Middle East, North Africa, and Southeastern Europe for over six centuries.Followers of the ruling House of Osman became known as Osmanli, the origin of the word Ottoman. At the start of the 14th century, the Ottomans were one of several Turcoman or Turkish tribes vying for power in Anatolia, or Asia Minor (present-day Trkiye), at the expense of the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans ruled one of the worlds most powerful and feared empires for three centuries.However, the empire entered a period of prolonged decline in the 17th century. By the 19th century, following several rebellions resulting in national independence or autonomy in the Balkans, European observers referred to the Ottoman Empire as the Sick Man of Europe.Scholarship today has modified this view of an empire doomed to collapse even as late as the first decade of the 20th century. Nevertheless, the Ottoman Empire experienced many reversals in conflicts with rival imperial powers and rebellious subjects between the 18th and 20th centuries.How Long Did the Ottoman Empire Exist?Sultan Selim III holding an audience in front of the Gate of Felicity, Topkapi Palace, Istanbul, by an unknown artist, ca. 1789. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Ottoman Empire existed for more than 600 years. Officially, the empire lasted 623 years, from 1299 until 1922.Despite this lengthy history, there were many periods of turmoil and instability. For instance, there was an extended interregnum at the beginning of the 15th century. The Ottoman throne was vacant following Timur (Tamerlanes) crushing defeat and capture of Sultan Bayezit I at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Historian Jason Goodwin explains that the empires prestige began to recover from Bayezits shocking defeat under Mehmet I and his son Murad II (1413-1451) (1998, 28).Scholars agree more about the empires end date than its hazy beginnings in Anatolia. Historian John Freely points out that in 1922, the last reigning Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI Vahideddin, was forced into exile (1998, 296).However, historian Caroline Finkel argues that it is better to view the empires end date as 1927. According to Finkel, Mustafa Kemal Atatrk formally announced the Turkish Republics departure from the Ottoman world (2007, 1).When Was the Ottoman Empire Founded?Portrait of Osman I, by an unknown artist. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs we have mentioned, scholars debate the empires foundation story. According to historian Caroline Finkel, the empires founding dates back to 1299 CE, as early Ottoman chroniclers realized it was a rare moment when the Islamic and Christian calendars turned centuries simultaneously (2007, 2).Ottoman tradition says that the dynastys founder, Osman, was the son of a nomadic Turcoman, or Turkish warrior, named Erturul. Erturul and his son Osman were Muslim nomadic warriors known as ghazis.Author Alev Scott explains that from his base at St, Osmans warriors menaced the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire and rival Turcoman tribes in Anatolia (2018, 267).Where Was the Ottoman Empire Located?Map of the Ottoman Empire in c. 1590. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAt its height, Ottoman territories connected three continents: Asia, Africa, and Europe. Ottoman sultans held sway from Constantinople to Cairo and Belgrade to Baghdad. Moreover, many of the holiest cities for the monotheistic faiths of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, including Jerusalem, Mecca, and Medina, were under Ottoman rule.Osmans early successors, Orhan and Murad I, expanded Ottoman authority in Anatolia and the Balkans. Ottoman armies conquered most of the Balkans during the 14th and 15th centuries.In Europe, Ottoman expansion was only stopped at the gates of Vienna. Sultan Suleiman I (The Magnificent) unsuccessfully besieged Vienna in 1529, and a second Ottoman siege met a similar fate in 1683.As the sobriquet Magnificent suggests, Suleiman did not experience many defeats on the battlefield. During his reign, the Ottoman Empire secured territory from the rival Safavid Empire, including much of North Africa and Hungary, and dominated the Mediterranean Sea.What Was the Capital City of the Ottoman Empire?Mehmet II conquering Constantinople, by Fausto Zonaro, 1903. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Dolmabahe Palace, Istanbul, TrkiyeSeveral cities following St served as Ottoman capitals in the empires history.Bursa emerged as the empires first capital city. Historian John Freely notes that Bursa was seized from the Byzantines in the late 1320s (1998, 159). Edirne (Adrianople) became the empires capital city following its conquest in the 1360s.However, the conquest of Constantinople in May 1453 gave rise to a new capital city and imperial power that would span multiple continents. Historian Donald Quataert notes that Sultan Mehmet II became known as Fatih (Conqueror) and renamed his new capital Istanbul (2005, 4).As the Ottomans conquered new capital cities and many territories populated by non-Muslims, they developed a distinct system of governance. Ottoman society was divided along religious lines, organized into distinct communities known as the millet system. Alev Scott notes that millet originates from the Arabic word milla, meaning nation (2018, xx).How Was the Ottoman Empire Governed?German print of Ottoman Sultans, ca. 1909-1918. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHistorians Valerie A. Kivelson and Ronald Grigor Suny describe the basic premise of an empire as rule by difference (2017). In other words, different groups of people are governed according to different sets of privileges and obligations, but are all subordinate to the ruler at the top.The sultan (padishah) was at the top of the imperial hierarchy in the Ottoman Empire. Over time, Ottoman sultans assumed various titles to demonstrate the scope and scale of their power. For example, following the conquest of Constantinople, sultans were also styled as Caesars of Rome.While sultans claimed a Sunni Islamic caliphate from the 14th century, Ottoman rulers formally assumed the title of caliph after Selim Is conquest of Egypt in 1517. As a result, they claimed to be the spiritual leaders of all Sunni Muslims.John Freely explains that Abdlmecid II became caliph but not sultan in November 1922. The caliphate was abolished by Turkish legislation in 1924 (1998, 296-297).As the empire expanded, it became increasingly decentralized, and local rulers assumed greater authority in their respective provinces. According to historian M. kr Haniolu, by the 18th century, the most important characteristic of the Ottoman Empire was its decentralization (2008, 6-7).However, this began to change during the reign of Sultan Mahmud II (1808-1839). While faced with the first movements for national independence from Ottoman rule, like the Greek Revolution, Haniolu explains that Mahmud II also reined in the power of ruling pashas (governors) in many remote provinces (2008, 60-61).How Did the Ottoman Empire Fall?Photograph by Lewis Larsson of the Ottoman Surrender of Jerusalem, December 9, 1917. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress, Washington DCThe Ottoman Empire collapsed due to a combination of long-term and short-term factors. Centralization and reform efforts in the mid-19th century ultimately produced mixed results for an empire faced with growing external threats from rival European imperial powers, such as Russia, and internal challenges from several nationalist movements.Moreover, the 1908 Young Turk Revolution seriously affected Ottoman dynastic authority.Conflict dominated the final decade of the empires formal existence. This series of wars began with the war against Italy in 1911-1912. A coalition of states formed the Balkan League and initiated the First Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire in October 1912.The war with Italy and the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 resulted in the Ottoman Empire losing virtually all its remaining European territory.Historian Eugene Rogan notes that the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in late 1914 on the side of the Central Powers, comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later Bulgaria (2015, 68).Despite stiff resistance against Entente (British, French, Russian) invasions, Ottoman forces lost much of the empires territory in the present-day Middle East by the wars end in 1918. The Ottoman war ended with the armistice at Mudros. The victorious Entente proceeded to carve up former Ottoman territory while Mustafa Kemals Turkish nationalists built the Turkish Republic.What Is the Ottoman Empires Legacy?Photograph of Aya Sofya (Hagia Sophia), Istanbul, photograph by Arild Vgen, 2013. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHistorian Donald Quataert emphasized the Ottoman Empires varied living legacy (2005, 3). For some, this living legacy involves ethnonationalist violence in areas formerly belonging to the Ottoman Empire.Imperial collapses tend to leave a trail of violence. For instance, the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE was marked by an extended period of violent conflict and instability. The Ottoman story was no different.Violence escalated in the empires final decades as various nationalist movements fought for independence from Ottoman rule. Ethnonationalist conflict and violence between pro-Ottoman and Turkish nationalists devastated the former heartland of the empire in Anatolia into the 1920s.However, the Ottoman Empire boasts a legacy beyond the bitter violence of conflicts in the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa. Architecture is perhaps the most visible Ottoman legacy across much of the former empire.The surviving works of Suleiman the Magnificents court architect, Mimar Sinan, are important symbols of their respective cities and popular tourist attractions. John Freely notes that Sinan built a total of 321 structures throughout the Ottoman Empire. Many remain standing today, including 85 in Istanbul alone (1998, 199).References and Further ReadingFinkel, C. (2007). Osmans Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Basic Books.Freely, J. (1998). Istanbul: The Imperial City. Penguin.Goodwin, J. (2000). Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire. Owl Books. Original work published in 1998.Haniolu, M. . (2008). A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton University Press.Kivelson, V.A. and R.G. Suny. (2017). Russias Empires. Oxford University Press.Quataert, D. (2005). The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922. Cambridge University Press. Original Work published in 2000.Rogan, E. (2015). The Fall of the Ottomans: The Great War in the Middle East. Basic Books.Scott, A. (2018). Ottoman Odyssey: Travels Through A Lost Empire. Riverrun.

On August 16, 1924, the battered body of the Italian Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti was found buried in a wood on the outskirts of Rome. He had been missing since June 10, when a group of fascists assaulted and kidnapped him. At the end of May, Giacomo Matteotti, an early opponent of Mussolinis Fascist Party, denounced the violence and irregularities that took place during the national elections that led to the establishment of the first fascist government. While Giacomo Matteottis assassination initially threatened to overthrow Mussolini, the Duce overcame the crisis. In postwar Italy, Matteotti was celebrated as a symbol of anti-fascism.Giacomo Matteotti: The Early YearsThe house in Fratta Polesine where Giacomo Matteotti was born. Source: Finestre sullArteGiacomo Matteotti was born in Fratta Polesine, a rural town in the Po Valley of Emilia-Romagna, the Italian region where Predappio, the birthplace of Benito Mussolini, is also located. Giacomo Matteotti was the second youngest of seven children. Four of his siblings did not survive childhood. His remaining two brothers, Matteo and Silvio, died of tuberculosis at a young age. His father, Girolamo Matteotti, was a wealthy landowner.At the time of Matteottis birth, Polesine was a predominantly agricultural area where farm workers lived in grueling conditions, and pellagra, a disease caused by vitamin B3 deficiency, was endemic. According to the Jacini Report, a parliamentary survey of the economic and social situation in the rural areas of the Italian peninsula, the Po Valley was one of the most impoverished zones of the country. The abject poverty led many residents to immigrate overseas, especially to South America. As young Matteotti became increasingly aware of the farm workers struggles, he decided to join the youth section of the Italian Socialist Party. In 1904, he became a party member and began collaborating with its magazine, La Lotta (The Struggle).After graduating from the University of Bologna with a degree in Law, Matteotti was briefly undecided whether to pursue an academic career or devote himself to politics. In 1907, he became a member of the Fratta city council. Then, two years later, Matteotti published his first book on legal matters. However, he ultimately opted to follow his passion for politics. In 1912, he was elected mayor of Villamarzana, a small town near his birthplace. In 1914, he attended the XIV Congress of the Italian Social Party, or PSI.From left to right: Matteottis children, his wife Velia Ruffo, and a signed photograph of Giacomo Matteotti. Source: Il Bo Live Universit di PadovaDuring the years spent as an administrator in Polesine, Matteotti helped coordinate the local laborers organizations. In particular, the socialist leader sought to improve the economic and social conditions of the land workers, promoting a mass literacy campaign and access to higher education.Meanwhile, Matteotti had met Velia Titta, the sister of celebrated opera singer Ruffo Titta. The couple married in a civil ceremony and had three children: Giancarlo, Matteo, and Isabella.At the outbreak of World War I, Matteotti opposed Italys involvement in the conflict, criticizing fellow socialist Benito Mussolinis call for intervention. His pacifist stand caused him to face a trial for defeatism. After the Kingdom of Italy joined the war effort alongside the Allied powers, Matteotti was drafted into the army. As he was declared unfit for duty due to his weak lungs, Matteotti remained in a military base in Sicily until the wars end.Bienno Rosso & Bienno Nero: Between Internal Struggles & SquadrismoGuardie Rosse (Red Guards) in Turin, 1920. Source: Fatti per la StoriaIn 1919, Matteotti returned to Polesine and resumed his political career. In the general elections held the same year, the Italian Socialist Party secured 70 percent of the vote, becoming the largest party in the country. Matteotti, who had run for parliament the first time, was elected at the Chamber of Deputies as representative for the voting precinct of Rovigo-Ferrara.When Giacomo Matteotti joined the Italian parliament, the liberal state was experiencing a period of intense political and social upheaval. The cost of World War I had worsened the countrys financial situation, leading to rising inflation and widespread unemployment. Between 1919 and 1920, during the so-called Biennio Rosso (The Two Red Years), the left-wing parties mobilized factory workers and peasants, organizing thousands of strikes and mass demonstrations. While the left political groups increased their memberships, internal conflicts weakened the movement. In particular, the PSI was divided between the maximalists, who sought to upset the existing order through a revolution, and the reformists, who opposed the revolutionary rhetoric.A group of Socialists in front of Teatro Goldoni, where the XVII Socialist Nationalist Congress took place. Source: Fondazione Gramsci Emilia-RomagnaThe friction among the different currents led to a formal split at the 1921 XVII Congress of the PSI held in Livorno. After days of intense confrontations, the left-wing group left the proceedings and founded the Italian Communist Party, or PCI. The reformists, who opposed the Bolshevik model, responded by gathering in a new political group, the United Socialist Party (or PSU), created a few days after the Fascist March on Rome. Filippo Turati, the leader of the moderate current, appointed Matteotti as secretary of the PSU.Matteotti, a long-time supporter of the social-reformist wing, had always promoted the idea of a democratic and parliamentary way to Socialism. At the same time, he criticized his fellow party members who saw the introduction of gradual reforms as the ultimate goal. As Benito Mussolinis fascist movement began to gain momentum, gradually winning the support of northern Italys landowners and industrialists, Matteotti urged the socialists to put aside their ideological differences and coordinate unified actions against the common threat of fascist violence.Giacomo Matteotti Against FascismBlackshirts lit a bonfire during the March on Rome. Source: Focus.itIn Polesine, Matteotti witnessed the violent methods of the fascist squadrismo from its origins. Indeed, the Po Valley was one of the first regions of the Italian peninsula where the squadristi, clad in their black shirts, carried out countless attacks and raids against the opponents of Mussolinis movement. In the so-called Biennio Nero (The Two Black Years), the Blackshirts usually targeted socialists and union leaders, beating and publicly humiliating them. During their punitive expeditions, the fascists would often force their victims to swallow large quantities of castor oil, a liquid known for its laxative effects.In Polesine, where a large portion of the population supported the Socialist Party, the squadrismo was particularly violent. As the undisputed left-wing leader of the region, Giacomo Matteotti was a target of Mussolinis men. In 1921, for example, a group of fascists attacked and beat him in Ferrara, where he was attempting to assist the local mayor arrested by the Blackshirts.In May 1922, faced with the mounting fascist brutality and the lefts inability to form a common front, Matteotti wrote in a letter to his wife that he was considering resigning from the Chamber of Deputies. During the final two years of his life, the socialist leader felt increasingly isolated within his own party.As a direct witness of the Fascist movements campaign of terror in the Po Valley, Matteotti fiercely opposed the group of PSU members who advocated the need to collaborate with Mussolinis government. Even though the fascist leader initially pursued a legality course in his administration, Matteotti was convinced that the reactionary nature of the fascist movement was mutually exclusive with democracy.The March on Rome, October 1922. Source: Fatti per la StoriaUntil his death, Matteotti denounced the crimes perpetrated by Mussolinis Blackshirts in Italy and abroad, warning the PSU and other European left-wing parties of the dangers of fascism. On the first anniversary of the founding of the fascist movement, Matteotti published the pamphlet Un anno di dominazione fascista (A Year of Fascist Domination), emphasizing the violence at the earth of the movement and disproving Mussolinis boasting of the partys achievements. The PSU members advocating a policy of collaboration with Mussolinis government opposed the publication of Matteottis work.The Fascist Government, remarked Matteotti in an essay published posthumously, justifies its armed conquest of political power, its use of violence by the plea of the urgent necessity of restoring the authority of law and State. However, continued the socialist leader, never as in this last year [1923], during which Fascism has been in power, has the law been so thrust aside in favour of arbitrary action.June 10, 1924: The Matteotti CrisisThe car used to kidnap Giacomo Matteotti on June 10, 1924. Source: Rai CulturaDuring the national elections held in the spring of 1924, Giacomo Matteotti was re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies. While the Fascist National Party won 65 percent of the vote, the PSU managed to secure a substantial number of ballots. In many polling places, the squadristi disrupted the electoral proceedings, harassing and intimidating the opposition parties candidates. On May 30, 1924, during the opening session of the newly elected Chamber of Deputies, Giacomo Mattetti denounced the violence that had marred the election. In his speech, frequently interrupted by shouted threats from the fascist representatives, Matteotti challenged the legitimacy of the election, calling for the annulment of the electoral proceedings.The June 14, 1924 edition of Il Popolo. The headline reads: The Honourable Matteotti Victim of a Hideous Political Murder. Source: LAICAs he exited the Chamber, Matteotti allegedly commented, Now you can prepare my funeral oration. In the following days, as he waited for the Chamber of Deputies to resume its sessions, Matteotti spent his afternoons in the Chambers library, routinely leaving his home at 3:30 pm.On June 10, 1924, as he was walking on the Lungotevere Arnaldo da Brescia, a group of men waiting in a Lancia car assaulted and kidnapped him. His body was found only on August 15, buried in a wood near the Via Flaminia. The police later identified and arrested five men for the murder of Matteotti. They were members of the Ceka, a Fascist group notorious for its punitive expedition against political opponents.The funeral of Giacomo Matteotti at Fratta Polesine on August 21, 1924. Source: Casa Museo Giacomo MatteottiThe assassination of Giacomo Matteotti shocked the country. On August 21, 1924, a huge crowd joined the funeral procession held in Fratta. Benito Mussolini, considered by many to be implicated in the crime, feared for the future of his party and government. As the fascists lost public favor, a group of opposition deputies left the Chamber in protest in the so-called Aventine Secession, hoping to persuade King Victor Emmanuel III to ask for Mussolinis resignation.The strategy, however, proved to be ineffective. Indeed, in the virtual absence of his opponents, the fascist leader managed to regain control of the situation. In January 1925, he boldly declared that he assumed full political, moral, and historical responsibility for all that has happened. In the following months, the Duce transformed the liberal state into an authoritarian regime.Giacomo Matteotti, Sinclair Oil, & Corruption: The Oil TrailCartoon of the Teapot Dome Scandal by W.T. Enright, February 23, 1924. Source: Levin CenterIn 1924, some opposition newspapers criticized the agreement between the Mussolini government and Sinclair Oil, the American company involved in the Teapot Dome Scandal, a corruption case revolving around the illegal leasing of federal oil reserves. Similarly to what happened in the United States, Sinclair Oil paid bribes to Mussolinis cabinet to secure the exclusive exploitation of areas of Sicily and the northeastern region of the Italian peninsula.In May 1924, after a trip to England to meet with the Labor Party officials, Matteotti wrote an article on the Sinclair Oil case. Titled Machiavelli, Mussolini, and Fascism, the piece was published by English Life only after his death. We are already aware, declared the Socialist leader, of many grave irregularities concerning this concession. High officials can be charged with treasonable corruption or of the most disgraceful jobbery.Giacomo Matteotti. Source: Blog Fondazione NenniAfter Matteottis kidnapping, a rumor soon began to circulate, claiming that his death was linked to his investigation into the corruption surrounding the agreement between the fascist government and the American oil company. The fact that Matteotti intended to hold a statement during the June 11 session of the Chamber of Deputies seemed to substantiate the suspicion.From the moment I began investigating this murder, remarked Epifanio Pennetta, the Chief of the judiciary police, I had the impression, concerning the motive, that aside from the political motives, there were other motives of a financial nature.An Anti-Fascist Martyr: Giacomo Matteotti & His LegacyA group of Socialist deputies commemorate Matteotti on his kidnapping at Lungotevere Arnaldo da Brescia. Source: Rai CulturaIn days following his kidnap, many residents of the Italian capital passed by the site where the socialist leader was last seen, leaving red wreaths and flowers. The Blackshirts hovering nearby usually taunted the mourners, chanting, Con la carne di Matteotti ci faremo i salsicciotti (we will make mincemeat of Matteottis flesh).As Mussolini managed to overcome the so-called Matteotti Crisis, the regime forbade the commemoration of Matteotti and his memory in any form. Even saying his name could lead to an arrest. His widow, Velia Ruffo, who returned to Polesine with his children, was placed under constant police supervision for the remaining forty years of Mussolinis dictatorship.As the regime forbade them from honoring Matteotti in the open, the opponents of the fascist regime continued to mourn him in the privacy of their homes. In July 1944, Daily Herald reporter Maurice Fagence observed, The spirit of Matteotti which lived throughout Italys years of shame still lives in Northern Italy. The dead Matteotti is an army on his own. He lives. He fights.Soon, myths began to form around his final moments of life. According to the most famous rumor, Matteotti had said to his attackers, You may kill me, but you will never kill the idea in me.In the postwar years, Matteotti and his sacrifice became one of the founding myths of the new Italian democratic republican state. In June 1945, people from all northern Italy gathered in Fratta Polesine to participate in a march organized on the anniversary of the socialist leaders death. As an early opponent of fascism, Matteotti came to represent the Italian populations supposedly fundamental dislike for Mussolinis regime, thus reaffirming the self-exonerating narrative known as the myth of the Good Italian.

If there was a true symbol of the Enlightenment Era, it has to be the Encyclopedia, or A Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts. Its main goal was to inform its readers of educational topics, from mathematics and chemistry to history, art, and philosophy. When we talk about those who wrote for the Encyclopedia, we are talking about big names such as Voltaire and Rousseau! Let us find out what exactly the Encyclopedia was and who the most prominent contributors were.The Project of the EncyclopediaPortrait of Denis Diderot (1713-1784) by Louis-Michel van Loo, 1767. Source: Louvre Museum, Paris/ 2010 Grand Palais Rmn (muse du Louvre)/Stphane MarchalleThe famous Encyclopedia had far from an easy and smooth beginning, distribution, and establishment among its readers. The project started in the early 1740s, inspired by Ephraim Chambers Cyclopaedia (1728). The French publisher Andr Le Breton wanted to translate the work into French. However, everything changed when Denis Diderot took the initiative and became the editor-in-chief and one of the co-editors of the Encyclopedia.Instead of translating the Cyclopaedia, Diderot took a completely different approach. He decided to work with different authors and scholars from various scientific disciplines across Europe and publish their writings in a new and independent Encyclopedia. Together with his co-editor dAlambert, he wanted to gather human knowledge and make it accessible to a broader public.During the 18th century, when the Encyclopdie, Ou Dictionnaire Raisonn Des Sciences, Des Arts Et Des Mtiers (Encyclopedia, or A Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts) was born and published, educating people and getting the necessary work to launch the enterprise took a lot of effort. Academics and future scholars faced many challenges, from physically not having the manuscripts or their translation to having false and not factually correct writings.The cover of the first volume of the Encyclopedia, 1751. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the big steps forward to advancing sciences was to actually provide scientists with information. By making writings and ideas that challenged backward beliefs available, the volumes of the first Encyclopedia provided scientific and critical thinking tools to different readerships.The Encyclopedia and its authors personally had an enormous impact in fostering intellectual and social progress. The first volume of the Encyclopedia was published in 1751, and just as its co-editors had promised, it provided articles from a wide range of disciplines and topics.The first volume was extremely well received and made its co-editors and authors famous among scholars and elites of that time. A total of 28 volumes were published from the first publication in 1751 to the last in 1772, including the period when the Encyclopedia was temporarily banned in 1759.Who Wrote the First Encyclopedia? Diderot and DAlambertPortrait of Jean le Rond dAlembert (1717-1783), in a mauve coat and waistcoat and a black cravat, unknown artist, 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Bonhams, LondonDenis Diderot (1713-1784) was a chief editor and one of the most important people responsible for the Encyclopedia seeing the light of the day. If someone truly embodied the ideals of the Enlightenment, it was this well-known philosopher and writer.The absolute monarchy and the Catholic Church represented values that opposed the new philosophical wave and Diderots political views. Diderot was already known to French authorities since he ended up in jail once. By taking a role in publishing the Encyclopedia and writing some of its most provocative and alluring articles, he somewhat got the recognition and the protection of some of the most intriguing historical figures of the 18th century.He famously met Catherine the Great, the Russian empress, who was one of his biggest financiers. Diderot will forever be praised as the chief editor of the Encyclopedia, and the whole scientific community greatly benefited from his brave fight to make knowledge more available to curious readers and scholars.The second co-editor of the Encyclopedia was a well-established mathematician, physicist, and philosopher, Jean le Rond dAlambert (1717-1783). Together with Diderot, he was one of the leading men in the French scientific community and the Enlightenment period. Besides being the Encyclopedia co-editor, he was also one of the contributors.He was an extremely versatile writer for the Encyclopedia since he wrote about mathematics, physics, philosophy, and music theory. One of his most famous essays, Preliminary Discourse, appeared in the first volume of the Encyclopedia. In the text, dAlambert explained the goals and philosophy behind the project itself.Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques RousseauPortrait de Voltaire (1694-1778) by Nicolas de Largillire, 1718-1724. Source: Muse Carnavalet, ParisVoltaire, or Francois-Marie Arouet, was one of the most famous and recognized philosophers not just of the 18th century, but across generations. He managed to build a persona and voice that let him openly discuss some of the most engaging and intricate ideas of the period.Although he cannot take credit for the project itself, since he was not directly involved and responsible, he contributed to the Encyclopedia through his writings and changing the political climate. In particular, he provided articles on historiography, literary criticism, philosophy, and history of political institutions and ideas. The public knew him for his ability to challenge the power and hierarchical systems. He was very secularistic and therefore very anti-dogmatic when it came to religious belief.Among the great political theorists and scholars of pre-revolutionary France, few are praised as Montesquieu. He is best known for his treatise The Spirit of the Laws in which he openly advocated the principles of the division of powers within the state. This reasoning made him lay down principles that were fundamental to political philosophy and sociology. He was not the most frequent contributor to the Encyclopedia but wrote articles and essays on political theory and law. His ideas were often wildly discussed among scholars and people calling for political change across the world.The social contract theory is one of the most recognized and valuable models in political sciences, and Rousseau is one of the most significant philosophers who wrote about it. He had strong and persuasive views on the general will and political authority, which heavily inspired the democratic revolutions of the 18th century. For the Encyclopedia, he contributed articles and essays on a range of topics, including music, politics, and philosophy. However, his relationship with the co-editors was a complicated one. He eventually resigned because he feuded with Diderot in one of the most famous intellectual conflicts of the time.Baron dHolbach, Etienne Bonnot de Condillac, and BuffonJean-Jacques Rousseau by Maurice Quentin de La Tour, third quarter of the 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Muse Antoine-Lcuyer, Saint-QuentinPaul-Henri Thiry, Baron dHolbach was one of the most radical scholars with a wide range of interests. He was praised for his work in the fields of chemistry, mineralogy, and natural philosophy. However, he was best known for his ideas and opinions regarding the Church and religion.In the 18th century, it was really rare for someone to advocate for atheism openly; dHolbach chose to do exactly that. He was one of the most active Encyclopedia contributors, writing around 400 articles on various topics, including secularization. Because of some of his radical ideas, the Encyclopedia was often critiqued and censored.tienne Bonnot de Condillac was one of the most beloved and celebrated minds of the Enlightenment era, and he made a significant contribution to the field of epistemology. By studying different fields of epistemology and philosophy, Condillac developed important research on sensory experience. His work revolved around the idea of sensationalism, the theory that human experience comes from sensations, with an emphasis on reason. For the Encyclopedia, he wrote articles on psychology, philosophy of language, educational theory, and the empirical approach to human knowledge.tienne Bonnot de Condillac by Giuseppe Baldrighi (painter) and Pierre-Michel Alix (engraver), end of the 18th century-beginning of the 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/ Le Muse de peinture, ville de GrenobleComte de Buffon influenced natural sciences beyond the Enlightenment era, leaving an extensive legacy through his work and putting the politics of the 18th century aside. When addressing Buffons affiliation with the Encyclopedia, we have to be very careful, just like he was.Buffon was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and was often seen at the French court as a member of the high society. As a result, he had to keep his distance from the individuals such as Diderot or dHolbach. Despite his belief in science and reason, he avoided expressing his opinions regarding politics, religion, and philosophy. His contributions to the Encyclopedia included entries on natural history, geology, animals, and plants.The Legacy of the Encyclopedia and Its AuthorsLiberty Leading the People by Eugne Delacroix, 1830. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Louvre Museum, ParisIn the second half of the 18th century, the impact of the Encyclopedia reached every aspect of cultural societyfrom academia and science to democratic developments and revolutions. By promoting Enlightenment ideals like rational thinking and evidence-based research, Diderot and the Encyclopedia writers made the scientific method the go-to approach for any serious academic.Additionally, the ideas of separation of powers and the separation of Church and state brought attention to the possibility of a more fair and democratic political system. The principle of secularism was also one of the most prominent views among the scholars and philosophers who contributed to the Encyclopedia.One of the most important legacies of the Encyclopedia is certainly the democratization of knowledge. Indeed, the main goal behind the project was to make scholarly texts more available to a broader audience and readership all around the world.Indeed, by having knowledge and research more readily available, scholars and students could explore new facts and discoveries in various fields and disciplines. In this sense, the Encyclopedia undoubtedly influenced the progress and development of the next generations of scientists and philosophers.Frontispiece de lEncyclopdie by Charles-Nicolas Cochin & Benot Louis Prvost, 1764. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy making knowledge accessible to everyone, the Encyclopedia also promoted individual critical thinking, leading its readers to question existing political systems and norms. The contributors to the Encyclopedia left an enormous impact on the fight for free and democratic societies. For example, they influenced the French Revolution, whose leaders shouted out loud ideas presented in the Encyclopedia.Measuring the impact and legacy of the Encyclopedia is close to impossible, as we can not imagine a contemporary society without its contributors and ideals. The Encyclopdistes (as the contributors were commonly called) and the co-editors, Diderot and DAlambert, will forever be remembered for making knowledge available in such troubling times, even when their lives and careers were in danger. The world will forever be in debt to them and their often selfless sacrifices in the name of progress.Further Reading:Darnton, R.(1979). The Business of Enlightenment: A publishing history of the Encyclopedie 1775-1800. Harvard University Press.Roche, D. (1998). The culture of enlightenment: Knowledge, virtue, and the spread of letters. Cambridge University Press.

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