For some of it, you wont even need binoculars!

The Dragon Bravo Fire continues to rage.

The Phoenicians success from the late Bronze Age on sat astride an already strong foundation. This base in whats now Lebanon consisted of three successful trade hubs (Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos). With fewer opportunities inland, they took to the seas. They sailed west across the Mediterranean Sea to establish a loose-knit network of independent city-states, dotting the map with their civilization. The Phoenician era spanned from 1200 BCE to 300 BCE.Beyond the Mediterranean SeaPhoenician settlements and trade networks. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile sea commerce provided the bulk of Phoenician success, their network also reached the East. Traders used caravan routes stretching into Iran and India. They reached Mesopotamian cities, such as Babylon or Nineveh. Phoenicians used trading partners instead of colonies or other cities. This inland network further contributed to their success.Maritime MasteryPhoenician ship carved on the face of a sarcophagus, 2nd century CE, The Mariners Museum and Park, Newport NewsThe glue that kept the Phoenician trade network together resulted from their innovation. How? These intrepid sailors developed clever ship designs, used better materials, and mastered celestial navigation. The Phoenician ship designs proved to be durable, technologically advanced, and versatile. Made from cedar, known for its strength and resistance to decay, these deep, curved hull ships had interlocking planks, which increased their durability. Keels provided stability. Besides sailing ships, the Phoenicians used biremes and triremes (two and three-row oared ships), known for their speed and agility.In an era before instruments like the compass, the Phoenicians navigated using observation, astronomy, and word of mouth. The most crucial guide was the Pole Star (or Polaris), a star that appears in the same spot in the sky. Other skills or knowledge included dead reckoning based on speed and position, landmarks, or even migratory birds.Only An Economic EmpireMap of the Phoenician world at its height. Source: curiousstoryofourworld.blogspot.comUnlike other Classical powers, the Phoenicians had little interest in empire. Themselves a loose coalition of city-states, like Tyre, they established regional trading enclaves. Unlike these empires, the Phoenicians saw economic opportunities. Famous settlements included Gadir (Spain) and Carthage, Romes eventual foe. Located in strategic locations, these colonies served as trading depots, cultural exchange centers, and diplomatic representations. This trading network spanned from the Middle East to Spain in the far west.The Phoenicians never developed a unified national identity. Their city-states competed against one another. Each city had self-rule via a king. They paid tribute to larger powers to remain independent, sometimes providing the needed naval expertise.Tetradrachm of Carthage depicting the Phoenician goddess Tanit, 310 290 BCE. Source: The Walters Art Museum, BaltimoreFor trade goods, the Phoenicians traded in many items. Certain goods remained core exports, such as Tyrian purple textiles, cedar and fir lumber, and metalwork. Some areas had distinct tastes, such as Greece or Egypt, which imported wine and olive oil. Agricultural goods, crafted pottery, and raw materials were often traded goods.By owning the middleman space, the Phoenicians acted as go-betweens. They profited from regional price differences, especially with luxury goods such as gold, silver, or spices. Besides trading, Phoenician-made goods carried a reputation for high quality and popular items.The Commercial Mechanics and Set UpThe Ahiram Epitaph at Byblos in Phoenicia, 11th century BC, in the National Museum of BeirutThe Phoenician trading began before the widespread use of coins via bartering until the late Iron Age, say 450 BCE. Phoenician merchants practiced an ingenious strategy. Theyd exchange abundant items in one area, say wine or olive oil in Lebanon, for African or Indian ivory, seen as exotic back home. Profit came from the value difference between the two.Trade agreements set fixed quantities and values using written contracts, weights, and credit. Trade conducted in Phoenician cities like Byblos or Tyre made them politically neutral spaces. The Phoenicians reputation for impartiality added to this reputation.By 450 BCE, coins became game changers. Phoenician cities minted their coins based on Babylonian weight standards. Coins minted in Tyre or Sidon quickly gained favor due to their purity, quality, and consistent weight, allowing for quicker transactions and simplified trade. Complex trading systems, such as promissory notes, appeared, and more would follow.A Surprising LegacyPunic Era Carthage. Source: National Museum of CarthageThe Phoenician trading network did not collapse at once. Invasions, assimilation, and competition chiseled away at their base. The 332 BCE sacking of Tyre by Alexander the Great is one significant example. Their legacy is quite evident, though. First is the Phoenician alphabet, a simplified twenty-two-character script with only consonants. Unlike something like hieroglyphics, it meant easier records and became the foundation for future languages (Latin, Greek, and Hebrew).Cities like Carthage thrived long past the Phoenician era, becoming melting pots for different cultures (North African, Iberian, and more!) Standardized coins became another unintended legacy. And not surprisingly, their shipbuilding techniques spread quickly, along with their advanced seagoing navigation, primarily to Rome and Greece.

At its peak, the Angevin Empire stretched from Scotland to France, a formidable medieval dominion under the English kings of the Plantagenet Dynasty. Shaped by pivotal figures such as Henry II, Eleanor of Aquitaine, Richard the Lionheart, and King John, this empire experienced a dynamic history, wherein its rapid expansion was almost as significant as its dramatic collapse.The Shipwreck That Changed England: A Dynasty in ChaosHenry I, from Chronicle of Matthew Paris, c. 1255. Source: The British Library.In order to fully understand the significance of the Angevin Empire and how it came to be, we first need to take a look at the events that led to its creation and expansion, before its untimely collapse in the early thirteenth century. Although King Henry II of England is credited as the founder of the Empire, it is important to look a bit further back in history to fully understand why.During Henry Is reign as King of England, his son and heir, William, died aboard The White Ship in November 1120. This accident, which came to be known as The White Ship Disaster, shook Henry. William had been his only surviving son, and he needed a son to succeed him as heir.His nephew, Stephen, also had a claim to the throne, as he was male and a relative of Henrys. Henry opted to choose his daughter Matilda to succeed him, and she would have been Englands first Queen. However, upon Henry Is death in 1135, Stephen seized the throne instead and ushered in a period of English history known as the Anarchy.However, Matilda bided her time. She was married off to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou. As a result, Matilda jointly ruled over this territory in France, while Stephen ruled in England.A Dynastic Claim: Henry II Forges a New PowerFamily tree of the Normans and Angevins. Source: Reading University.Matilda and Geoffrey had several children together, and their eldest son, Henry, eventually sailed over to England to challenge Stephen for the throne, which was rightfully his, as he had a more direct relationship with Henry I than Stephen did.In 1153, Henry and Stephen signed the Treaty of Winchester, which acknowledged Stephen as King of England until his death, but upon his death, the throne would go to Henry, rather than Stephens sons. Ultimately, Stephen died the following year, and Henry was crowned King Henry II of England: the first Plantagenet king of England.Henry had successfully claimed the throne, and along with it, the territory of England, Scotland, and parts of France, having succeeded his father as Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou.Eleanor of Aquitaine: The Queen Who Forged an EmpireMap of France in 1180. The Plantagenets held all of the territory illustrated in red. Source: Wikimedia Commons.It was Henrys marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, two years before his coronation, that truly expanded his territorial ambitions.Eleanor would go down in history as one of the most fearsomely determined women of the Middle Ages, and her marriage to Henry was certainly not without its controversies.Eleanors father was William X, Duke of Aquitaine, and upon his death, Eleanor became Duchess of Aquitaine (a region in southwestern France). Eleanor had previously been married to King Louis VII of France, but their marriage was annulled after 15 years. As part of the annulment deal, Eleanor was granted her lands back.Map of the Angevin Empire. Source: TheCollectorNaturally, when Eleanor married Henry later the same year (on 18 May 1152), her lands now also belonged to Henry. As a result, Henry II was now in charge of the Angevin Empire, which stretched from the Scottish border to the South of France. Of course, with all this territory came a lot of political challenges, as well as a lot of work in dealing with various rebellions and potential invasions. Henry (and Eleanor) certainly had their work cut out for them.Two Crowns, One Land: The Epic Rivalry with Capetian FranceThe children of Henry II, artist unknown. Source: British Library.One major source of conflict for the Angevin Empire was that Henry II was descended from the House of Anjou, while the French kings were descended from the House of Capet the Capetian Kings ruled France from 987 CE to 1328.Because of this, the House of Anjou owed feudal homage to the House of Capet a notion which caused problems on both sides. Why should the King of England pay homage due to his ancestry when he ruled another kingdom? Equally, why should the Kingdom of France let English kings rule territory in their country?If anything, the Angevin/Capetian rivalry is really what the majority of the conflict can be traced back to. Unfortunately, many thousands of innocent civilians and soldiers were killed fighting over various issues over the years.The Great Angevin RevoltWedding of Eleanor of Aquitaine, from Les Chroniques de Saint Denis. Source: Wikimedia Commons.One early reminder that the Empire was going to be difficult to govern was the Revolt of 1173-74, against Henry II, by Eleanor of Aquitaine (who was estranged from him by this point) and his sons. Part of the reasoning for these rebellions was down to how Henry had divided up the Angevin Empire. He gave his eldest son and heir, Henry the Young King, England, Normandy, and Anjou. Geoffrey was given Brittany (a recent acquisition for the Angevin Empire in 1169), while Richard was given Aquitaine (his mothers territory). Henry IIs youngest son, John, was eventually given Ireland, but not until 1185.Henrys sons constantly argued over their territories, each of them demanding more. It should have been made easier when Young Henry and Geoffrey both died in 1183 and 1186, respectively, but Henry IIs clear favouritism of John over Richard did not help matters. Henry wanted to grant John more territory, despite Richard now being his eldest surviving son and heir.In response, Richard made an alliance with King Philip II of France with regard to the ongoing crusades. This alliance strengthened Richards position when Henry wanted to cede his territory (Aquitaine) to John.Richard the Lionheart: Crusades, Captivity, and ConflictRichard I and Philip II at Acre, from Grandes Chroniques de France, c. 1375-80. Source: Gallica Digital Library.Henry II died in 1189, and Richard succeeded him as King Richard I of England. Throughout his ten-year reign, Richard was only present in England for six months, largely because he was away on the Third Crusade and traveling throughout Europe.It was largely down to Eleanor of Aquitaine and her diplomatic skills that the Angevin Empire survived while Richard was away on the Third Crusade. However, things would take a turn when Philip II left the crusade early, returning to France, after falling out with Richard.Upon his return, Philip encouraged John to rebel against his brother, which he did, paying homage to the French king in 1193. Richard returned in 1194 and was captured by Duke Leopold V of Austria it was Eleanor who once again came to the rescue, paying the ransom fee to have Richard released.But Richard was not done yet. During the Battle of Frteval, Richard managed to push back Philip, who gave up most of his recent conquests of Angevin territory in 1196. Fighting resumed at the Battle of Gisors, which Richard also won.Richard died in 1199 at the Siege of Chlus, where he was struck by a crossbow bolt. The wound became gangrenous, and he eventually died, at the height of his powers and glory, on 6 April 1199. The Angevin Empire would begin its decline almost immediately.The Collapse of the Angevin Empire Under King JohnArthur paying homage to Philip II, artist unknown, Chroniques de Saint-Denis, c. 1333-49. Source: Wikimedia Commons.Because Richard had died heirless, the throne passed to John. The main opposition John faced was from his 12-year-old nephew, Arthur of Brittany (Arthur was Geoffreys son).Philip II naturally supported young Arthur against John, and received homage from the kings nephew in the Spring of 1199, for the counties of Maine, Anjou, and Touraine. Philip was now in a strong position to negotiate with John, and in 1200 the Treaty of Le Goulet was signed, which settled the claims the Angevin kings had on the French lands (except Aquitaine), in order to end the constant dispute over Normandy.However, in 1202, Philip attacked Normandy, while Arthur attacked Poitou. Arthur was ambushed in the Battle of Mirebeau and taken prisoner by John. By early 1203, Arthur had mysteriously disappeared likely murdered on Johns instructions.John made the fatal mistake of leaving Normandy in late 1203, and Philip took advantage: Rouen, Bayeux, Caen, and Falaise all surrendered on 24 June 1204, desperate for aid from John, who did not come. By mid-summer, Philip had successfully conquered Normandy. Poitiers fell in August 1204, while a year later, Chinon and Loches were also taken. However, the worst was still to come.Bouvines and Betrayal: The Final Agony of the Angevin DreamThe Battle of Bouvines, from Grand Chroniques de France, c. 1375-80. Source: Gallica Digital Library.On 27 August 1214, at the Battle of Bouvines, the Angevin Empire finally collapsed. At one point, Philip II had been unhorsed, and the English looked close to winning. However, the French fought back valiantly and won the key victory.King John was down and out. The Magna Carta was signed a year later, whereby John agreed to hand over the majority of his powers to the barons. John naturally disagreed with this document. He appealed its unfair nature to Pope Innocent III, who, remarkably, agreed with John. The Pope declared the document null and void.This sparked a civil war in England, including the barons turning to France for support. A French invasion landed at Dover in May 1216. It reached London with Prince Louis declaring himself King Louis I of England before being excommunicated by the Pope. John died suddenly in August 1216, and the Angevin Empire with him.A Lost Empires Enduring LegacyThe Henry III funerary relief in Westminster Abbey. Source: The Catholic Herald.In the space of 17 years (1199-1216), the Angevin Empire had gone from being one of the most well-run and organized medieval empires to being no more. Henry III (Johns son and successor) briefly but unsuccessfully attempted to resurrect the Angevin Empire in the mid-thirteenth century, to no avail.This period reflected the power of the early Plantagenet Dynasty. In fact, the empire only survived as long as it did thanks to characters like Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. It played a crucial role in securing the Plantagenet Dynastys long reign in England, which lasted until Richard IIs deposition in 1399.

Japanese history is not short on great women, from fearsome female warriors to wise empresses, poets, and more. Yet one name rarely makes its way to classrooms and the Japanese consciousness: Himiko. Many historians believe that she was a real 3rd-century-CE warrior queen and shaman who used her skills of diplomacy and divination to create a kingdom in the land of Yamatai, ending a civil war. Despite that, the most famous depiction of Himiko might be the 2018 Tomb Raider movie. Lets find out why that is.The Female Rulers of JapanEmpress Jingu, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1843-1844. Source: Museum fr Kunst und Gewerbe HamburgUnder the Imperial House Law of Japan, The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by a male offspring in the male line belonging to the Imperial Lineage. That is Article 1 of Chapter 1 of the regulations determining who gets to sit on the Chrysanthemum Throne. However, this rule was almost changed a few years ago since the current emperor, Naruhito, only has a daughter, Princess Aiko. A beloved public figure, there was widespread support for her and the abolition of male primogeniture but, in the end, it was decided that Emperor Naruhito will be succeeded by his brother, Crown Prince Fumihito, who does have a male heir.Things were not always so strict in Japan. Out of 126 Japanese emperors, eight were women, including two who ruled twice under different names. The official first Japanese empress was Suiko (ruled 592-628), who oversaw the construction of Horyu-ji Temple (containing the oldest wooden building on the planet) and maintained close diplomatic ties with China. But a few centuries before her, there supposedly was another woman who ruled much of Japan. She was not an empress, though. She was more of a war chieftain and priestess who rose to the role of queen. Or so the stories (and historical sources) say.A Veiled Footnote in Japanese Historical SourcesPhotograph of Ise Grand Shrine. Source: Japan ReferenceThe 8th-century text Kojiki, which aimed to trace the imperial line all the way back to the goddess of the sun, Amaterasu, mentions many things, from the creation of Japanese islands to a very detailed account of the legendary first emperor, Jimmu, who almost certainly did not exist. Yet because of the Kojiki, we know what songs he sang (Yasumaro, 2014, pp. 66-68), what ambushes he avoided, what mythical creatures he used while consolidating power (a three-legged crow). The Kojiki makes no mention of Himiko but it does describe someone fitting her description.According to historical sources, Himiko was the daughter of Emperor Suinin. Kojiki mentions that one of his wives, Hibasu-hime, gave him a daughter called Lady Yamato (Yasumaro, 2014, p. 88), a priestess of Amaterasu and keeper of the sacred sword Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi (Grass Scyther), today one of three Imperial Regalia of Japan. The Nihongi chronicle says that Yamato was also the first priestess to worship in Ise after receiving a vision from the sun goddess herself, who said: [Ise] is a secluded and pleasant land. In this land I wish to dwell (Aston, 2008, p. 176). This is considered the mythical origin of the Ise Grand Shrine in Mie, one of the most important places of Shinto worship in all of Japan. It is also pretty much all that Japanese texts have to say about Himiko, if Lady Yamato truly was her. Chinese sources, on the other hand, are much more detailed.The Queen of WaText of the Book of Wei in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, Photographed by J. Edward Kidder, 1980. Source: Asahi Shimbunsha via Wikimedia CommonsThe Records of the Three Kingdomscomposed in the 3rd century CE and covering the end of the Han dynastyis a Chinese chronicle considered a reliable historical source and our best evidence for the existence of Himiko. The text mentions her as a shaman-queen who was elevated to royal status by a council of local chiefs in order to end a civil war in the land of Yamatai. While there are a lot of theories about where Yamatai actually was located, Ise or somewhere else around central Japan are the top contenders, as is Kyushu. Wherever it was, Himiko brought peace to Yamatai not just by force but by her diplomatic skills and claims of magical powers.She most likely relied primarily on the former when communicating with China. The Chinese emperor recognized Himiko as Queen of the Wa, with Wa being the Chinese name for Japan at the time (Yoshie, 2013, 22). The emperor also sent her a gold seal, textiles, and bronze mirrors. However, this was a response to tributes first presented by Himikos emissaries, an act that officially recognized China as a greater power and has been interpreted as a sign of fealty. The fact that Himiko skillfully ended decades of fighting among the ancient chieftains of Japan speaks to her political acumen and suggests that she deemed a tributary relationship with China to be the smartest move for her. But it might have been what ultimately doomed her to historical obscurity.Double StandardsStill from the Movie Himiko (1974), directed by Masahiro Shinoda. Source: Criterion CollectionNo one outright says it, but sending tribute to China might have negatively influenced some Japanese historians views on Himiko, causing them to try and write her out of history. According to the historian Professor Akiko Yoshie, there is also a strong gender bias when it comes to research on Himiko. When she is not being erased from history or meshed together with unrelated figures like the legendary Empress Jingu, her abilities and importance are constantly being downplayed (Yoshie, 2013, pp. 7-8). Early sources that do recognize Himiko as a real figure describe her almost like a charlatan who conned her way to the role of queen by claiming that she had magical powers. This essentially robs her of her powers of persuasion, diplomatic skills, and keen political acumen, like using the legitimacy of a powerful nation like China recognizing her as queen to secure her position in Japan.Other sources go further and describe her as a puppet who kept the population in line using their belief in her magic powers while all the real ruling and fighting was actually done by her brother. What was his name? Nobody knows. For someone who was the true ruler of Yamatai, the name of Himikos brother became lost to history, putting a damper on the theory that he was the real power behind the throne. Chinese sources mention him as assisting Himiko in administering Yamatai, but that is about it.Portrait of Emperor Temmu, Published by Kokusho Kankokai, 686. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAssumptions like this almost never happen with male rulers who claimed to possess mystical abilities. The 7th-century Emperor Temmu, for example, was a conqueror through and through who consolidated imperial power and maintained close diplomatic relations with the Korean kingdom of Silla. He also was a priest of Amaterasu who worshiped at Ise and claimed to be able to see the future, communicate with gods, and bring down storms upon his enemies. Between his embassies, a connection to Ise, and claimed supernatural powers, Emperor Temmu almost comes off as a male version of Queen Himiko. Except that nobody has denied his existence or military accomplishments.Burying HimikoAerial View of the Hashihaka Kofun. Source: Sakurai City Local GovernmentEmpress Koken ruled in the 8th century, abdicated, then won her way back to the throne as Empress Shotoku. She is often mentioned as the reason for the (randomly enforced) ban on female rulers as she supposedly was manipulated by the monk Dokyo, whom she was said to be madly in love with. Given that history, Japanese or otherwise, is often written by men, there is some doubt about the actual motives of Koken/Shotoku, but she remains one of the first arguments that many people bring up to justify Article 1 of the Imperial House Law of Japan.This, in turn, influences peoples perception about power structures in early Japan. When one of only eight Japanese empresses becomes the subject of a scandal based on uncontrollable emotions, it makes it harder to imagine a world where female leaders were the norm. Himiko, Suiko, Koken/Shotoku, and others were true rulers with real power and authority, not puppets or transitional figures keeping the throne warm until a suitable man came along. Prof. Yoshie has put forward a claim that archaeological excavations of burial sites prove that many ancient Japanese chieftains were female, based on the weaponry and symbols of power buried with them (Yoshie, 2013, p. 12).Unearthed Artifacts from the Takaosan Kofun Burial Cemetery, 2024, Namakemono Ningen. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Hashihaka kofun tomb in Nara, the first large keyhole-shaped kofun in Japanwhich was constructed around the time of Himikos reignis suspected by some to be the queens resting place. There might be a hidden chamber inside it that could potentially be the location of Himikos remains, but access to the site has been limited by the Imperial Household Agency, who treat the kofun as a mausoleum of the imperial family.As things stand, Himikos legacy remains under threat. Real or not, she deserves a place in Japanese history, which hasnt been shy about venerating legendary rulers. Why not give Himiko the same treatment? She is a fascinating figure that combined military, spiritual, and diplomatic powers to create her own queendom in a time of constant war. Thats more than deserving of some recognition.BibliographyTranslated by Aston, W. G. (2008). Nihongi Volume I Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. Cosimo Inc. (Original translation published 1896).Yasumaro, O., translated by Heldt, G. (2014). The Kojiki, An Account of Ancient Matters. Columbia University Press.Yoshie, A., translated by Azumi, A. T. (2013). Gendered Interpretations of Female Rule: The Case of Himiko, Ruler of Yamatai. U.S. Womens Journal, No. 44.

Mehmed II (the Conqueror) transformed the Ottoman state into a centralized and bureaucratized empire. Like other rulers of his time, he was devout and believed in his right to rule with an iron fist. Yet, he was also a Renaissance prince at heart. Inspired by classical learning, Mehmed patronized artists and scientists in distant lands.The Young PrinceMurad II, Mehmeds father, painting by Paolo Veronese, 1528-88. Source: Bavarian State Painting CollectionMehmed was born in Edirne around 1432 to Sultan Murad II and his concubine Hma Hatun. Hma is believed to have been Greek or Serbian, and likely died while Mehmed was still a teenager. As a result, the young prince was raised by his fathers wife, Mara Brankovi, who also happened to be the daughter of Serbian Despot Durad Brankovi.Mehmed was an inquisitive and proud boy who had a passion for military science and history. Despite his intelligence, shown by the fact that he learnt seven languages, Mehmed often misbehaved during his lessons. Because of this, he was caned by his tutors, who instilled a strict sense of discipline in the young prince.As a child, Mehmed learned about the great military conquests of his ancestors, other Turkish dynasties like the Seljuks, and even other civilizations in history. He idolized Alexander the Great (d. 323 BCE), the ancient Macedonian Greek general who had conquered most of the known world by the age of 32. The stories of these heroes and generals left a lasting impact on Mehmed, who vowed to have his name printed in the history books.At around age eleven, Mehmed, his mother, and two advisors were sent to the city of Amasya, where, in the Ottoman tradition, he trained to become an effective ruler.First and Second ReignThe tomb of Murad II in Bursa. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1444-46, Sultan Murad II (d. 1451) decided to abdicate the throne and retire to a life of semi-solitude. The death of his favorite son, Alaeddin, in 1443, took a huge toll on the Sultan, who left the throne to his eldest surviving son, Mehmed. At twelve years old, Mehmed was the youngest prince to become sultan in Ottoman history.The ambitious Mehmed revelled in his new role. Murads viziers, however, were not pleased that the older and more experienced ruler had left the empire to a teenage boy, especially during a chaotic period. In the 1440s, the Ottomans were threatened by a crusade and rebellions in the Balkan provinces under the Albanian leader, Skanderbeg. On the borders of Hungary, military commander John Hunyadi had also halted three Ottoman campaigns into Europe.The viziers pressured Murad into returning and Mehmed into asking his father to take back his role as Sultan. Murad was thus restored as Sultan in 1446. Mehmed resented this and never forgot those who pressured him into abdicating. As was the Ottoman custom, Mehmed was sent to a sancak, a province in Anatolia that he would govern.He governed the city of Manisa for the next five years, earning the respect of the populace.However, his headstrong behavior, such as raiding Venetian territories without his fathers permission, further damaged the relationship between Murad and Mehmed. In 1451, the former died, leaving a vast empire to the 19-year-old Mehmed.Constantinople: Mehmeds ObsessionFrench Miniature of the Siege of Constantinople, ca. 1450s. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt was Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, that was Mehmeds lifelong obsession. The conquest of Constantinople had been a major goal for other Islamic rulers. The Prophet Muhammad (d. 637) prophesied that Constantinople would be conquered by a great conqueror and army. Throughout history, Islamic armies, including the Abbasids (ca. 782) and Mehmeds own great-grandfather, Sultan Bayezid I (d. 1402), had tried unsuccessfully to fulfill this prophecy.The conquest of Constantinople would subjugate the Byzantines and allow the Ottomans to control a strategically and culturally important city. On April 6, 1453, at the age of 21, Mehmed prepared his army for a 55-day siege of the city. The Ottoman armys effective use of firearms, including one of the largest cannons in existence, allowed them to breach the protective Theodosian Walls, which were around four meters (13 feet) thick.On May 29, 1453, Mehmeds army finally breached the barricades and conquered the city.After the customary looting of the city by his warriors, Mehmed set about to make Constantinople the cultural, economic, and political center of his empire. He began by turning the Hagia Sophia, a monumental Byzantine church, into a mosque, albeit preserving the Christian iconography inside. In the Sultans mind, he had just inherited a Roman city, and he intended to honor it.A Renaissance PrinceMehmeds portrait by Italian artist Gentile Bellini, ca. 1480. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMehmed was unlike his forefathers in that he closely followed socio-political developments in Western Europe. He patronized Italian artists, such as Gentile Bellini, who spent 15 months in Constantinople and painted the Sultans portrait.Italian scholars, particularly those espousing humanistic views, attended his court. The cosmopolitanism of Mehmeds court starkly contrasted against that of his father, Murad, whose reign had seen the rise of Oghuzism, or an interest in Oghuz Turkic tradition and literature.Mehmed had a multilingual library containing the works of ancient Greek philosophers and Stoics. Books in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, and Chagatai Turkic were all patronized and read by the Sultan. In fact, his daily schedule included being tutored by a Greek and Latin-speaking physician and an Arabic-speaking philosopher.Mehmed had a passion for classical antiquities, many of which were dotted around Anatolia and Greece. After the conquest of Athens, he requested a personalized tour of the citys monuments. He particularly admired the Acropolis and Parthenon.Science, astronomy, and medicine were also advanced due to Mehmeds patronage. In 1470, the Timurid polymath Ali Qushji was sent by Akkoyunlu ruler Uzun Hasan to Mehmeds court. There, he composed astronomical and mathematical manuscripts and eventually became an instructor at the medrese (theological schools).Mehmeds RivalriesPortrait of Vlad Tepes, ca. 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring the 15th century, the Ottomans faced serious threats to their supremacy in Eurasia. In the east, dynasties like the Timurids and Akkoyunlu posed themselves as the true leaders of the Islamic world. In the west, Wallachia (present-day Romania) and Hungary, states that were under Ottoman suzerainty, began to rebel against their overlords.The Akkoyunlu were a Turkic tribal confederation that shared similar nomadic roots to the Ottomans. As they expanded their empire in the 15th century, the Akkoyunlu encountered the Ottomans, with whom they were on relatively good terms. However, Mehmeds annexation of Trebizond, a province ruled by the Byzantine Komnenos Dynasty, changed this.Uzun Hasans wife, Despina Hatun, was the daughter of the Tebizondian emperor John IV (d. 1460). Trebizond was considered by the Akkoyunlu to be part of her dowry, and therefore, an Akkoyunlu possession. After several insulting letters and unsuccessful mediation attempts, Uzun Hasan and Mehmed met on the battlefield. At the Battle of Otlukbeli (1473), Mehmeds superior army devastated the Akkoyunlu, who would never fully recover from their losses.Mehmed also faced trouble in the west. In 1448, the young Wallachian Voivode (ruler) Vlad Tepesalso known as Vlad the Impalerrefused to pay the jizye tax demanded by the Ottomans. His insubordination and support for Pope Pius IIs proposed crusade against the Ottomans further destroyed relations between Mehmed and Vlad.The final straw was Vlads massacre of 23,000 Turks in Bulgaria in 1462. The Sultan personally amassed an army of 150,000 to invade Vlads territory. After a month of bitter warfare, the Ottomans reigned supreme. Vlad fled to the Carpathian Mountains and was subsequently imprisoned by Matthias Corvinus, the King of Hungary and Croatia.Impact on the Ottoman StateOuter gates of the Topkapi Palace, a major tourist attraction today. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMehmeds rule saw the Ottoman Empire adopt many elements of Byzantine culture, such as royal seclusion and independent authority of the ruler. While previous Ottoman sultans were more open to public appearances and meetings, Mehmed preferred a stricter separation of royals and commoners. His new palace in Istanbul, called Topkapi, was a more secluded and fortified structure than previous Ottoman palaces.He was also instrumental in the centralization and bureaucratization of the empire. Mehmeds kanunname, or law codes, were the first to set out the roles, responsibilities, and salaries of government ministers. They also codified secular law for crime and punishment that was separate from religious law (shariah).While the ghazi, or holy warrior, was the pre-eminent persona that previous Ottoman sultans had adopted, Mehmed fashioned himself as an emperor in the Islamic, Roman, and Byzantine traditions. The ghazi warrior class, which was instrumental in conquests and raids, lost its esteemed position. In its place, the devshirme, or enslaved Christian from the Balkans, rose to the highest ranks in the empire.Death and LegacyThe Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, photo by Raimond Klavins. Source: UnsplashMehmeds military campaigning continued throughout his reign. After conquering Balkan states like Bosnia (1463) and Albania (1478), Mehmed set his sights on Italy. In 1480, a campaign in Italy successfully led to the capture of Otranto. Yet, his sudden illnesslikely linked to goutin the spring of 1481 put a halt to these dreams.The conqueror died soon after, unable to realize his goals of conquering Rome, the eternal city. His death caused chaos in Constantinople, where janissaries revolted until a prince could secure the throne. Amidst the commotion, Mehmeds stinking corpse was left in a room and was only buried after his son Bayezid reached the capital.To this day, Mehmed remains a divisive figure in history. Although he may be considered a renaissance prince, his conquests in Europe, particularly in the Balkans, are not remembered fondly. In Turkey, however, Mehmed is a revered figure, almost always referred to by his moniker Fatih, meaning the Conqueror. The Fatih district in Istanbul, along with structures such as bridges and mosques, are named after him.

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