The Black Plague, also referred to as the Black Death, stands as one of the deadliest pandemics ever recorded in history. It started to spread in Europe and Asia in the mid-14th century and killed millions of people before it finally subsided. Because medieval records are incomplete, exact figures are impossible to find. However, modern scholars estimate that between 75 and 200 million people died across Eurasia and North Africa over the entirety of the epidemic. The scale of the catastrophe altered the socioeconomic and cultural structures of many affected regions.When the Black Plague Reached EuropePlague victims buried in coffins, in Gilles li Muisis, Antiquitates Flandriae, 1349-1352. Source: Royal Library of BelgiumThe disease reached Europe in 1347 and wiped out an estimated 30 to 60 percent of the continents population during the first wave. Some historians place the figure to be as high as 50 million deaths. The plague was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis which likely entered the continent through the port of Kaffa in Crimea. Genoese trade ships are believed to have brought the bacterium from the Black Sea to the port. Many of the occupants of the ships were fleeing a siege in Kaffa in which the Mongols catapulted infected dead bodies across the wall as a form of biological warfare to infect the occupants. The ships carried infected bodies and people. From there, the scourge reportedly spread rapidly along commercial routes to devastate cities and countryside alike in the region.Lithograph of a woman in rags drawing a cart of plague victims, by J. Moynet, 1852, after L. Duveau. Source: Wellcome CollectionThat said, mortality rates differed by location. Places with dense populations and poor sanitation faced especially high losses. Florence, the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany, for example, saw its population fall from over 110,000 people to roughly 50,000. In Siena, the loss was so great that the city abandoned its cathedral expansion. In cities like Paris, half of its 100,000 residents died from the disease, and in northern Europe, cities like Hamburg and Bremen lost up to 70 percent of their people. In England alone, estimates suggest a death toll between 40 and 60 percent of the local population.In What Forms Did the Plague Manifest?The Plague, after Nicolas Poussin, 1811. Source: the British MuseumThe Black Plague manifested in three main forms. The most common form was the bubonic plague which produced swollen lymph nodes called buboes. It was also characterized by high fever and extreme fatigue. Its death rate ranged from 30 to 75 percent without treatment and victims often died within a week. The pneumonic form which infected the lungs, was far more contagious. With a mortality rate between 90 and 95 percent, it left few survivors. The third and most lethal variant was the septicemic plague. In that form, the bacteria entered the bloodstream directly. The septicemic plague was almost always fatal and could kill victims within hours.Regions Affected Outside of EuropeMap of the spread of the Black Death in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East (13461353). Source: WikipediaThe Black Plague did not stop at Europes borders. It spread to the Middle East and North Africa. There, the infection wiped out nearly a third of the population in those regions. It reportedly reached Alexandria in late 1347 before moving on to Cairo. The human cost was staggering. Damascus fared no better. At the peak of the pandemic, records show that the city was losing up to a thousand lives every day due to the sickness. Eventually, the disease found its way to Mecca, likely brought there by pilgrims.In Asia, however, the story was murkier, especially when it comes to China. History records show that Chinas population fell sharply during the 14th century. What is disputed, however, is whether the plague was the direct cause of the population decline. The problem lies with the official accounts from the Yuan Dynasty which failed to track diseases with any real detail. Instead of the plague, Chinese records from the era point to other culprits such as widespread famine and social unrest.Social and Economic EffectsThe bacterium Yersinia pestis, the cause of the Bubonic Plague. Source: CDC / Courtesy of Larry Stauffer, Oregon State Public Health Laboratory / Wikimedia CommonsThe Black Deaths long-term effects caused significant socioeconomic changes. The sharp population decline also triggered a labor shortage and accelerated the end of the feudal system. This is because the situation enabled surviving workers to negotiate for better wages and conditions due to rising demand for workers. Because workers could now demand higher wages and better work conditions, serfdom systems began to dissolve. Many peasants also left their manors for new opportunities in towns and cities further moving the economy from one based on land to that based on money.The Church which was unable to explain or stop the plague also saw a decline in its credibility and saw its authority weaken. The weakness, in turn, led to a rise in secular groups and new religious movements. The disease ceased to be a menace following the discovery of its cure by scientist Alexandre Yersin in 1894.

One of many modern theories about the origin of the legends of King Arthur is that they can be traced back to the activities of a Roman officer in Britain. His name was Lucius Artorius Castus. He lived long before the traditional Arthurian period, but some theorists argue that he was the original historical person who inspired the story of the legendary king. What is the evidence to support this theory, and why is it rejected by most modern Arthurian scholars?Why Would King Arthur Have Been Lucius Artorius Castus?Memorial inscription of Lucius Artorius Castus, from Podstrana, Croatia, c. late 2nd or early 3rd century CE. Source: Lucius Artorius Castus: A SourcebookThis theory is based on four key pieces of evidence. Firstly, Lucius Artorius Castus is the only person named Artorius, the origin of the name Arthur, who is known to have served in Britain in a prominent position before the earliest traces of the Arthurian legend.Secondly, a prominent part of the legend recorded by Geoffrey of Monmouth in c. 1137 is that King Arthur went on some exploits on the continent. He allegedly fought a war against the Romans in Gaul. However, the extensive historical record written by Gregory of Tours makes it clear that such a thing never occurred in the 6th century, the traditional Arthurian period. For this reason, many scholars have argued that Geoffrey of Monmouths King Arthur is actually a composite figure. According to this idea, the story of the incursion into Gaul was likely taken from an earlier figure who really did do something like that. Then, somehow, the activities of that earlier figure were combined with those of a 6th-century Arthur figure. Supposedly, the activities of Lucius Artorius Castus can explain the Gallic invasion claims.Sarmatian cavalry depicted on Trajans Column, Rome, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe third reason why Lucius Artorius Castus has been connected to King Arthur is that he was supposedly associated with the Sarmatians. About 5,000 of them were sent to Britain after being subdued by the Romans in 175 CE, about the time of Castus. According to proponents of the Castus theory, their myths and legends bore some striking similarities to stories found in the Arthurian legends. Hence, the fact that they came to Britain in Castus time supposedly means that their traditions could have become attached to him.Finally, Castus supposedly occupied a very prominent position in Britain. He was based at Eboracum, or York, which was one of the most prominent cities in Roman Britain and was the capital of the British province. The fact that Castus had such prominence means that it would have been easy for legends to develop around him. Proponents of this theory argue that he led the Sarmatians into battle against the northern tribes during the attested wars of the late 2nd century CE.What Do We Really Know About Lucius Artorius Castus?Fishergate Bar, York, the city at which Lucius Artorius Castus was stationed. Source: Chris Downer, via GeographIt is with good reason that the majority of scholars reject any connection between Lucius Artorius Castus and King Arthur. Firstly, let us examine what we really know about him. He does not appear in any literary source. The key source for him is an inscribed stone that provides a summary of his career. One of the most crucial details on the stone for Arthurian theorists is the fact that he was made the prefect of the Sixth Legion Victrix. This was stationed at Eboracum, or York, in Britain. Therefore, this shows that Castus had a prominent position in Britain.Furthermore, just after mentioning this part of his career, the stone inscription mentions that he led troops from British legions against an enemy. The stone is broken at this point, with the enemy being recorded as ARM___S. According to one theory, this should be restored as Armoricos, meaning the inhabitants of Armorica. This would mean that Castus led troops from Britain to Gaul, just like King Arthur supposedly did.Was Lucius Artorius Castus Really a Prominent Roman General?Distance slab set up by the Sixth Legion Victrix marking the completion of a section of the Antonine Wall, from Cleddans, Scotland, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhat did being the prefect of the Sixth Legion Victrix really involve? The truth is that this position meant that Castus was in charge of overseeing the legionary base. He did not, generally speaking, lead any troops into battle. In the hierarchy of the legion, two officers above Castus would need to be out of action in order for Castus to take over as military general. Hence, there is no evidence that Castus was directly involved in any of the wars that took place against the northern tribes in that era.The fact that there is no reason to believe that Castus was directly involved in those wars is important. This means that there is no reason to conclude that he could have anything to do with the legends of King Arthur fighting wars in the north of Britain. Furthermore, it makes it very difficult to see why he would have been special in any significant way to the Sarmatian troops who had been sent to Britain. The idea that he led Sarmatian troops into battle in Britain is simply not supported by the available evidence.Issues With the Gallic InvasionA rock relief of King Vologases III of the Parthian Empire, whose successor Vologases IV had a son who ruled over Armenia and fought against the Romans, Iran, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFurthermore, what about the idea that Castus took troops from Britain to fight a war in Armorica? Could the Castus identification really potentially explain King Arthurs legendary war in Gaul? If so, this would lend credence to the idea that he was at least partially the origin of the legendary figure of King Arthur.But the enemies listed on the memorial stone are problematic. As we saw earlier, it appears as ARM____S. The earliest drawing of Castus memorial stone, produced in 1850, indicates that there was a ligatured E attached to the end of ARM. This is supported by the fact that the ethnonym Armoricos is not attested on any comparable memorial inscription. This would suggest that the inscription actually refers to the Armenios, not the Armoricos. In other words, Castus did not fight a war in Armorica, Gaul, but in Armenia, far away from Gaul. If this is the case, there is no connection with King Arthurs legendary invasion of Gaul.The Lucius Artorius Castus inscription with the restored text by Christopher Gwinn. Source: Lucius Artorius Castus: A SourcebookThere is significant support for the conclusion that Castus actually went to Armenia rather than Armorica. For one thing, unlike Armoricos, we do find forms of the ethnonym Armenios on comparable stone inscriptions from the Roman era. Furthermore, throughout the mid-2nd to the mid-3rd centuries, the Romans fought several significant wars in Armenia. This covers all the periods in which Castus is believed to have lived.Notably, there is a record that in 161 CE, the Romans sent the governor of Britain, named Statius Priscus, to participate in one of the wars in Armenia. The fact that the Romans are known to have sent such a prominent figure from Britain to Armenia supports the suggestion that the same thing occurred with Castus. Many scholars, if not the majority, now believe that Castus was sent along with Priscus in 161. In contrast, there is nothing to recommend the view that Castus led troops to Armorica, as required by the theory connecting him to King Arthur.The Fatal Flaw in the Sarmatian ConnectionMap of the Parthian Empire under Mithridates II at the start of the 1st century BCE, about three centuries before Lucius Artorius Castus fought against it in Armenia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe conclusion that Lucius Artorius Castus went to Armenia in 161 has further consequences for the theory connecting him to King Arthur. A key part of the theory is that the Sarmatians, whose legends are supposedly similar to the legends of King Arthur, were closely associated with Lucius Artorius Castus. This obviously requires them to have been present in Britain at the same time as Castus. The problem is that the Sarmatians were sent to Britain in 175 CE. If Castus left for Armenia in 161, which does appear to be the case, then he was already long gone by the time the Sarmatians arrived. This means that he cannot have had anything to do with them.The memorial inscription supports this conclusion. Based on the style of the stone, the majority of scholars agree that it dates to the Antonine Period, which ended in 192. The wording on the stone is also consistent with this period.Notice that this stone was carved during the Antonine Period, yet Castus left Britain long before the end of his career. This strongly supports the aforementioned chronology of Castuss life, placing his departure from Britain in 161.Why King Arthur Was Not Based on Lucius Artorius CastusA second inscription mentioning Lucius Artorius Castus, Croatia, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Lucius Artorius Castus: A SourcebookIn conclusion, there is good reason to reject the theory that Lucius Artorius Castus had anything to do with the legends of King Arthur. Far from being a prominent battle leader in Britain, Castus was the prefect of the Sixth Legion Victrix. As such, he may well have never seen battle in Britain at all. Furthermore, the idea that he led troops from Britain to Gaul is very unlikely. The evidence more convincingly supports the conclusion that he was sent to Armenia, which does not feature in the Arthurian legends.In addition, this would mean that he was already gone from Britain before the Sarmatians were sent there. Thus, even if the Sarmatian legends could be connected to the Arthurian legends, this would not support the Castus theory. There is no convincing reason why those legends should have found themselves attached to Castus. All things considered, there is no reason to associate Lucius Artorius Castus with King Arthur. However, there are several other historical figures to be considered.

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How do you make a smoothie in Grow a Garden? If Chris. P wants to cool down after a long day of stuffing his face, this is the treat to tackle. Added in the second leg of the Roblox game's big cooking event, these Grow a Garden smoothie recipes can be whipped up in around six minutes with some very easy crops.Even if you miss his smoothie craving window, you can use any mutated smoothies in Grow a Garden to score some unique Roblox rewards from the rat opposite Chris P. Still eager to please the piggy? Stock up to score big by learning how to make salad or how to make a burger in Grow a Garden, too. Continue reading How to make a smoothie in Grow a GardenMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best Roblox games, Roblox promo codes, Roblox music codes

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