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Accounts of the discovery of the new world often give the impression that Europeans first encounters were with small native tribes, saving major indigenous histories for large civilizations like the Aztec and Inca. In fact, the very first people the conquistadors met in the Caribbean were part of a distinct culture with its own religious mythos, political organization, advanced agricultural practices and trade routes. Today theyre called the Tano, and while their societies may have been exterminated, their people were not.Pre-history of the TanoMap of the indigenous groups in the Caribbean. Source: Smithsonian MagazineThe islands of the Caribbean were among the last bits of land in the Americas to be settled, but modern scholars estimate that as early as 2000 BCE, indigenous peoples from South America began traveling to occupy the Greater Antilles (present day Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Puerto Rico) and other islands in the region. They encountered earlier foraging peoples (whose origins are debated), who were quickly replaced by the newcomers. Ultimately, scholars believe it was the Arawaks from northern South America that came to dominate the islands of the Greater Antilles, supplanting earlier indigenous settlers.Once on the islands, their culture developed separately from that on the mainland and became what is known today as Tano. This term, however, is not without its critics. Some scholars argue that Tano was never meant as a cultural designationit was not the name these native peoples used for themselves as an entity, but a description offered to the invaders to distinguish themselves from the warlike Caribs. Tano means the men of good. Nevertheless, it seems the name was adopted by some Spanish colonizers. Later historians asserted that Arawak or Island Arawak would be more appropriate. Regardless, Tano is still the most widely used term today to refer to the indigenous culture that dominated the Greater Antilles when Christopher Columbus arrived, and has even been reclaimed by some modern indigenous groups.Tano in Puerto RicoStatue of Agaybana II, who led a rebellion against the Spanish in Borikn. Ponce, Puerto Rico. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBefore it was Puerto Rico, the eastern-most island of the Greater Antilles was called Borikn by the native populationgiving rise to the term Boricua, used for people of Puerto Rican descent today. Largely peaceful, the islands people practiced hunting, fishing and small-scale agriculture supplemented by plentiful gathering in the lush forests. The Tano cultivated yuca, cotton, and sweet potato and slow-roasted food on green-wood frames over fire pitsbarabicu. They navigated the waters of the Caribbean in dug out boats called canoa, carved from single tree trunks, some large enough to hold 40 people.At the time of first contact, the leader of Puerto Ricos Tano was named Ageybana. He ruled over tens of thousands of Tano on the island, divided into approximately 20 villages. Some of the Tano names for places on the island remain in use in Puerto Rico today: Utuado, Mayagez, Caguas, and Humacao.Some historians contend that the islands native population was already in decline due to raids by the neighboring Kalinago, better known as the Caribs for whom the region is named, who called the Lesser Antilles (today the Virgin Islands, Dominica, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, among others) home. Others suggest that intermittent skirmishes with the more warlike Caribs were not unusual and did not pose a serious threat to the Tano way of life. Whichever is the case, the islands location, at the intersection of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, may have made it central to interactions and exchange in the region.Tano Social StructuresArawak woman by John Gabriel Stedman, 1818. Source: Het GeheugenBy the 13th century CE, the Tano had become the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles, evolving out of earlier cultures and developing the familiar characteristics of civilized societies: social stratification, advanced agricultural practices, denser population centers and defined political administration. Unfortunately, much of what we know about the Tano is based on Spanish chroniclers whose motives were questionable at best, and whose histories are necessarily written from an outsiders perspective. Archaeological evidence has also provided clues about Tano customs, lifestyle and religious beliefs.The Tano spoke a language derived from Arawak, some of which has made its way into Spanish and even English. Though they did not have a written language, meaning they left no formal records behind, archaeological finds suggest they used a form of proto-writing, or a small collection of glyphs with specific meanings, which were reproduced in pottery, sculptures and rock art.Caguana Ceremonial Site, a Tano batey, Puerto Rico. Source: Discover Puerto RicoBy the time Tano culture reached its peak, between the 13th and 15th centuries, more advanced political structures had developed. Its people were organized into chiefdoms, cacicazgos, led by caciques, chiefs who were responsible for organizing labor, food distribution, trade and special events. Lower-level chiefs, ruling over individual villages, joined with shamans, healers and lesser noblemen to round out the nitanos, elites, distinct from the laboring class, naborias. Tano society was matrilineal, with positions of authority inherited from the mothers side, and polygamous, though historians note usually only caciques could afford to have multiple wives. While the division of daily activities might be gender-based, women could also become caciques and join men in battle.In Tano villages, yucayeques, huts, bohos, were arranged around a central plaza, batey, used for playing a ballgame similar to the Mesoamerican ballgame and for ritual ceremonies. The cacique, who some scholars suggest also filled a spiritual role as intermediary between earth and the cosmos, had a larger home, a caney, that was centrally located and rectangular.Tano Culture and ReligionZem cohoba stand, Tano, 1000 CE, Caribbean. Source: Met MuseumBased on Spanish chronicles, quite a bit is known about what the Tano looked like and how they dressedor didnt. They largely went naked, though married women sometimes wore short skirts and both men and women adopted accessories and jewelry. Their hair was worn short in the front, cut above the eyebrows (i.e., they had bangs), and they adopted a practice of flattening their foreheads, achieved by tying boards to the front and back of babies heads. They also might pierce their ears, noses and lower lips and wear bands or sashes on their arms or legs. Caciques wore feathered headdresses, belts and amulets for special occasions, and body paints were also commonly used, often applied with carved stamps.Extensive details about Tano mythology and spirituality were recorded by Friar Ramn Pan, who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage to the Antilles and lived among the Tano on Hispaniola. Like the other soon-to-be discovered cultures in the Americas, the Tano honored a pantheon of greater and lesser gods. Ycahu, the creator, was at the top, along with Atabey, his mother; various other gods and goddesses were believed to control the winds, rain, and other vital aspects of their lives. Both gods and ancestors were honored in ceremonies called areytos, which involved dancing, drumming, chanting and the use of hallucinogens (cohoba, the ground seeds of a native tree) by shamans and caciques in order to connect with the spirit world.Tano dho, 14th century, Dominican Republic. Source: British MuseumThe Tano were skilled artisans and while some objects had a utilitarian purpose, nearly everything they made was a reflection of their spiritual beliefs and mythos. They crafted pottery, jewelry, and most importantly idols imbued with spiritual powers referred to as cem (or zem). These could take the form of small sculptures or cotton figures as well as larger carvings, often on stone pillars surrounding the central plaza. The Tano also crafted unique ceremonial dhos, stools or seats carved from stone or wood, often with elaborate decoration, which their nobility would sit on during ceremonies. Instruments to inhale hallucinogens, featuring two tubes to be pressed to the nose, were also carved from wood or bone with animal or human figures. They also left behind what modern scholars have termed vomit sticks, also beautifully carved despite their name and usageto induce vomiting as an act of purification before communing with the spirits.Gold, the precious metal that instigated the deaths of millions of indigenous on the American continent, was used sparingly, reserved for caciques and nobility. Far from mining vast quantities of gold as Columbus hoped, the Tano panned for it in streams and rivers and created a gold-copper alloy called guanin. The special gold medallion worn by caciques shared this name. Gold had no intrinsic value but was used for personal decoration.The Fate of Puerto Ricos TanoDiego Salcedo being drowned by the Tanos, a legend said to have sparked the early 16th century Tano rebellion against the Spanish. Artist unknown. Source: Latin American Studies.orgThe Tano of the present-day Bahamas were the first to encounter Columbus, but by 1493 the Spanish had made their way to Puerto Rico, marking the beginning of the end for their society. Of the Tano people, Columbus remarked, They were very well built, with very handsome bodies and very good faces.They do not carry arms or know them.They should be good servants. His intentions were clear.Historians long held that the Tano throughout the Caribbean were essentially wiped out by Columbuss men and the conquistadors who came after them, with both disease and enslavement decimating their numbers. In Puerto Rico, for example, census records demonstrate a dwindling native population over centuries, until 1802, when the number of Indians changed to zero. Yet, given the conquistadors penchant for sexually assaulting native women and taking them as slaves, or arguably wives, as well as the recorded practice throughout the Americas of natives disappearing into the wilderness rather than submit to the Spanish, the complete disappearance of indigenous Caribbeans seems unlikely.Members of Puerto Ricos Concilio Tano Guatu-Ma-cu a Borikn performing a dance ceremony. Teresita Gonzlez-Crespo, 2017. Source: Smithsonian MagazineUp to 90% of the indigenous population of the Americas died in the century following Columbuss arrival, and certainly the Tano as a society were eliminated. But DNA evidence has revealed that Tano descendants are alive and well in Puerto Rico today, and throughout the Caribbean. A 2003 study of the islands population revealed that 61% of those surveyed had DNA of Indigenous origin.The rediscovery of native DNA in Puerto Rico has prompted mixed reactions. Many feel vindicated that their long-held claims of native identity have proven true. Some have pushed for a broader recognition of Tano heritage and culture, even working to revive the extinct Tano Arawak language. Others find such efforts divisive, arguing that the mix of cultures and ethnicitiesIndigenous, African and Europeanon the island has created a new, uniquely Puerto Rican identity that should be celebrated.Tano leaders today have referred to their erasure as a paper genocidepeople of native descent logically still existed, but by purposefully not recognizing them in records, the Spanish disappeared them for their own narrative purposes.

George McClellan was one of the most controversial generals of the American Civil War. Known for organizing the Army of the Potomac, McClellan earned praise from superiors for his ability to instill discipline within his men. However, his cautious approach on the battlefield led to missed chances to end the war during the early years. Despite being removed from command, McClellan remained a major figure in American politics, even running for president in 1864, against Abraham Lincoln. Today, he is often remembered for his failures rather than his successes.Early LifeOverview map of the various battles and campaigns of the Mexican-American War. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGeorge B. McClellan was born in 1826 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He showed at an early age a possibility for an impressive life. At just 15 years old, he enrolled at the United States Military Academy at West Point, receiving an admissions waiver as the Academy required students to be 17. McClellan graduated second in his class of 59 cadets in 1846. He was just 19 years old at the time.Soon after, he served in the Mexican-American War under generals like Winfield Scott and learned the importance of a well-disciplined army, tactics he would use later in training the Army of the Potomac. The young McClellan displayed signs of defiance during this time period that would affect his relationships later on. He often clashed with superior officers with whom he disagreed. His personal journals showcase a man who took issue with orders. After the war, McClellan worked as an engineer and observer in Europe, where he studied military tactics, especially those used in the Crimean War.Portrait of George B. McClellan, 1862, by Matthew Brady. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen the Civil War broke out in 1861, the Union lacked officers with battlefield experience, allowing McClellan to quickly rise through the ranks. He was first sent to secure western Virginia (modern-day West Virginia), as the territory had seceded from the Confederacy, and earned early victories during small engagements, which made him a rising star at a time when Lincoln was struggling with locating a general to end the southern rebellion.It was due to these early successes that President Lincoln gave McClellan command of the Army of the Potomac, one of the most powerful and important armies in the Union. McClellan relentlessly drilled his army. Historians have often noted that the later successes of the Army of the Potomac were due in part to McClellans efforts early in the war. While he had a sound military mind, his strengths on the training ground did not correlate to successes where it mattered most: the battlefield.A Master of Organization, Not WarThe Army of the Potomac, by John Hope, 1865. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMcClellans greatest strength was his ability to organize. When he took over the Army of the Potomac, the Union forces were in chaos after the disaster at Bull Run. In the weeks following the battle, Washington was flooded with sick and injured soldiers. Those who were not struggling with various ailments lacked any sense of military discipline.McClellan turned them into a well-trained and disciplined force. He improved sanitation, morale, and ensured every soldier had the proper military equipment. His men were better fed, better equipped, and more confident under his leadership. But when it came time to fight, McClellan often held back. He consistently overestimated the size of the Confederate forces, believing he was always outnumbered, despite an overwhelming amount of reports that said otherwise. His unwillingness to attack the enemy would lead to his downfall.Loved by His Men, Hated by LincolnAbraham Lincoln (left) and George B. McClellan (right) meet in a tent after the Battle of Antietam. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMcClellans popularity with his soldiers could not save his career. To the men, he was a savior as he provided better food, better uniforms, and better training, which made army life a bit more bearable. Many troops called him Little Mac or the Young Napoleon due to his young age and his ability to organize, train, and outfit an army. He gave the Army of the Potomac a sense of pride and professionalism. But, behind the scenes, his relationship with Lincoln was tense. McClellan often ignored Lincolns letters and rarely acted with urgency.One evening, after repeated ignored letters, Lincoln went to McClellans home in Washington. McClellans butler informed the president of McClellans absence. Lincoln waited, but when McClellan returned, he retired upstairs without meeting the commander-in-chief.Lincoln grew increasingly frustrated with McClellans fanatical overestimation of Confederate forces and his sense of superiority in his private life, famously saying, If General McClellan does not want to use the army, I would like to borrow it for a time. The two had vastly different approaches. Lincoln wanted results. McClellan wanted perfection.The Peninsula Campaign: McClellans BlunderConfederate General Joseph E. Johnston and Union General George B. McClellan, the opposing commanders of the Peninsula Campaign. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1862, after pressure from Lincoln, McClellan launched what is now known as the Peninsula Campaign, a massive operation meant to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, and end the war. McClellan moved his army by boat down the Chesapeake Bay and planned to approach Richmond from the southeast. On paper, it looked like a genius move. But once the campaign got going, McClellan once again hesitatedAs with previous engagements, McClellan believed Confederate forces were larger than they actually were, despite a number of reports. Confederate General Robert E. Lee took advantage of this hesitation and launched a counterattack, which became known as the Seven Days Battles. McClellans army was forced to retreat, and the war would continue on with no end in sight.Though McClellan still had a large, well-trained army, he had lost Lincolns confidence. The failure of the Peninsula Campaign marked the beginning of the end of his time in command as the Union armies in the east continued to suffer defeat.Victory at AntietamThe Battle of Antietam, by Kurz & Allison, c. 1888. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMcClellans most famous battle came at Antietam in September 1862. The Union army in the east was desperate for a victory. Lincoln was poised to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, an executive order that freed all slaves in the rebellious Confederate States. However, Lincoln needed a battlefield victory before issuing the proclamation. Antietam would give just that, but it would come at a cost. Antietam was the bloodiest single day in American history, with over 22,000 soldiers killed, wounded, or missing.Before the battle, Union soldiers discovered a copy of General Lees battle plans wrapped around some cigars. McClellan knew exactly where Lees army would be, but feared that the plans were a trap, meant to lure him into a situation which would decimate his army. McClellan moved with caution, taking 18 hours to act.Eventually, the Union Army would force a major victory. However, many felt McClellan had let another opportunity slip through his fingers. He had more men, more supplies, and more information, but did not choose to pursue Lees Army. After the battle, Lincoln visited McClellan in person to urge him to continue forward. McClellan didnt budge. This would prove to be the final calamitous blow as a few weeks later, McClellan was removed from command once and for all.Presidential Election of 1864United States 1864 Democratic Ticket. George McClellan for President and George Pendleton for Vice President. Source: Library of CongressEven though he had been fired from command, McClellan wasnt done with public life. In 1864, the Democratic Party nominated him to run against Abraham Lincoln in the presidential election.McClellans platform was complicated; he personally wanted to continue the war and restore the Union, but the Democratic Party wanted peace with the Confederacy. This made his campaign confusing to many voters.At first, McClellan had a shot at winning. The war was dragging on, casualties were high, and many in the North were tired of fighting. This war of attrition had become the Confederate battle plan: withstand the Northern will to fight. However, after a series of Union victories late in 1864including General Shermans capture of AtlantaLincolns popularity surged. McClellan lost in a landslide.Governor of New JerseyPhotograph of George McClellan, c. 1880. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter losing the 1864 presidential election, McClellan retired to private life. But in 1877, he made a quiet comeback. That year, he was elected Governor of New Jersey. He served one term from 1878 to 1881.As governor, McClellan stayed out of the spotlight and focused on administrative duties rather than fame. He supported public education, backed improvements to infrastructure, and kept taxes low. Age appeared to tamper with his fire. Unlike his days as a general, where he often clashed with leadership no matter his position, McClellan kept a steady hand as governor and left office without much controversy.LegacyThe George B. McClellan statue is located at the intersection of Kalorama Road, Connecticut Avenue, and California Street, NW in the Kalorama Triangle neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGeorge McClellan is one of the most complicated figures of the Civil War. He was a brilliant organizer who took a broken army after the defeat at Bull Run and made it into a formidable force. However, his constant delays, refusal to take risks, and a lack of respect for authority meant missed chances that could have ended the war sooner.Historians still argue about what McClellan could have accomplished if he had been more aggressive. Some say he was too careful. Others believe he lacked confidence. Either way, his story is a reminder that leadership is about more than preparationit is about knowing when to act.

One of the key aspects of the Arthurian legends is that King Arthur was accompanied by a large alliance of knights known as the Knights of the Round Table. The Round Table itself was a large circular table at which Arthur and his allies sat, reportedly at Camelot. Many aspects of the Arthurian legends have definite historical origins, like the famous Battle of Badon or Sir Urien, one of Arthurs knights. Is there any identifiable origin for the legend of the Round Table?The Legend of King Arthurs Round TableDrawing of Robert Wace, by John Everett Millais, c. 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhat do the earliest medieval sources say about the Round Table? The first mention of this marvelous table was in the writings of Robert Wace, a Norman poet of the 12th century. He wrote shortly after Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae caused the Arthurian legend to massively grow in fame outside of Britain.In 1155, Wace wrote a text entitled Roman de Brut. This was heavily based on Geoffreys account, with Wace generally adding only minor details. One of Waces main contributions to the legend was the inclusion of the Round Table to King Arthurs legendary court. According to his Roman de Brut, this was constructed because Arthurs allies argued about who was the greatest. Therefore, by using a circular table, no position would be more prominent than any other. Interestingly, Wace claimed that the tradition of Arthurs Round Table actually came from the Bretons. This is plausible since native Arthurian legends were popular among the Bretons.The Grand AlliancePage from Culhwch and Olwen discussing Arthurs allies, in Jesus College MA 111, fol. 201v, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian LibrariesIt is important to establish some background to this legend. While the Round Table itself first appears in the literary record no earlier than 1155, the concept of Arthur having many allies at his royal court goes back much further. We see this, for example, in the text that Wace was primarily used as the basis of his work, the Historia Regum Britanniae. In that account, Geoffrey presents Arthur as having dozens of allies attend his court.In the slightly earlier Culhwch and Olwen, a Welsh tale, one of the characters lists over 200 allies of Arthur. The basic idea that Arthur led a group of many allies can actually be found as far back as the earliest summary of his career. This is the Historia Brittonum, written in c. 830. This account presents Arthur as a war leader who led the kings of the Britons into battle against the Anglo-Saxons.This indicates that the basic concept of Arthur leading a large band of men, who were rulers rather than merely soldiers, is a very early one. It was not the invention of later French writers.The Issue of the Round Tables HistoricityAn illustration of King Arthur and his knights at the Round Table, manuscript BNF 112, by Evrard dEspinques, 1470. Source: Bibliothque nationale de FranceOf course, the early tradition that Arthur led a large group of kingly allies during his career does not necessarily mean that the Round Table has a historical basis. After all, even that early tradition about Arthur from the Historia Brittonum is not universally accepted as historical by scholars. Nevertheless, if Arthur did lead a large group of allies, then it is reasonable to suggest that they occasionally met with him at his royal court. The evidence from John Kochs revised dating of the Welsh Arthurian poem Preiddeu Annwn shows that Arthur was indeed held to have been a king even before the Historia Brittonum.If Arthur had a large group of allies who met with him at one of his royal courts, then where did they meet? Might there have been something large and circular about their meeting place that inspired the tradition of the Round Table? The answer simply is that we cannot say for sure. However, that does not mean that there are no clues to ponder.What an Analysis of Waces Brut RevealsText of Welsh Triads mentioning some of Arthurs courts, from Peniarth MS 16, fol. 50r, c. 13th-15th centuries. Source: National Library of WalesIf we reason on the available evidence, what conclusion might we come to? Remember, Wace claims that the tradition of the Round Table existed among the Bretons, who are known to have had many native Arthurian traditions. The Bretons lived in the northwest corner of France. They had a close connection to the Britons of Cornwall and also southeast Wales. This ties into the fact that many of the earliest Arthurian traditions associate him with those two regions. In particular, Geoffrey of Monmouth placed Arthurs royal court at Caerleon in southeast Wales.This does not mean that this was supposed to have been Arthurs only court. In reality, the courts of medieval kings were peripatetic, meaning that they traveled from one place to another. Geoffrey himself shows Arthur as holding court in more than one location, as do the Welsh Triads. However, Geoffreys description of Arthur holding court at Caerleon is absolutely vital to the question of the Round Tables historical inspiration.A sign for the Caerleon, the ancient Roman town where Wace placed the Round Table. Source: GeographAs mentioned already, Waces account is based directly on Geoffrey of Monmouths account. This is a very important piece of information. We can look at Waces narrative and see where the Round Table actually appears and compare that to Geoffreys account. When we do this, we see that the Round Table appears in Waces version of Geoffreys account of Arthur holding court at Caerleon. This was a Roman town in southeast Wales whose ruins are still visible today.In other words, Wace reveals that the Round Table was supposed to have been at Caerleon specifically. This is consistent with the fact that it was a tradition that was known to Wace, who lived in Normandy. Since he lived in that region of France, it is perfectly realistic for a tradition about something in southeast Wales to have reached Waces ears. What does this tell us about the potential origin of the tradition of the Round Table? Might there be something in Caerleon that could have been the historical inspiration for it?The Amphitheater of CaerleonRuins of the amphitheater at Caerleon. Source: Jonathan Hutchins via GeographAmong the ruins of the Roman town of Caerleon are the prominent remains of a large amphitheater. This amphitheater was slightly oval, about 184 meters long and 136 meters wide. It is so prominent that it is undoubtedly the most instantly recognizable part of the site when searching for images online.Many scholars have suggested that this amphitheater was the historical inspiration for the tradition of the Round Table. It was a large, prominent, round meeting place. It would have easily lent itself to being the chosen location for Arthur and a large group of allies to meet. In fact, Geoffreys account of Arthurs royal court at Caerleon describes the event as a festival and mentions a large banquet. Where else would you hold a festival with a great banquet than the large open space that was specifically built for such grand events? Since Waces reference to the Round Table is set in that same account, it would be logical to conclude that he was referring to the amphitheater.Reconstruction of the amphitheater of Caerleon, by Alan Sorrell. Source: National Museums WalesInterestingly, this is not just a modern theory. In fact, it dates back many centuries. In 1789, the antiquarian Richard Gough recorded that the inhabitants of Wales called the amphitheater of Caerleon King Arthurs Round Table. Even before this, in 1587, Thomas Churchyard wrote a poem in which he described Caerleon. He stated that it was here that King Arthur had his Round Table, and he then mentions that a plot of goodly ground sets forth that rare estate. Evidently, the open space within the amphitheater is the plot of goodly ground referred to here. Even further back than that, the Chronicles of Enguerrand and Monstrelet of 1405 refers to Caerleon as Round Table.The idea that this amphitheater was the historical inspiration behind the tradition of the Round Table is supported by another detail. Wace states that the Round Table was for Arthurs many allies who had come to his court at Caerleon. Geoffrey explicitly places dozens of Arthurs named allies at that event, along with many other unnamed allies. Some accounts from a few decades after Wace specify that the Round Table could hold hundreds of allies. Layamon, in c. 1200, even stated that it could hold 1,600 people!Was the Amphitheater at Caerleon the Historical Inspiration for the Round Table?Replica of King Arthurs Round Table, Great Hall in Winchester, c. 13th century. Source: Historic UKIn conclusion, it seems very likely that the tradition of the Round Table ultimately comes from the amphitheater at Caerleon. Wace based his account of Arthur directly on Geoffrey of Monmouths account in the Historia Regum Britanniae. His mention of the Round Table appears when Arthur holds a great festival at Caerleon, southeast Wales. Therefore, it is only logical that the Round Table would have something to do with Caerleon. Given the close connections between the Bretons of Brittany and southeast Wales, it is entirely plausible for Wace to have heard of a tradition about that location. This is also consistent with the fact that Wace refers to the Round Table in the context of Arthur accommodating many dozens of allies. This suggests that it was not to be understood as a normal table.It should also be noted that this does not necessarily mean that Arthur himself really existed. Historians continue to debate that issue. Nevertheless, the Arthurian legends generally involve real locations, and it appears that the Round Table was one of them.

On May 1, 1862, the Union seized New Orleans, the largest city in the Confederate States of America. This was a tremendous logistical and psychological blow for the South, which lost both a major trading and sociocultural center. Many expected the Confederacy to mount an offensive to retake its lost territory in Louisiana. On August 5, the offensive occurred, aimed at the states capital city of Baton Rouge.Victory Goes to the UnionA drawing of Union troops marching in Louisiana in March 1863, months after the Battle of Baton Rouge secured the Unions hold in the state. Source: Southern University SystemThe Battle of Baton Rouge was a small but important victory for the Union, as it stopped a Confederate attempt to retake territory in Louisiana. While the battle lines were hardening in Virginia in the Eastern Theater, the Union hoped to make ground elsewhere. The Confederacy, which lacked the manpower and industrial base of the Union, could hardly defend its entire territory in the Western Theater, which was composed of virtually everything west of Virginia. In April 1862, the Union victory in the Battle of Shiloh revealed this weakness. Thanks to its railroads and blockade of the coastline, the Union could land troops just about anywhere on the Confederacys borders.In Baton Rouge, the Confederacy hoped to retake territory in Louisiana to avenge the loss of New Orleans on May 1, 1862. On August 5, despite having lost the element of surprise, Confederate forces struck the capital city of Louisiana. They successfully pushed Union troops out of the town but then ran into heavy fire from Union gunboats, allowing the Union soldiers to reform into defensive lines. Unable to receive assistance from Confederate ships due to engine failure, the Confederates were forced to retreat. Thus, the Union held Baton Rouge and ended organized Confederate attempts to retake Louisiana.Timeline of the Battle of Baton RougeA map showing the Mississippi Campaign of the American Civil War, which involved the Union capture of New Orleans, Baton Rouge, and finally, Vicksburg. Source: American Battlefield TrustOn May 1, 1862, Union forces seized New Orleans, which was the largest city in the Confederate States of America. The ultimate Union goal was to take control of the Mississippi River and split the Confederacy in half from west to east. They could then land troops at any point up the river, letting them divide and conquer the South.A week later, a Union gunboat approached the state capital of Baton Rouge and demanded its surrender. Despite the town being undefended, the citys mayor rebuffed the request.On May 12, the Union fleet proceeded upriver and took Baton Rouge. The Union chose to leave Baton Rouge mostly unoccupied and instead focus on seizing Vicksburg, Mississippi upriver.However, the Confederates rushed to reinforce and defend Vicksburg, delaying this conquest.On May 28, Union forces returned to Baton Rouge but left soon afterward to scout out attack possibilities on Vicksburg.Finding none, they left the vicinity by late July. This freed up Confederate troops in Vicksburg to go on the offensive again, and they aimed at Baton Rouge.On July 27, 1862, Confederate General John C. Breckenridge headed south to Baton Rouge from Vicksburg.Just after midnight on August 5, his force arrived at the outskirts of Baton Rouge.At dawn, they attacked and successfully pushed Union troops back toward the river. Unfortunately for Breckenridge, this brought Union gunboats on the Mississippi River into play, and they ended the Confederate advance with heavy fire.What Caused the Battle of Baton Rouge?An image of the Union capture of New Orleans, Louisiana between April 25 and May 1, 1862, depriving the Confederacy of its largest city. Source: Naval History and Heritage CommandThe Battle of Baton Rouge was the Confederacys counteroffensive to the Unions capture of New Orleans three months prior. As the Souths largest city and an important trading hub, the loss of New Orleans could not go unchallenged. The Union was also actively trying to seize Vicksburg, Mississippi, which would give it control of the Mississippi River. To avenge the loss of New Orleans and delay Union progress toward taking Vicksburg, the Confederates could retake Baton Rouge, which sat between the two other cities.When the Union stopped trying to take Vicksburg during the summer of 1862, the opportunity arose to use some of Vicksburgs defenders to go on the offensive. John C. Breckenridge was worried that he would be outnumbered at Baton Rouge but chose to go forward with his offensive when he was assured of Confederate gunboat support. Unfortunately for him, faulty engines put the CSS Arkansas out of commission, leaving the Union gunboats in the river unchallenged. This meant Breckenridge had no defenses against heavy shelling from the river, forcing his retreat.Why Was the Battle of Baton Rouge Significant?A newspaper image of a slave auction in New Orleans in 1861, revealing the economic importance of Louisiana to the Confederacy. Source: Louisiana Endowment for the HumanitiesThe Battle of Baton Rouge kept southern Louisiana in the hands of the Union, preventing the Confederacy from retaking some of its most economically important territory. Threats of shelling from Union gunboats, which were displayed at Baton Rouge, kept towns along the Mississippi River from revolting. While Union boats occasionally came under sniper fire from Confederate towns, this was largely quelled by Union commanders threatening to retaliate with heavy shelling. Thus, the Battle of Baton Rouge helped underline that the Confederacy could not rely on a popular uprising against the Union occupiers.Both the Union military victory and the lack of popular Southern uprising at Baton Rouge revealed that the Confederacy was in trouble. While the Eastern Front might be holding firm, the Union foothold in the Deep South was growing. The Confederates lacked the resources to defend their territory, meaning the war was now a race against time. Could the Union be slowed down enough for political pressure to force negotiations? Fortunately for the Union and unfortunately for the Confederacy, the answer was no.5 Facts About the Battle of Baton RougePortraits of Union Brigadier General Thomas R. Williams, who was killed during the Battle of Baton Rouge on August 5, 1862. Source: Library of Congress1. CasualtiesCasualties at the Battle of Baton Rouge numbered under a thousand, with a reported 383 Union casualties and 456 Confederate casualtieseach side suffered 84 men killed. On the march to Baton Rouge, however, the Confederates suffered considerable levels of illness and heat exhaustion, increasing the number of total casualties from the campaign. While the Union troops did not have to march to the battle, they did suffer the loss of their commanding officer, Brigadier General Thomas R. Williams, in the heat of battle.2. CommandersUnion forces were led by Brigadier General Thomas R. Williams, a West Point graduate who had served as a private in the Black Hawk War against Native Americans before receiving his appointment to the prestigious university. He served in the Mexican-American War after a brief post-graduation period fighting Native Americans in Florida. After his death in battle at Baton Rouge, Union forces were commanded by Colonel Thomas Cahill, whose correspondence with his wife during the war was later turned into a book.Confederate forces were led by General John C. Breckenridgewho was a former vice president of the United States! Breckenridge was the vice presidentthe youngest ever at age 36for US President James Buchanan, who did little to stop Americas march toward civil war. Having been recently elected to the US Senate, Breckenridge was expelled from the chamber in December 1861 after arguing that his home state, Kentucky, should be free to leave the Union. This was considered treason by the remaining Senators. Breckenridge ended the war as Secretary of War for the Confederacy and later retired to private law practice in Kentucky.3. Number of Forces InvolvedA drawing depicting the August 5, 1862 Battle of Baton Rouge, where the Confederacy attempted to retake the city from Union occupiers. Source: Smithsonian InstitutionRoughly 4,000 Confederate soldiers left from Vicksburg in late July, though reportedly less than 3,000 of them were combat-ready when they arrived at Baton Rouge more than a week later. Union forces totaled about 2,500 soldiers, plus several gunboats on the Mississippi River. Colonel Cahill, the surviving Union commander, claimed the Confederates had up to 5,000 men. Compared to many battles of the war, the Battle of Baton Rouge was small but quite intense.4. Visiting Baton Rouge, Louisiana TodayToday, visitors to Baton Rouge, Louisiana can learn about the battle through both historical markers and museums. The West Baton Rouge Museum includes information about the 1862 battle, as does the Capitol Park Museum. The city was also the site of the 1779 Battle of Baton Rouge during the American Revolutionary War. Due to the expanse of both wars, several cities have battles from both conflicts!5. Trivia: A Vice President in Combat?!The presence of John C. Breckenridge makes the Battle of Baton Rouge a rarity, as Breckenridge is perhaps the only former US vice president to later serve in combat. The former vice president and US senator won a victory for the Confederacy in the Battle of New Market in May 1864. Later, Breckenridge was part of a late-war Confederate attempt to march (unsuccessfully) on Washington DC, putting him directly against US President Abraham Lincoln and marking the only time in US history that presidential election rivals (election of 1860) faced each other in physical battle.Aftermath of Baton Rouge: Foothold Made PermanentA drawing of Union troops returning to Baton Rouge in December 1862 to occupy the city, months after defeating the Confederate offensive. Source: Naval History and Heritage CommandBreckenridges retreat from Baton Rouge on August 5, 1862 left the city unoccupied by either army, but the Union returned to formally occupy the city in December. The Confederate failure to retake Baton Rouge gave the Union a freer hand in Louisiana, and by October, they had begun expanding beyond New Orleans. Despite the loss of New Orleans and Baton Rouge, the Confederate government in Richmond, Virginia, left the state of Louisiana largely undefended. Most of its focus was on maintaining strong defenses around Richmond and threatening the Union capital of Washington DC.Due to a lack of organized defense, Louisiana was forced to use guerrilla tactics against the Union, which were rarely successful. Many of these guerrillas were undisciplined and often preyed on civilians, quickly eroding public support. Some guerrillas were draft dodgers avoiding conscription into the Confederate army, leading to them being seen more as troublemakers than defenders of the Confederate States of America. This undisciplined defense of Louisiana likely contributed to the lack of civilian resistance to Union occupation, which was usually more peaceful and secure.