It sits at the center of one of the most massive galaxies ever observed.

"Three of my students kept rubbing my stomach before I knew I was pregnant," one Reddit user claimed. "It started randomly and I just figured 'aww they like me', but no they knew before I knew LOL."

Its not just Proxima Centauri that might be sporting planets.

Some past burials were not just a community ritual to see off the deceased, but a serious process to protect the living as well as the dead.

Fresco of Vesta-Hestia, Pompeii, 1st Century BCE/AD, with Tapestry of Hestia full of Blessings, Egypt, 6th century tapestryAlmost every famous Greek God or Goddess has a Roman counterpart, many of whom were used to name the planets in our solar system, like Jupiter (Zeus) and Neptune (Poseidon).The Romans adopted much of Ancient Greek religion, renaming deities while retaining their core attributes and characteristics. Hestia and Vesta are two such goddesses, residing over the hearth and sacred fire.Although Hestia and Vesta are counterparts, their roles within the Greek and Roman pantheons differed. Both were vital to worship, but Vesta played a more public and political role in Ancient Rome, while Hestia was associated with private worship within the home.Hestia and Vesta: Goddesses of the HearthThe Parthenon by Frederic Edwin Church, 1871. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkHestia (Greek) and Vesta (Roman) are virgin goddesses associated with the hearth, home, and family. They symbolize warmth, stability, and the sacred bond between guest and host. In both traditions, they preside over domestic life and harmony within the home, and their presence is found wherever a sacred flame is kept burning.Yet despite these similarities, the Romans developed their own traditions around Vesta that aligned with cultural, religious, and political values that differed greatly from those of Ancient Greece.Hestia: Heart of the Home in Ancient GreeceSchool of the Vestals, by Hector Leroux, 1880. Source: New York Public LibraryIn Greek mythology, Hestia is one of the original Olympians, the eldest daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She is best known for her peaceful and selfless nature, famously giving up her seat on Mount Olympus to Dionysus to avoid conflict. Her role was deeply symbolicevery household hearth was her altar, and she received the first and last offerings at every meal and ceremony.Worship of Hestia was largely domestic and informal in nature. While there were few public temples solely dedicated to Hestia, her sacred flame burned in every home and in communal hearths of every city-state. She represented the spiritual center of the home and family, and didnt get involved in politics or mythological battles.Vesta: Guardian of Romes Sacred FlameGiulio Romano, wall painting of the Olympian gods. Source: Palazzo del Te, MantuaVesta, her Roman counterpart, shares Hestias core attributes but plays a much more institutional and public role in Roman religion. Vesta was not just the protector of individual households but also a spiritual symbol of the Roman state itself. Her sacred fire burned within the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum, representing the heart of the expanding Roman Empire.This is also where Vesta was honored and served by the Vestal Virgins, a group of highly respected priestesses who took a vow of chastity and were charged with maintaining the sacred flame at all times. Their service was considered vital to the health and safety of Rome.Ancient Greece vs. RomeThe Vestal, by Filippo Pistrucci, c. 1830. Source: The British MuseumAncient Greece was known for its democratic ideals and fragmented city-states that would occasionally band together during wartime but remained largely independent. Whereas, Rome developed a vast empire with a centralized government.The contrast between Hestia and Vesta highlights some of the most significant differences between Greek and Roman society. The Greeks emphasized individual homes, philosophical ideals, and personal relationships with the gods.The Romans, by contrast, placed immense value on public service, state religion, and civic duty. Vesta was considered a guardian of the Roman people, and her centralized worship reflected Roman ideals of order, discipline, and unity under the empires rule.Vestas Religious ServantsVeiled Vestal, Rafaelle Monti, 1847. Source: The Chatsworth House, DerbyshireHestia had no formal priesthood in Ancient Greece, while Vesta had the Vestal Virgins. They were a prestigious group of priestesses chosen in childhood. Each priestess took a vow of chastity and was charged with keeping Romes sacred flame burning continuously. They were essentially responsible for the spiritual well-being of an entire empire, and their role was central to Roman religious and civic life.If the flame ever went out, it was considered a dire omen, signaling potential disaster for the city and its people. The Vestal Virgins were held personally responsible for this task. If the flame went out due to neglect or carelessness, the consequences were severe.And if they ever broke their vow of chastity, they were sentenced to death. However, to avoid spilling the blood of a Vestal, they would instead be locked in an underground chamber and left to die.Domain and Worship PracticesTemple of Vesta, Italian etching, date unknown. The Wellcome CollectionMaintaining the hearth and honoring Hestia within an Ancient Greek home was important for personal worship, while maintaining Vestas sacred flame was tied to the vitality of Ancient Rome itself.In Greece, Hestias worship was largely private, centered around household altars and city hearths. Every home offered her daily sacrifices, but she rarely had temples of her own. She was honored at every meal and also a conduit for worshipping the other gods.Temple of Vesta, by Alessandro Sanquirico, 1818. Source: New York Public LibraryIn contrast, Vestas worship was highly public and institutionalized, with rituals overseen by priestesses. Vestalia, held at the beginning of June, was held in her honor as one of the most important holidays in Ancient Rome.While Hestia and Vesta share the same domain of the home and hearth, their roles diverge across Ancient Greek and Roman traditions. Hestia was the gentle guardian of the home, and Vesta evolved into a protector of the Roman state, a sacred presence whose flame symbolically kept the empire alive.

Fascination with people of the past has been a common theme of Western civilizations throughout history, with Americans proving to be no exception. The disinterment of Indigenous people began not long after the arrival of European settlers. Not only were people removed from what was expected to be their final resting place, but cultural objects were taken from areas of importance. The Native American Graves Protection & Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) was passed in 1990 with the intent of stopping this practice and returning previously stolen Indigenous remains and objects to those to whom they belonged. Has this legality been a success?A Sad HistoryThe First Thanksgiving 1621 by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris. Source: Milwaukee Journal SentinelSome of the earliest permanent European immigrants to the future United States were the English who settled in New England, known commonly as the Pilgrims. They would have a difficult relationship with Indigenous peoples from the start, and it was not uncommon for them, with yet unestablished farming practices, to steal from Native food stores.One of the earliest recorded violations of an Indigenous grave occurred during one of these thefts. While searching for a food cache, a group of Pilgrims found the corpse of an Indigenous child. They re-interred the body, but not before they removed the necklaces and bracelets the child was wearing, as the beads had potential trade value (Thornton, 1998).NAGPRA logo by the National Park Service. Source: Utah Public RadioOver time, Native Americans were continuously viewed as lesser than by many Americans as the genocide of Indigenous culture persisted over the following centuries and the Manifest Destiny era. Stealing, owning, and collecting Indigenous remains was not seen as unethical and, sometimes, was even en vogue. Some even offered money to grave robbers, seeking remains for scientific research or collection (Daehnke & Lonetree, 2011).In the nineteenth century, the US Army even received orders to send all Native remains to the Smithsonian for research. Museums and universities began seeking Native American cultural objects as relics of days gone by as the Indigenous way of life was wiped off the map. Religious items were confiscated, historical objects removed, and other symbols of culture were forced into public display and sometimes, eventually, storage.The Antiquities ActThe Antiquities Act was signed into law under conservation president Theodore Roosevelt. Source: CBS NewsUpon reading its description, a scholar might assume that the passage of the Antiquities Act of 1906 was the first step in reversing this trend and putting a stop to the desecration of Indigenous culture. The act established several requirements to protect archaeological resources on public lands. This included a need to get permission before removing objects and penalties for unauthorized excavation.However, this act made no differentiation between Native American remains that were hundreds of years old and those that were contemporary; many traditional tribal cemeteries existed on federal lands. Indigenous people were allowed no agency over their material culture, but these materials became the property of the federal government.At the same time, assimilation policies were in high gear, and people of Indigenous heritage were being pushed to abandon their traditions more than ever. From this time until 1990, it is estimated that anywhere from 300,000 to 2.5 million Indigenous bodies and millions of cultural objects were taken into the possession of museums, private collectors, and the federal government (Daehnke & Lonetree, 2011).Increasing ActivismAn AIM protest at the office of Overton James, State Indian Education Director, in 1972. Oklahoma Publishing Company photo. Source: Oklahoma Historical SocietyEventually, Indigenous voices began to be heard. Influential groups such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) began organizing and protesting loudly during the mid-twentieth century, culminating during the rebellious years of American change in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1989, legislation was passed that applied exclusively to the Smithsonian, requiring the repatriation of Indigenous remains to tribes. The following year, repatriation rules would become universal and more extensive, and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) was born.Digging Up the DetailsConsultations are an essential part of NAGPRA. Source: The National Park ServiceNAGPRA was approved by Congress on November 16, 1990 and was intended to address the rights of lineal descendants, Native American tribes, and Native Hawaiians. In particular, the act focuses on the rights of these groups to certain Indigenous remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony.The goal was to reunite these objects, in the possession of any institution receiving federal funding, with those to whom they held meaning. NAGPRA was set to be effective one year from its enactment, giving these organizations time to compile and report inventories of such items and identify their cultural affiliation. Once an item was identified, it was required to be expeditiously returned. After identification, organizations are instructed to consult with the associated tribe or cultural group to discuss repatriation or appropriate disposal of the objects.Members of the Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe hold a reburial ceremony for remains returned to them in 2014 by the University of Michigan, Marcella Hadden Photo. Source: The New York TimesUnder NAGPRA, human remains must be returned to a direct descendant or culturally affiliated organization, such as a tribe. A reasonable connection between the remains and the organization is required, as outlined by NAGPRA (Daehnke & Lonetree, 2011).Once remains are identified, under NAGPRA, an institution must publish a list of tribes eligible to make a claim on them. The remains are then considered available for return, and tribes can make claims. After identification, consultations between these organizations and the possessing entity are the first step in the repatriation process, with resources for these offered by a number of entities, including the National Park Service.The review committee meets in Alaska in 2019. Source: National Park ServiceNAGPRA created a Federal Advisory Review Committee to monitor the implementation of the law. The members were appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, whose oversight includes the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This committee monitors the identification process, resolves disputes, and recommends actions for any items that are culturally unidentifiable. NAGPRA also applies to current or future archaeological excavations on both private and state land, though the depth at which it is relevant depends on local laws and other factors.RamificationsInstitutions that do not comply with NAGPRA can lose their federal funding. Source: Rockefeller Institute of GovernmentThe complete details of what institutions must do to maintain their collections as NAGPRA compliant are outlined in the law. The Smithsonian is the only federally funded museum, agency, or department exempt from NAGPRA, as it is governed by its own previously mandated and specific law. Stakeholders that fail to comply with the act may face a number of consequences, including criminal prosecution, civil penalties, and reduced or eliminated funding.Loopholes & FailureThe National Preservation Institute offers NAGPRA consultations. Source: National Preservation InstituteWhile NAGPRA may have been well-intentioned, its application over the last thirty-plus years has demonstrated ineffectiveness and challenges that leave much to be desired. When the law was passed, Congress estimated that it would take ten years for NAGPRA to demonstrate the effectiveness and for all covered objects and remains to be repatriated to the proper hands.Yet, it is estimated that at least another 70 years are necessary. The biggest issue that has caused NAGPRA to fall flat is the inability to identify the cultural affiliation of many objects and remains. Limited provenance of items that have been in institutional possession for decades and even centuries makes identification slow and, in some cases, has proven impossible. There have also been accusations of institutions claiming that evidence of cultural links is inadequate and taking advantage of loopholes in the law.If a tribe is not federally recognized, like the Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa just became in 2020, issues arise with NAGPRA. The Little Shell Tribes recognition was being celebrated in this Tailyr Irvine photo. Source: High Country NewsAnother challenge lies with the fact that a tribe must be federally recognized to bring a repatriation claim under NAGPRA. This eliminates the rights of hundreds of established groups that are awaiting or have been denied federal recognition, regardless of how long they have existed within the current borders of the United States.As of 2018, there were approximately 400 non-federally recognized tribal entities in the US. Some of these groups had recognition in the past and lost it as a result of government action in the mid-twentieth century or have been unable to meet federal recognition requirements, which are often a challenge due to the amount of required documentation. Perhaps ironically, the assimilation tactics perpetrated by US entities over the last centuries made the continuous tribal documentation required to satisfy regulations an impossible task in many cases.Cogstone is one of several companies that offers NAGPRA services, such as inventorying and transfer, to both institutions and tribal entities. Source: CogstoneA lack of penalty enforcement has been observed over NAGPRAs active years as well. Though the law requires consequences upon agencies who fail to comply, these are rarely administered. Penalties are frequently avoided with simple explanations from institutions about why they failed to meet requirements. Tribes are left with little recourse in these situations.The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, photo by Ryan Gajarawala. Source: The Harvard CrimsonSome of the nations most prestigious museums are among the offenders. For example, the American Museum of Natural History in New York has made 46% of its possessed Indigenous human remains available for return. However, the remains of at least 1,900 Native people are still in the museums possession and not available for return. In the case of Harvard University, the remains of at least 5,600 people are not available for return (the third largest collection of unrepatriated remains in the country).Ethical ConsequencesRemains being repatriated in Michigan in 2013, Marcella Hadden Holder photo. Source: The Art NewspaperThe consequences of institutions failing to uphold NAGPRA are not only legal, but have ethical and moral fallout as well. The value of these remains and funerary objects cannot be plainly defined by law. It is a common belief across several Native American cultures that the disturbance of the dead forces the spirits of the deceased to wander and be unable to rest. Treating human remains as specimens or commodities is viewed as crude and simply wrong across cultures and religions, regardless of whether one is Indigenous or not.Anthropology often relies on the study of human remains, leading some scientists to become anti-NAGPRA. Source: University of Alaska AnchorageScience has stepped in with additional opinions. Some anthropologists feel that certain remains hold unique value to the world of human science and should be retained by institutions for research and future testing; they feel that this value outweighs the cultural value. The practice of archaeology has a strong commitment to holding artifacts in perpetuity for future inquiry.Whats Next for NAGPRA?Senator Brian Schatz of Hawaii at a hearing regarding NAGPRA in 2022, US Senate photo. Source: ProPublicaThough NAGPRA has suffered many barriers preventing its complete realization, it has had some achievements. A number of successful reparations have occurred since the introduction of the law, bringing healing and comfort to some in the Indigenous communities around the country.In 2023, the US Senate Committee on Indian Affairs singled out five institutions for their lack of compliance and sent letters calling their reparation rates unacceptable. However, this progress is minute when compared to the vast strides that institutions must make in order to be fully compliant with the law and the needs and wishes of thousands of Indigenous people and communities.Works CitedDaehnke, Jon and Amy Lonetree, Repatriation in the United States: The Current State of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. American Indian Culture and Research Journal 35, no. 1 (2011): 87-97.Russell Thornton, Who Owns Our Past? The Repatriation of Native American Human Remains and Cultural Objects, in Studying Native America: Problems and Prospects, ed. (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1998), 38788.

The Middle Ages is often unfairly characterized as a time of stagnation, with little in the way of cultural achievement. Far from being true, this was an era of cultural advances that still leave modern minds in awe. The most enduring art form of the era was architecture. Towering cathedrals and stout castles made from stone still stand as a testament to the prowess of the medieval craftsman. Three distinct architectural styles emerged over time, each building on the lessons of previous generations to create ever-greater wonders.Pre-Romanesque Architecture PhaseChurch of Santa Maria del Naranco, Northern Spain, c. 9th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe earliest and easily the broadest category of European architecture during the Middle Ages was the Pre-Romanesque Phase. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, large, monumental architecture, for the most part, fell by the wayside as lands once administered by the Romans were forced to deal with the chaos of the collapse of central authority. Migrations of Germanic peoples into these lands changed the ethnic and cultural landscape of the continent. One of these groups, the Franks, played a pivotal role not only in Europes political history but its artistic and architectural foundation.The exact start of the Pre-Romanesque phase is hard to pin down, beginning either in the 6th century under the Merovingian dynasty, or in the late 8th century under the Carolingian dynasty. In either case, the start of the movement began with the consolidation of the Frankish tribes under a single dynastic ruler, bringing some political stability to the tumultuous era. The conversion of King Clovis and the Franks to Christianity in the early 6th century led to the building of churches and monasteries with government approval and funding. Similar processes happened in other regions, such as in Anglo-Saxon England and the Visagothic Iberian peninsula. Each region developed its own architectural style based on local customs, those of the Germanic invaders, the influence of Latin Christianity, and available building methods and materials.Interior of the Church of So Pedro da Lourosa in Lourosa, Portugal, c. 10th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile there is no single style of Pre-Romanesque architecture, they do share some common traits. Compared to the later styles, these were simple, usually rectangular structures made from stone. They were made with thick, stout walls and simple flat roofs as opposed to the large vaulted ceilings that would become a hallmark of later eras. The roof was often supported by timber rather than masonry. Openings for windows were difficult to make without undermining the structural integrity of the walls, so these openings were small and let in very little light. The structure was made from so-called rubble walls. These were made from undressed, or unshaped, stone that would be piled on top of one another and held in place with mortar, giving the surface a distinctive uneven appearance. In short, the Pre-Romanesque style is anything that came before the development of the Romanesque style.Romanesque Architectural PhaseDurham Cathedral, c. early 12th century. Source: Durham World Heritage SiteLike the previous era, it is difficult to pin down when the Romanesque phase started, though most scholars place the eras beginning around the mid-11th century. During this time, Europe saw an explosion in monastic tradition as well as an increase in pilgrimages, which spurred the construction of larger churches and monasteries. As the name implies, the Romanesque period is heavily inspired by the architecture of the Roman Empire, but also incorporates elements from Byzantine, Germanic, Carolingian, and local traditions.As was the case in the previous era, Romanesque buildings were initially made with thick walls that had small windows in order to preserve the structural integrity of the building. These windows could be in numerous shapes, but were often semicircular arches. This era also saw the start of what would later become known as rose windows, which are circular openings that would be divided into segments, though this would not gain much popularity until the later Gothic style.The nave of Marie Madeleine in Vzelay, France, photo by Navin75, 12th century, via FlickrThe primary building material was dressed stone, or stone that had been shaped into regular-sized blocks, which were held together with mortar. Common types of stone used were limestone, flint, or granite, though brick made from clay was used on occasion as well. As the era continued, new methods allowed for higher walls and ceilings, and one of the most profound differences with the prior era was the use of stone supports for the roof rather than timber, which made the building more resistant to fires.The roof was held up using a rediscovered ancient technology, the barrel vault. This is a series of arches placed next to one another or, more accurately, a single arch that extends over a given space. Though this technique was used in one way or another as far back in time as ancient Egypt, it was the Romans who popularized their use.Because of the immense weight of the stone, the lateral forces on the arch push the walls outward, causing the walls to give way and the ceiling to collapse. There are several solutions to this problem. The first is to make the walls thicker, which, while inelegant, is the most practical. Another way is to build two or more barrel vaults next to one another, the inner walls supporting each other while the outer walls were reinforced either by thicker walls or buttresses. Another solution to the issue was the creation of groin vaults, which are two barrel vaults that intersect at right angles. This was a popular way to construct churches and cathedrals because the final structure resembles a cross.Notre Dame la Grande, Poitiers, France, c. 12th century. Source: UNESCOAnother hallmark of the Romanesque period was the use of columns, which mimic the columns that were found in the ancient world. These were placed at regular intervals and were thick, untapered, and load-bearing structures that supported the roof. Arcades or rows of arches were also common and could be one, two, three, or even more stories in height. The arches in the arcades, just like the windows, were semicircular in form and could be used to improve the structural integrity of the building or could be used as decoration, or both. The carvings on the stonework were usually unsophisticated with simple geometric patterns such as chevrons or lozenges.Gothic Architectural PhaseCanterbury Cathedral, England, c. late 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIf one thinks about medieval buildings, most peoples imaginations conjure up images of the third and final style of architecture, the Gothic phase. There is no hard delineation between the Romanesque and the Gothic phases, with one era blending seamlessly into the other. Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that the era began in the late 12th century and continued for the remainder of the Middle Ages and into the 16th century. The name Gothic was an insult cast by people from later centuries who thought that the style was brutal and barbaric. They named it after the Goths, a Germanic tribe that overran segments of the Roman Empire, hastening its downfall.As an outgrowth of the Romanesque phase, the Gothic phase took the basic principles of the previous era and magnified them. Arches were still a primary design feature but were changed based on new innovations and engineering discoveries. Instead of the round barrel vault, medieval builders made pointed arches that had less lateral pressure than the round Romanesque arches. The ceilings were supported by ribbed vaults, or stone support, which led to piers and columns. These innovations enabled the building of taller structures that were able to stand with thinner walls. Perhaps the most important innovation was the use of flying buttresses. These are supports on the outside of the building that press against the outer walls, keeping them from collapsing outward.Because the walls were thinner yet more structurally sound, the outside walls could contain larger windows. The Rose Windows of the Romanesque era were enlarged, and openings were added to the design. These allowed light to fill the buildings, which were mostly churches and cathedrals. These larger windows were covered with stained glass, which gave the incoming light a dazzling array of hues to amaze onlookers.Gallery of Kings, Cathedral of St. Jacques, Reims, France, c. 14th century. Source: Reims CathedralThe stone itself was also used as a decoration. Unlike the earlier eras, where the stone was either undressed or, at most, decorated with simple geometric patterns, Gothic architecture fully embraced stone carving as an artistic medium in its own right. This is the era that created gargoyles, the small statues usually of hideous monsters that are a mainstay of Gothic cathedrals and have continued to be used even into the present day. Columns and other portions of the stone were carved into decorative shapes like flowers and other plant life, statues and reliefs of saints or historic figures, and much more complex geometric patterns. These were decorations for decorations sake, and Gothic buildings were designed with aesthetics in mind as much as practicality.Construction MethodsManuscript image of a Treadmill Crane, c. 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMonumental buildings such as cathedrals were extremely labor-intensive to construct and required workers who possessed incredible skill and dedication. These were often guild members who were held to a high standard of quality. The construction was overseen by a master builder, who delegated the labor to a number of foremen who led the various lower-skilled workers. These included carpenters, mortar makers, blacksmiths, and stone masons. They received their instructions from the foremen and used an array of tools, such as compasses and plumb bobs, to check on their work. Plans were wooden or plaster models that were presented to the local bishop or other Church officials before construction began. Diagrams were drawn or inscribed on the ground, often in the crypt under the structure, as a reference during the building phase.The stone for the buildings was quarried off-site and transported, often down rivers on barges or overland using oxen wagons. The stone was roughly cut at the quarry and then dressed or finished on-site. Stonemasons cut the individual stones one at a time based on the stage of the construction. Workers then hauled the dressed stone into place, using ropes, pulleys, and ingenious devices such as the treadmill crane to lift the blocks to the appropriate height. Carpenters constructed the ladders and scaffolding needed for the masons, and in some cases, large sections of forest were cleared to keep up with the demand.Manuscript image of a stone cutter, Germany, 1425. Source: Wikimedia CommonsConstruction was slow and expensive. To ease the financial burden, many cathedrals were built using donated funds from wealthy parishioners. The less wealthy donated their time and effort as common laborers, lending out their draft animals or providing some other service. Relics of saints attracted pilgrims, whose donations contributed to the cost of building a larger or more elaborate building. Even under the best of circumstances, the process was slow, and construction, from the breaking of ground to the finished building, could take decades. It was not uncommon for a cathedral to be started by one generation of workers only to be completed by their children or grandchildren.The Gothic phase, along with the Middle Ages, would fade away after the start of the Renaissance, which saw ancient techniques rediscovered and a whole new design philosophy created. As new buildings were constructed, the design elements of the previous eras were seen as quaint or primitive, a relic of the past best abandoned. Still, the towering cathedrals and stout monasteries still stand today as a striking visual reminder of the achievements of the medieval era.

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