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The English Reformation is linked with the name of King Henry VIII, who spearheaded the rise of the Church of England. But while his politics forced him to break with the church in Rome, he was anything but a Protestant. Henrys new church held onto Catholic doctrine. It was only under his children that England would truly pivot towards the Protestant faith. In England, religious change was a gateway to political change as Henry wanted to eliminate papal influence in his court.Jan Huss: The Bohemian ReformationJan Huss burning at the stake, from the Jensky Codex, 1490-1510. Source: Narodni MuseumEarly in the 15th century, Jan Huss started the Bohemian Reformation. At the time, Papal politics were integral to the politics of European states, especially within the Holy Roman Empire. Huss publicly spoke out against certain tenets of Catholicism, and his arguments were exploited by local leaders looking to diminish the influence of the papacy in local affairs.Huss was invited to defend his position at the Council of Constance (1414-1418). This meeting was meant to resolve the Western Schism, which had created three competing popes. Unfortunately for Huss, who was granted a pass of safe conduct, one thing the rival popes could agree on was revoking his pass, convicting him of heresy, and then burning him at the stake. This move to suppress opposition made Huss a martyr.Martin Luther: The Protestant ReformationLuther at the Diet of Worms, by Anton von Werner, 1877. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517, it was heralded as the birth of Protestantism, despite earlier attempts at reform. Luther, like Huss, was given local protection and then, like Huss, was invited to an ecclesiastical council (The Diet of Worms, 1521), under a pass of safe conduct to defend his position. The birth of the printing press meant that Luthers these had spread widely. Learning from their mistakes, rather than executing the intransigent Luther, the council allowed him to return home and consider his errors. The Church later convicted Luther of heresy, but it was too late. The word was out, and he was under the protection of Frederick III, Elector of Saxony.Others followed Luthers lead. Local religions, based on local interpretations of the Bible, were supported by local political authorities. Without this political backing, these reformers would have had little impact.Henry VIII: The English Reformation?Henry VIII, by Hans Holbein, 1540. Source: Museum of Fine Arts, HoustonBy 1521, Henry VIII, now 30, had a decade on the throne as the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The Tudors came to power in 1485 after winning the War of the Roses, a thirty-year civil war among English royal cousins. Henrys father, Henry VII, defeated Richard III, but he still needed support for his position, which came in the form of an endorsement from the Catholic Church.When Henry VIII came to power in 1509, he was 18. His first act was to marry Catherine of Aragon. This marriage had been on hold because Catherine was the widow of Henry VIIIs brother, Prince Arthur. Married at the end of 1501, Arthur succumbed to illness in April of 1502.Henry VII was loath to return Catherines dowry but was reluctant to marry her to Henry due to the biblical law cited in Leviticus (20:21), prohibiting a man from marrying his brothers widow. They argued that the marriage had never been consummated, but Catherine was kept on the back burner. When Henry became king, he was already taken with Catherine. As a show of goodwill, the church agreed that the previous marriage was unconsummated, allowing Henry to marry Catherine.The Search for a SuccessorCatherine of Aragon, by Lucas Horenbout, 1525. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe couple had at least six pregnancies, but only the fifth, their daughter Mary (b. 1516), survived. Considering how recent the civil wars had been, the lack of a legitimate son and heir was a major threat to Henrys power and peace in England. While English history had one example of a daughter succeeding her father to the throne, Henry I and his daughter Matilda, this event was literally known as the anarchy and was too great a risk.In the 1510s, Henry had several mistresses. One, Elizabeth Blount, delivered a surviving infant son (Henry FitzRoy, 1519-1536). Henry acknowledged him, but his illegitimacy caused no fewer problems than a daughter. However, it provided an example of differential diagnostics: Henry could sire a son with someone else.The Infamous AnnulmentMartin Luther, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1528. Source: Cranach Digital ArchiveMeanwhile, Henry was opposed to Lutheran heresy, and even penned his own treatise, the Defense of the Seven Sacraments (Assertio Septem Sacramentorum). This started a 16th-century ink-battle between Luther and the King that earned Henry the title Defender of the Faith (Fidei Defensor) from the papacy. The Church and the King presented a united front against Lutheranism.When the idea that Henry should set aside Catherine, the logical reason, to Henry, was that his marriage to Catherine violated Levitical law. The Church merely had to recognize Gods obvious disfavor and issue a new dispensation nullifying the earlier dispensation that allowed the marriage. Easy.The issue was that the papacy was not in a position to support Henrys wishes. Catherines nephew, Emperor Charles V, and the papacy were having their own disagreements. With imperial troops in Rome, even the Popes personal safety was threatened. Charles had an opinion on Aunt Catherines premarital purity and was not shy in supporting his point with force. This was 1527.Near contemporary painting of Anne Boleyn at Hever Castle, c. 1550. Source: The Tudor Travel GuideBy 1532, Henry was not getting any younger. While a young Anne Boleyn was an agreeable replacement bride, the Church would not nullify Catherine or their earlier decision. Henry tried to play by the Church rules, with heavy reliance on his trusted advisor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, but even the Cardinal could not get the annulment passed, hastening Wolseys fall from favor.Henry was the protector of England, but he could not protect it because a priest in Italy could not understand the stakes. When it was suggested that the King take matters into his own hands for the good of the kingdom, he agreed.The Act of SupremacyProtestant Martyr Anne Askew, by Hans Eworth, 1560. Source: Artuk.orgThe Act of Supremacy (1534) made the king the head of the Church of England and severed all ties with the Church of Rome. This was followed by the Treasons Act, making anyone who would not pledge support to the Act of Supremacy (and Henrys divorce from Catherine and remarriage to Anne) a traitor worthy of death. The most prominent conviction under this Act was that of Sir Thomas More.These acts did not change English religion, just politics. The king and not the pope was the head of the church, and all church property was accordingly redistributed, making a few rather wealthy and upsetting quite a few others. Wolseys successor, Thomas Cromwell, served as a scapegoat for the unpleasantness and followed More to the gallows. In ecclesiastical practices, the Church of England changed very little from the Church of Rome.Thomas Cromwell, by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1532-33. Source: Frick CollectionReligious reformers in England, hoping to find safety, were disappointed. Over 60 people were condemned to death for Protestantism or heresy under Henry VIII between 1530 and the end of his reign in 1547.Henrys last wife (number six for those keeping count), Catherine Parr, expressed Protestant ideas at court, where she risked running afoul of her husband. Henrys heresy hunters even secured an arrest warrant for her, but it was reversed by the king the moment it was served. Catherine wisely corrected her course and became a source of relative calm in the last years of Henrys reign.Is the Future Catholic or Protestant?The Execution of Lady Jane Grey, by Paul Delaroche, 1833. Source: National GalleryIt was some time and many lives before Protestantism was safe in England. Edward VI, the long-sought-after son of Henry VIII with his third wife Jane Seymour, succeeded in 1547, at the age of nine. It was Edwards advisors who brought Protestantism into England, clearing out the last vestiges of Catholicism that Henry had held onto. The young king, however, fell terminally ill at 16.This encouraged the Protestant leaders in power, fearful of a return to Rome, to circumvent Edwards successor, Princess Mary, the only surviving and very Catholic child of Catherine of Aragon. This coup-dtat, promoting a royal cousin, the reluctant Lady Jane Grey, was such a hijacking of the state that even English moderates threw their support behind the woman later known as Bloody Mary. Jane was an uncrowned queen for nine days before happily handing over power. She was sent to the executioner to prevent her from later becoming a Protestant phoenix rising in another revolt. She was just 17.Elizabeth I: The Protestant QueenMary Tudor, by Anthonis Mor, 1554, Source: Museo Del PradoMarys reign lasted four years. In that time, she executed over 200 Protestants, earning her that sanguinary moniker. When she died, she was succeeded in 1558 by her half-sister, Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn.Elizabeth was an outed Protestant upon her coronation. She admirably stated she would not build windows into mens souls so long as they remained loyal to her. Unfortunately, numerous plots to overthrow or simply assassinate her by parties promoting Catholicism made those who subscribed to the religion of Rome less and less free to practice, and the English government more and more hostile to popery during Elizabeths 45-year reign. Elizabeth cemented Protestantism in England because, like Luther, she survived.While few reformations of the 16th century could have survived without secular support. Motivations for that support were often more political than religious. Henry was a devoted Catholic to his end, but intent on securing his kingdoms future. Henrys reformation had little to do with religious ideology and everything to do with authority. To him, the suggestion that he was a Protestant would get the suggester sent to the gallows.

Johnny Cash lived in constant tension between light and darkness, faith and addiction, fame and despair. From cotton fields in Arkansas to prison stages and sold-out arenas, he built a life full of contradictions that became the very heart of his music. Even after his death, his voice continues to inspire new generations.From Cotton Fields to First SongsJohnny Cash photographed in front of his childhood home. Source: Johnny Cash Heritage Festival.Born February 26, 1932, in the midst of the Great Depression, John R. Cash grew up in a struggling farm family. Known as J.R. to his loved ones, Cash had six siblings. When he was three, his parents, Ray and Carrie, moved their children to Dyess, Arkansas, to take advantage of a New Deal program that offered families farmland. There, Cash lived out his childhood in a five-room home, farming 20 acres of mostly cotton alongside his family.Photograph of Johnny Cash. Source: TV Insider.Their existence was tough, and Cash found respite in music. His mother was a fan of folk and gospel music and shared that love with her children. J.R. began writing songs at the age of twelve. His mother recognized how much he loved music and scrimped and saved so that he could take voice lessons. However, after just a few lessons, his teacher told him to stop taking lessons, as his natural voice was too beautiful to deviate from.The Tragedy That Haunted Johnny Cash ForeverJohnnys older brother, Jack D. Cash. Source: Johnny Cash Official Site.Of his six siblings, J.R. was especially close to his brother Jack, who was just two years his senior. One morning in May 1944, 14-year-old Jack decided to go to work at the local high school woodshop rather than go fishing with his younger brother, who begged him to come along. Jack declined, focusing on the three dollars he could bring in to help the family. A few hours later, J.R. was startled when his fathers car pulled up to the fishing hole, Ray yelling at him to get in. Jack had been grievously injured in an accident in the wood shop.Jack Cash was killed by a 1950s Dewalt radial arm model saw (pictured above), though the blade guard had been removed. Source: Fine Woodworking.Jack had been attempting to cut a board using a table saw on which the guard had been removed. The blade cut Jack from stomach to groin. He was rushed to the hospital and underwent surgery, but the surgeon instructed the family not to get too much hope. Jack persisted in the hospital for a week before succumbing to his injuries.J.R. struggled extensively with Jacks death for the rest of his life. His father, under the influence of alcohol, once remarked, Too bad it wasnt you instead of Jack. Jacks ambitions of becoming a minister and his final visions of heaven deeply influenced Cashs later songwriting.Early Careers and the Beginnings of a Country LegendSeveral country music artists are known for serving in the military before becoming famous, including Johnny Cash (left). Source: Country Music Family.In 1950, J.R. graduated from high school and left the family farm to seek employment. He worked briefly at an automobile plant in Pontiac, Michigan, before joining the Air Force, where he became known as John R. Cash, as a full first name was required for enlistment. He served for four years, the bulk of which he spent in Landsberg, West Germany, as a radio intercept officer, monitoring Soviet communications.In a bizarre piece of historical trivia, Cash is believed to be the first American to learn of Joseph Stalins death as a result of his position. Cash continued to enjoy music during his time in the Air Force, writing several songs that would later help propel him to fame and performing with fellow service members at bars.Luther Perkins, Johnny Cash, and Marshall Grant, later known as Johnny Cash and the Tennessee Two. Source: ChegosCash was discharged in 1954 and settled in Memphis, Tennessee. He began working as an appliance salesman, but he continued to perform in his free time. He teamed up with two mechanics, Luther Perkins, who played the electric guitar, and Marshall Grant, who played the upright bass. They became fast friends and sang mostly gospel music, performing at church and on local radio.Johnny Cashs First Marriage and Public ScrutinyVivian Loberto & Johnny Cash. Source: My Darling Vivian via Texas StandardAfter his Air Force stint, Cash married Vivian Liberto, a young woman he had met during his military training in Texas before deployment. The two had four daughtersRosanne, Kathy, Cindy, and Tarabornbut their marriage was troubled.During the tumultuous 60s, Cash and Vivian were attacked for Vivians appearance, as she had a dark complexion. The Ku Klux Klan and media entities accused them of an illegal interracial marriage, labeling Vivian Black. (Her daughters later confirmed in 2021 that she did have a formerly enslaved ancestor).To his wifes chagrin, Cash seemed to inflame the situation by listing the whites only schools Vivian had attended and explaining her Italian heritage rather than ignoring the attacks. The Cashes ultimately sued certain parties for libel. The stress of media attention, along with affection from another woman, June Carter, did nothing to help the couples marriage. They divorced in 1966.The Daring Gamble That Launched Johnny CashCash launched his musical career at Sun Records. Source: Jeremy A photo via North Carolina Public RadioIn 1954, Cash, Perkins, and Grant visited Sun Records in Memphis and asked for a blind audition. They sang an array of gospel songs for producer Sam Phillips, who told them to go home and sin, then come back with a song I can sell. Cash and his crew returned with more material, including some he had written in Germany, and managed to win Phillips over.Their first recordings, Hey Porter and Cry Cry Cry, were released in 1955 and were moderately successful. The next album, Folsom Prison Blues, made the country top 5, and the subsequent release, I Walk the Line, reached number 1 on the country charts and entered the pop top 20. Johnny Cash and the Tennessee Two became the first to release a long-playing album on the Sun label. In 1958, the group left Sun Records to sign with Columbia.The Highwaymena collaboration of Waylon Jennings, Johnny Cash, Willie Nelson, and Kris Kristoffersonwas a country supergroup that convened in the 80s. Source: Jim McGuire Photo via PBS.From there, Cashs success continued for decades. He charted at least two hit singles a year for 33 years and collaborated with artists across genres, including U2, Bob Dylan, Waylon Jennings, Willie Nelson, and Kris Kristofferson. Known as the Man in Black, he was famous for his solid black outfits and consistent greeting to concertgoers: Hello, Im Johnny Cash.In 1980, he became the youngest living person to be inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame. He would also be inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame 12 days later. He released his final studio album in November 2002, less than a year before his death.Johnny Cash Becomes an Unlikely Movie StarCash played Frank James in The Last Days of Frank and Jesse James. Source: FilmpediaCash wasnt just famous in the music industry; he starred on the silver screen as well. Some of his most popular films included A Gunfight, alongside Kirk Douglas (1971), and The Last Days of Frank and Jesse James (1986). He appeared in TV shows such as Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, The Muppet Show, and The Simpsons, appealing to a wide variety of audiences. In addition, he hosted a prime-time variety show, The Johnny Cash Show, which often featured the work of new songwriters.Johnny Cashs undated to-do list, which sold for $6,250 at auction in 2010. Source: Cole SchaeferBeyond the stage and screen, Cash also wrote, penning two autobiographies and a biblical fiction novel about the Apostle Paul titled Man in White.Addiction, Arrests, and the Edge of DeathA Cash mug shot from 1965. Source: The Adventures of AletaThough Cash had many successes, they were accompanied by personal struggles. Addiction played an almost constant role in Cashs life, with pills, alcohol, and amphetamines contributing to his divorce, health troubles, and poor decisions. He was arrested multiple times and was found on the brink of death in 1967 after a drug binge. At one point, the 62 Cash was down to 150 pounds due to his drug use, with a haggard and skeletal appearance. Many thought his career, and perhaps even his life, was over.Johnny and June. Source: MirrorPix via Town and Country.However, Cash survived with help and support from an old friend, former touring partner, and future wife, June Carter. June encouraged him to refocus on his Christian faith and values and helped him attain treatment multiple times. The two were married in 1968 and would remain so until Junes death in 2003. A talented musician in her own right, Carter wrote Cashs hit Ring of Fire with Merle Kilgore. Carter and Cash had one son, John Carter Cash, born in 1970.When Johnny Cash Sang for Prison InmatesJohnny Cash shakes hands with an inmate at one of his prison concerts. Source: Jim Marshall Photo via the Grammy Museum.After watching a documentary about Californias Folsom Prison while stationed in Germany, Cash wrote his iconic Folsom Prison Blues. Inmates from all over loved the song and wrote to Cash, asking him to come play for them. His first prison show was at Huntsville State Prison in Texas in 1957.He often cited prisoners as his most enthusiastic audiences and went on to record several live albums behind bars, including the legendary Folsom and San Quentin concerts.How Johnny Cashs Legacy Lives On in SongPortrait of Johnny Cash later in life. Source: A Trip Down Memory Lane.As his life progressed, Cashs addiction challenges became more well-managed, and he settled into a relaxed life with June by his side. However, his career was far from over. In the early 90s, Cash reconnected with Rick Rubin, a former Columbia executive and producer who founded the American Recordings label.The two collaborated for Cashs final series of albums, beginning in 1994 and concluding just before Cashs death. Some of the songs on the American Recordings albums were written by Cash, and others were covers, such as his haunting rendition of Nine Inch Nails Hurt, which won multiple Grammy, MTV, and CMA accolades.Cashs final album in the American Recordings Series, American VI: Aint No Grave, features a smiling portrait of young J.R. on the cover. Source: Texing PREST.Cash passed away from complications of diabetes in September 2003, just months after Junes death. Afterward, his American Recordings series continued with posthumous releases, includingMy Mothers Hymn Book, American V: A Hundred Highways, American VI: Aint No Grave, andOut Among the Stars.Photograph of Johnny Cash later in life. Source: Marty Stuart Photo.J.R. Cash came from hardscrabble beginnings to build a legendary life. He never denied his failings and remained fiercely dedicated to his beliefs. With a career spanning decades, his voice and influence continue to echo through American music.

The main story in REPLACED is an incredibly immersive experience as Warren fights his way back to the heart of Phoenix-City. Alongside plenty of moody, scenic backdrops, the game also features a marvelously-crafted soundtrack that you can collect track by track from one zone to the next.

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