The country of Georgia is located in the southern Caucasus where Europe meets Asia. The region has often found itself at the crossroads of empires. After unification in the 11th century CE, the kingdom of Georgia experienced a Golden Age in the 12th century. Mongol invasion and infighting within the Bagrationi dynasty forced separate Georgian kingdoms to submit to Ottoman and Safavid Persian rule. Georgia regained its independence in 1991 after two centuries of Russian and Soviet control, but the country continues to face internal instability and external threats.Whats in a Name?Flag of Georgia at Akhaltsikhe Castle. Photographed by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenThe country of Georgia is understandably confused with the state of Georgia in the United States. In the Georgian language, the country is called Sakartvelo, and the people are known as Kartvelians. Sakartvelo simply means the land of the Kartvelians, while the demonym Kartvelian derives from Kartli, a historical name for the region.The English name Georgia is usually associated with St. George, the countrys patron saint. There is a long history of the veneration of St. George, and the flag of independent Georgia contains five St. Georges crosses. However, most scholars believe that the name originally came from the Persian word gur or wolf, which was transmitted to Russian and other Slavic languages as Gruziya.Georgia in AntiquityThe Colchis Fountain in Kutaisi, photographed in heavy snow by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenThe ancestors of the Kartvelians have lived in the southern Caucasus region since the Neolithic period. Georgia is known as the birthplace of wine, with a history of viticulture dating back at least 8,000 years. The practice of placing crushed vines in clay pots called qvevri and burying them underground for several months to ferment using natural sugars and yeast from the grapes continues to this day.One of the earliest political entities in present-day Georgia is Colchis in western Georgia. Known locally as Egrisi, Colchis was formed in the 13th century BCE following the unification of local tribes. Major Colchian cities included Aia on the site of present-day Kutaisi, and Vani, a site of religious significance where large quantities of golden artifacts have been excavated. By the 6th century BCE, a number of Greek colonies were established in Colchis on the Black Sea Coast, including at Phasis (Poti) and Dioscurias (Sukhumi). Colchis is also famous in Greek mythology as the final destination of Jason and the Argonauts in their quest for the golden fleece.Bust of Pompey the Great, 1st century CE. Source: Louvre Museum, ParisFurther to the east, the kingdom of Iberia (known locally as Kartli) was founded in the late 4th century BCE. Known as Caucasian Iberia to avoid confusion with the Iberian peninsula in southwestern Europe, the kingdom was founded by King Pharvanaz with its capital at Mtskheta. Pharvanazs government was modelled on that of the Persian Empire, which had recently been conquered by Alexander the Great. Pharvanaz himself was a vassal of the Seleucid Empire, one of the successor kingdoms that emerged after Alexanders death.By the beginning of the 1st century BCE, Iberia came under the control of the Kingdom of Armenia. The King of Armenia, Tigranes the Great, was an ally of King Mithridates VI of Pontus, one of the Roman Republics most formidable rivals. During the Mithridatic Wars, the Roman general Pompey the Great invaded Iberia and occupied Mtskheta in 65 BCE.Iberia was close to the frontlines of the conflict between Rome and the Parthian Empire, though the kingdom was usually a close ally of Rome during this period. The Romans also established a presence in western Georgia, where the kingdom of Lazica emerged as the successor to Colchis in the 2nd century CE. During the early empire the principal Roman military settlement in the region was the Gonio-Apsaros Fortress near Batumi.The Arrival of ChristianitySvetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenWhen the Parthian Empire gave way to the Sassanian Empire in Persia in 224 CE, the kingdom of Iberia gravitated towards the Sassanians. In around 284, the Sassanians placed an Iranian nobleman on the Iberian throne as King Mirian III. When the Sassanians were defeated by the Romans at Satala in Armenia in 298, Mirian submitted to the Romans.The Chosroid dynasty founded by Mirian governed Iberia until the 9th century CE. Mirian was a contemporary of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great, and during his reign Iberia officially adopted Christianity as the state religion. The king built a number of churches in his capital of Mtskheta, including Samtavros Convent and the first Svetitskhoveli Cathedral.In 363, Rome was forced to cede Iberia to the Sassanians, who sought to restrict Iberian autonomy. Around a century later, King Vakhtang I Gorgasali of Iberia (447-502) led successful military campaigns to conquer Lazica and Abkhazia. He centralized his power and sought to break away from Persian rule, establishing a strong base at Tbilisi near Mtskheta. When the Persians invaded Iberia, Vakhtang appealed in vain for assistance from the Byzantine Empire. After a protracted struggle, he was defeated and killed in battle in 502.The Sassanians re-established control over Iberia for the next century, and in 580 the kingdom of Iberia was downgraded to a principality. The Byzantines briefly regained hegemony in the region after Emperor Heraclius II defeated the Sassanians in 628, but less than two decades later the Byzantines themselves were expelled by the Arabs, who captured Tbilisi in 645.The Rise of the Bagrationi DynastyBagrati Cathedral, Kutaisi, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenFollowing the Arab conquest, Prince Stephan II of Iberia was forced to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Caliphate. While the region was integrated into the province of Arminiya in 654, it remained on the periphery of the Arab world, and it was not until the 740s that the Emir of Tbilisi was also made governor of Kartli. Tbilisi became a thriving commercial center on the trading route between the Middle East and northern Europe with a predominantly Muslim population.Arab rule in Georgia was frequently challenged by Georgian and Armenian nobles, and in the late 8th century a nobleman named Adarnase Bagrationi established himself as the ruler of the lands of Tao and Klarjeti, a region straddling the present-day Georgian-Turkish border. In 813, the Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun re-established the principality of Kartli and appointed Adarnases son Ashot I to the office.Although the Georgian lands were divided between Ashots sons who founded rival branches of the Bagrationi dynasty, Arab rule was weakening, and in the 880s, the Abbasids restored the kingdoms of Kartli and Armenia in a forlorn effort to maintain control over their rebellious Caucasian vassals. While the Arabs were capable of launching devastating punitive campaigns in Georgia, by the 10th century three centuries of Arab rule were coming to an end.During the second half of the 10th century, David III of Tao-Klarjeti paved the way for the unification of Georgia under his kinsman King Bagrat III, who united the realms of Abkhazia and Kartli in 1008. Bagrat further expanded his realm by conquering the regions of Kakheti and Hereti in eastern Georgia. With Tbilisi remaining in Arab hands for another century, Bagrat ruled his kingdom from Kutaisi, where he built the magnificent Bagrat Cathedral, completed in 1003.The Golden AgeThe Chronicles of Georgia Monument by Zurab Tsereteli in Tbilisi. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenAlthough the Bagrationi kings had received support from the Byzantine Empire in wars against the Arabs, after Bagrat IIIs death in 1014 his successors often had to face down attempts by the Byzantines to expand their frontiers at Georgias expense. The arrival of the Seljuk Turks proved a further complicating factor, and King Bagrat IV of Georgia narrowly avoided capture during a 1064 Seljuk invasion of Georgia.Bagrat naturally sought assistance from the Byzantines, but the Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 left the Seljuks in control of Anatolia and the Georgians completely isolated. A Seljuk raid in 1080 devastated the Georgian countryside, and Bagrats son Giorgi II was compelled to recognize Seljuk ruler Malik Shah as his overlord.Despite these calamities, Georgian fortunes revived during the reign of Giorgis son David IV, who was raised to the throne in 1089 by rebellious nobles. A gifted military leader, David first consolidated power by vanquishing his internal enemies. With the Seljuks facing internal disorder and threatened by the First Crusade (1095-1099), David took advantage and declared independence from the Seljuks.Shota Rustaveli presents his poem Knight in the Panther Skin to King Tamar of Georgia. Painting by Mihly Zichy, 1880s. From the collection of the Telavi History Museum, Georgia. Source: Jimmy ChenBy 1104, David had recaptured Kakheti and Hereti, and he followed up with a series of campaigns which left the Emirate of Tbilisinow a Seljuk vassalcompletely isolated from the rest of the Seljuk lands. His greatest battlefield success came in 1121, when he defeated the Seljuks at Didgori near Tbilisi. The victory allowed David to capture Tbilisi in 1122, transferring his capital from Kutaisi the same year.David had inaugurated a Golden Age in Georgian history and heralded a cultural renaissance by founding the Gelati Academy near Kutaisi and the Ikalto Academy in Kakheti. His achievements in reuniting the country earned him the sobriquet David the Builder. While Davids immediate successors had trouble maintaining his conquests after his death in 1125, his great-granddaughter King Tamar ruled Georgia at the zenith of its power.Tamars second husband David Soslan, an excellent military commander, won brilliant victories over Turkish and Arab armies at Shamkor in 1195 and Basiani in 1202. These victories enabled Tamar to establish a series of vassal states on the southern frontier, and in 1204 she took advantage of the Sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade to establish the Empire of Trebizond on the Black Sea under the Comnenus family.Conquest and PartitionGremi Archangels Complex, capital of Kakheti from 1466 to 1616. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenGeorgias Golden Age came to an unexpected and abrupt end with the arrival of the Mongols in 1220. During the initial clashes against a raiding party led by the fearsome generals Jebe and Subutai, Tamars son Giorgi IV was wounded in battle and died from his injuries two years later. The reign of his sister and successor Rusudan was beset by invasions from the rump Khwarazmian Empire and the return of the Mongols in 1236.As the Mongol Empire split into four parts, Georgia became part of the Ilkhanate centered in Persia.Mongol rule in Georgia lasted less than a century, and in the 1320s King Giorgi V led a series of campaigns to reunify the country. However, infighting between Giorgis descendants and a series of brutal invasions by Tamerlanes armies in the early 1400s led to the disintegration of the kingdom in 1466. The kingdoms of Imereti in the west, Kartli in the center, and Kakheti in the east were ruled by rival branches of the Bagrationi dynasty.The tripartite division of Georgia weakened each of the three kingdoms in the face of pressure from the Ottoman Turks in the southwest and Safavid Persia in the south. Kartli was vassalized by the Safavids in the mid-16th century, followed by Kakheti in the early 17th century. Meanwhile, King Alexander III of Imereti swore loyalty to Tsar Alexei of Russia in 1651 in response to Ottoman encroachments, but the Russians were not yet in a position to intervene in the southern Caucasus, and throughout the 18th century Imereti faced considerable internal disorder.Russian RuleEquestrian monument to King Erekle II, Telavi. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenIn 1736, the Safavid rulers of Persia were deposed by Nader Shah, a great conqueror who expanded his realm to encompass Georgia in the west to Afghanistan in the east. In 1744, Nader installed King Teimuraz II of Kakheti as King of Kartli, and the crown of Kakheti passed to Teimurazs son Erekle II. Both were crowned at Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta on October 1, 1745 and were allowed to retain their Christian faith. When Nader was assassinated in 1747, Kartli and Kakheti regained their independence.Upon Teimurazs death in 1762, Erekle inherited a united kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti. He introduced a series of reforms to modernize his kingdom along European lines and strengthened diplomatic relations with the Russian Empire. Erekle remained anxious of a Persian invasion, and following the 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk, the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti became a Russian protectorate. Despite the agreement, Russian forces did not come to Erekles aid when the Qajar sultanate of Iran sacked Tbilisi in 1795. Russia annexed Kartli-Kakheti outright in 1801 after the death of King Giorgi XII. The kingdom of Imereti was formally annexed in 1810. Iran formally recognized Russian control of Georgia with the signing of the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813.Alexander Pushkin Statue, Pushkin Park, Tbilisi. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenFollowing Georgias incorporation into the Russian Empire, Tbilisi became the capital of the viceroyalty of the Caucasus. The city once again became a thriving commercial center with a large Armenian community that accounted for over 70% of the citys population. Georgia also attracted a large number of Russian intellectuals and writers. Alexander Griboyedov married the Georgian princess Nino Chavchavadze, and after Griboyedov was murdered on a diplomatic mission in Tehran in 1829 his body was brought back to Tbilisi for burial. Alexander Pushkin visited Tbilisi in the same year and wrote several poems about Georgia, while a brief visit to Georgia in 1837 inspired Mikhail Lermontovs creativity as a poet and a landscape painter.Under the leadership of viceroys Alexei Ermolov, Ivan Paskevich, and Mikhail Vorontsov, all veterans of the 1812 campaign against Napoleon, Russian armies led brutal campaigns to subdue the Circassians and the Chechens in the northern Caucasus. Over time, small Georgian principalities which remained nominally independent were annexed to Russian Georgia. Following Russias victory over the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, the region of Ajara on the Black Sea was reincorporated into Georgia.While Russian rule enabled the expansion of Georgian territory, a Georgian nationalist movement emerged in the 1860s led by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze. Like the rest of the Russian Empire, Georgia experienced social and economic change in the last decades of the 19th century with the introduction of an industrial capitalist economy. By the early 1900s, Chavchavadzes brand of liberal nationalism was eclipsed by the Marxist Social Democratic Party. Following Chavchavadzes assassination in 1907, the moderate Menshevik wing of the Social Democrats dominated Georgian politics.Soviet GeorgiaPhotograph of Noe Jordania, 1920. Source: National Library of GeorgiaWhen the Russian Empire collapsed in the February Revolution of 1917, the Georgian Menshevik Nikolai Chkeidze became chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. After the Bolshevik Revolution, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan formed the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic in April 1918. With the region threatened by German and Ottoman forces in World War I, the federation collapsed and the Democratic Republic of Georgia was proclaimed on May 26, 1918.The Menshevik government led by Noe Jordania sought to prevent the country being taken over by the Bolsheviks, and in May 1920 Russia and Georgia signed an agreement recognizing Georgian independence. However, this did not prevent the Soviet invasion of Georgia in February 1921 that overthrew Jordanias government.Statue of Joseph Stalin outside the Stalin Museum in Gori. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenThe Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic became a constituent of the Soviet Union, formed in 1922. Several Georgians achieved prominence in the Soviet leadership, most notably Joseph Stalin, who emerged as de facto leader in the years following Lenins death in 1924. Stalin left his ally and compatriot Sergo Ordzhonikidze in charge of Caucasian affairs before bringing him to Moscow to manage economic and industrialization policy. When Ordzhonikidze protested against Stalins heavy-handed methods, he was purged in 1937. Between 1938 and 1946 Lavrentiy Beria served as the head of the NKVD, the notorious secret police that later became the KGB.During the Second World War, the Germans launched an offensive in the south to take control of the Caucasus oil fields in 1942. While the offensive never reached Georgian territory, over 700,000 Georgians served in the Red Army, and around half this number lost their lives.In the years following Stalins death in 1953, Georgian students staged a major protest against Nikita Khrushchevs policy of de-Stalinization in 1956 after the new Soviet leader made disparaging remarks about Georgians. The ensuing clashes resulted in over 100 protestors losing their lives. During the Brezhnev era, the Georgian economy was characterized by a thriving black market and blatant corruption. Eduard Shevardnadze cracked down on corruption during his tenure as First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party between 1972 and 1985, when he went to Moscow to serve as Mikhail Gorbachevs foreign minister.Independent GeorgiaLiberty Square in Tbilisi. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenThe 1980s saw the rise of a Georgian nationalist movement led by Merab Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia. Gorbachevs reforms encouraged the democratization of the Soviet system, and in October 1990 Gamsakhurdia was elected head of state. He declared independence from the Soviet Union in April 1991 but was removed in a coup in December 1991 by opponents who claimed that he was acting despotically.The early 1990s witnessed ethnic conflicts in Abkhazia and South Ossetia as the government in Tbilisi struggled to exert its authority over these autonomous republics. In 1993, Eduard Shevardnadze became head of state and remained in office until 2003, when he was overthrown in the Rose Revolution. Mikheil Saakashvili, who was elected president in 2004, was an energetic pro-European reformer who sought to crack down on corruption. His desire to establish central control over South Ossetia and Abkhazia led to the Russo-Georgian War of August 2008.Since 2012, Georgian politics has been dominated by the Georgian Dream movement, founded by billionaire businessman Bidzina Ivanishvili. Although Ivanishvili only served as prime minister for a year between 2012 and 2013, he continues to be seen as an influential political figure. With support of Saakashvilis United National Movement, Georgian Dream pursued closer integration with the European Union from 2013 onwards, and formally submitted its membership application in February 2022 after Russias invasion of Ukraine.Georgia was granted candidate status by the EU in December 2023, but the adoption of a controversial foreign agents law in May 2024 led to protests and invited criticism from the European Union. Georgian Dreams victory in October 2024 parliamentary elections was disputed by opposition parties, and the governments announcement on November 28, 2024 to suspend EU accession negotiations fueled high-profile protests throughout the country continuing into 2025.

The history of famous dictators is filled with bizarre claims and personal myths. From Idi Amin and Kim Jong Il to Vladimir Putin, Yahya Jammeh, and Papa Doc Duvalier, famous dictators have used the power of propaganda to solidify their power and authority. Some have portrayed themselves as mythical, divine, or invincible, while others have posed as cultural pioneers, miracle healers, and champions of nature. Though their claims and actions were patently absurd, in each instance, they played a crucial role in manipulating public perception and maintaining political control. Beneath the spectacle, more often than not, such claims served to conceal the grim reality of political repression and human suffering of those subjected to their rule.1. Idi Amin: The Last King of ScotlandIdi Amin in power. Source: Adam Smith InstituteIdi Amin Dada was born in Kampala, Uganda Protectorate, in 1928. He reportedly worked odd jobs, as a goat farmer and hotel doorman, before enlisting in the Kings African Rifles (KAR)the British Colonial Army in East Africa. Initially serving as a cook, he transferred to the infantry and rose to the rank of warrant officer.After Uganda gained independence in 1962, Amin remained in the Army and continued his rapid ascent until he became commander of the armed forces in 1970. In 1971, fearing arrest for embezzling military funds, Amin staged a coup against Ugandan President Milton Obote. One week later, he declared himself President of Uganda.As president, he bestowed upon himself the official title: His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada, VC, DSO, MC, Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Sea, and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular.Idi Amin at the United Nations, 1975. Source: Library of CongressA physical colossus standing 6 ft 4 inches tall, Amin was a former Ugandan light heavyweight boxing champion (1951-1960). He was charismatic and highly entertaining but also deeply paranoid, impulsive, unpredictable, and utterly ruthless. His presidency was marked by extreme repression, economic mismanagement, and mass killings. An estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people were murdered and, in 1972, over 50,000 Asians were expelledpractically overnightcrippling the Ugandan economy in the process.Amins delusions of grandeur were impressive. Among his many bizarre claimssuch as controlling the weather and winning fictional military victorieshis most infamous was his declaration that he was the uncrowned King of Scotland.Obsessed with imperial power and the British monarchy, Amin admired the military traditions of the KAR and styled himself after colonial officers long after Ugandas independence. However, his relationship with Britain quickly soured after he declared himself president. When Britain cut diplomatic ties, Amin retaliated with trademark eccentricity by proclaiming himself the rightful ruler of Scotland.2. Kim Jong Il: Invented the HamburgerPosthumous portrait of Supreme Leader of the Democratic Peoples Republic of North Korea (DPRK), Kim Jong Il. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAccording to state propaganda, Kim Jong Il was born in 1942 in a log cabin on Mount Paekdu, North Koreas most sacred mountain. His birth was marked by a shining star in the sky, followed by a super bright rainbow. Soviet records tell a different story: Yuri Irsenovich Kim was born in 1941 in Vyatskoye, a small fishing village in Siberia.Kim rose to power in 1994 after the death of his father, Kim Il Sung, founder, supreme leader, and eternal president of North Korea. He inherited the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK) in a time of deep economic crisis, exacerbated by the collapse of the USSR in 1991. His rule (1994-2011) was characterized by extreme repression and a ruthless, totalitarian style.For 17 years, Kim ruled the secretive DPRK, prioritizing the military and covertly advancing its nuclear weapons program. His regime was widely regarded as one of the most oppressive in the world, responsible for severe human rights abuses and crimes against humanity.Despite his reputation and deeds, Kim was a reclusive figure. Yet, like his father, he lived at the center of an elaborate cult of personality that glorified his alleged personal talents and achievements. A devoted fan of American cinema, he amassed a collection of over 20,000 DVDs and tapes, was an avid basketball fan, and had a penchant for staging musicals.Among his many dubious contributions, in 2000, Kim claimed to invent the Gogigyeopbbang (Double Breaded Meat). The meal was introduced as a national dish, despite its uncanny resemblance to an American hamburger. Initial fanfare and the best efforts of the regime aside (a dedicated factory was even built for its production), the dish ultimately failed to become a widespread staple of North Korean cuisine.3. Yahya Jammeh: Miracle HealerH.E. Alhaji Dr. Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh, President of the Republic of The Gambia, with President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama at the Metropolitan Museum in New York, 2009. Source: Wikimedia CommonsYahya Abdul-Aziz Jemus Junkung Jammeh was born in Kanilai on the western coast of the Gambia in 1965. He served in the Gambian National Gendarmerie (1984-1989) before being commissioned as an officer in the Gambian National Army, as commander of the Military Police (1992-1994). He led a coup detat against the government of Sir Dawda Jawara in 1994, and ruled by decree for two years, before being elected president in 1996.All in all, Yahya Jammeh ruled unopposed over the Gambia for 22 years with an iron fist. He has been accused of many crimes, from widespread arbitrary detentions to extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances.However, things got truly bizarre in January 2007 when he claimed that he had received a mandate from god to create a herbal cure for HIV and AIDS from seven herbs found in the Quran. He created the Presidential Alternative Treatment Program (PATP) to distribute his fraudulent cure.Jammeh routinely performed public healing sessions, which were broadcast on state media and represented as fact. He made his patients strip naked and lie down before uttering words of prayer and massaging their bodies with a mysterious green paste. Then, twice per day, patients drank his herbal PATP cure. Jammeh refused to say what was in it but did disclose that the cure only worked on Mondays and Thursdays.Despite having no medical training, and his cure being condemned by the international health community as ineffective and dishonest, President Jammehs program operated in the Gambia between 2007 and 2016, when he was finally voted out of power and fled the country.4. Vladimir Putin: Taught Birds How to FlyAn endangered crane and President Vladimir Putin in a motorized hang glider, northern Siberia, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsVladimir Putin was born in 1952 in the Soviet city of Leningrad. In 1975, he joined the KGB (Soviet intelligence services). He was posted to Dresden, East Germany in 1985 before returning to Leningrad in 1990, just before the Soviet Union collapsed. He became active in politics under his mentor, Anatoly Sobchak, who became the first elected mayor of St. Petersburg in 1991.His political assent was swift. By 1998, he had risen to become head of the FSB, the successor to the KGB. Emerging from near-obscurity, his rise was meteoric: appointed prime minister by Boris Yeltsin in 1999, he became president of the Russian Federation in 2000. He has remained in power ever since.Despite his decades in power, much of Putins life is shrouded in secrecy. His ex-wife, Lyudmila Putina (1983-2013), largely stayed out of the public eye. Little is known about his private affairs, save that he allegedly retains close ties with former KGB colleagues. While several accounts of his life exist in English, the only major Russian language publication is his autobiography, Ot pervogo litsa (First Person), which appeared in 2000.Putin in the KGB, 1980. Source: The KremlinA highly secretive, paranoid, and intensely image-conscious man, Putin has carefully shaped his public persona, above all crafting the image of a strongman at the helm of Mother Russia. He is frequently photographed engaging in rugged, manly pursuitsriding horses, fishing, and hunting (usually shirtless). He holds a black belt in Judo, which he has practiced since childhood, and in later life, has been known to score impressive (staged) goals in ice hockey exhibition matches (Hill & Gaddy, 2015).Yet, his public image also includes a softer side. Putin has been pictured swimming with dolphins and cuddling puppies. One of his most bizarre nature-based stunts came in 2012 when he donned a white jumpsuit and black goggles to assist captive-bred Siberian white cranes on their migration route to India. Almost driven to extinction by hunters, Putin took to the skies in a motorized hang glider to guide the young cranes on their way. Out of the six involved in the experiment, only a few followed his leadPutin blamed strong winds.5. Papa Doc Duvalier: an Immaterial BeingPresident Franois Papa Doc Duvalier outside the Presidential Palace, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, 1967. Source: Miami HeraldFranois Papa Doc Duvalier was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, in 1907. As a young man, he was deeply influenced by the violence and racism of the US occupation of Haiti (1915-1934) and the surge of Black nationalism that it inspired. He pursued a medical degree at the University of Haiti (1934), later studying Public Health in the United States. Upon returning to Haiti, he participated in campaigns to eradicate tropical diseases across the country.Duvaliers political ascent began in 1946 when he was appointed director general of the National Public Health Service. A decade later, he launched his bid for the presidency. In 1957, he decisively defeated Louis Djoie, a wealthy sugar planter of French descent, in a landslide victory.An astute politician, Duvalier sought to dismantle the power of Haitis mulatto elitethe mixed-race ruling classand elevate the poor black majority, who had long been excluded from political life. Recognizing the deep cultural and spiritual significance of Vodou and the influence of its various forms over the Haitian population, he integrated its symbolism into his persona. Haitian Vodou, historically intertwined with anti-colonialism and black Haitian nationalism, became a crucial tool in his consolidation of power.Papa Doc Duvalier and Joel Barromi (Israeli delegate to Haiti), and Haitian generals, 1963. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAccordingly, Duvalier modeled his cult of personality on Baron Samedi, the powerful Vodou spirit (Lwa) of the dead. Shortly after his election, he declared himself to be an immaterial being. Deliberately styling himself in the black suit, straight black tie, and bowler hat, Papa Doc even deepened his voice to match the nasal tone of Baron Samedi.Baron Samedi, the tuxedo-clad living corpse, is both the guardian of the dead and healer of the living, possessing the power to decide who lives and who diesan image that suited Duvaliers politics down to the ground. By merging Vodou mysticism with ruthless authoritarian rule, he created an aura of fear and divine authority that helped him maintain an iron grip over Haiti for the duration of his presidency.From 1957 until he died in 1971, Duvalier operated as one of the most brutal dictators in the countrys history. In 1964, he declared himself president for life. His paramilitary force, the Tonton Macoute, carried out kidnappings, torture, and mass executions, silencing opposition and terrorizing the population. Under Duvaliers rule, tens of thousands were killed, and Haiti was plunged into a reign of fear and terror that would shape the history of the island for decades to come.

The Black Death, also known as the Bubonic Plague, ravaged Europe between 1346 and 1352, decimating almost half of the continents population. This pestilence, which we now know was carried by fleas, spread like wildfire across Europe in the mid-14th century. However, there were several resurgences of this disease in the centuries that followed. This article will look specifically at the London Plague of 1563 and conclude whether the Black Death did indeed happen during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.The Black Death in 14th Century EuropeAn Early Modern plague doctor, not too dissimilar to the doctors in Elizabethan England, by Paul Frst, c. 1656. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen the bubonic plague (Yersinia Pestis) ravaged Europe in the mid-14th century, most people thought that the world was going to end. A biblical disease, the plague had claimed thousands of lives after it arrived at the European port of Kaffa in 1346 from trading ships. It was through these trading ships that the plague spread.People began to flee from the port cities due to the plague, but many of the people fleeing had already become infected. Quarantinesnot too dissimilar to those seen during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020did help a little, but it was generally too little too late. As the infected fled, they passed on the disease to non-infected people, and as a result, entire communities were just about wiped out.In the end, the plague passed by the mid-1350s, but the economy had taken a hammering, and the world was changed forever. Popular revolts such as the Jacquerie in France and the Peasants Revolt in England can be traced back to economic hardships suffered as a result of the Black Death, but this did not mean that plague was never going to return.The plague had to be managed somehow. Quarantining was the primary way in which it was managed, but other alternatives had yet to be discovered, as hygiene practiced during the Middle Ages was notoriously poor.Unfortunately, by the time Elizabeth I came to the English throne in 1558, this had not yet been discovered. It would be four years into the Virgin Queens reign that a bout of plague would erupt again, this time much closer to homethe Great Plague of London in 1563-64.16th-Century LondonMap of 16th-century London, c. 1570-1605. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSome background context needs to be provided to establish how the plague spread so quickly throughout London.Much as it is now, London was a compact city. It was built very close to the banks of the River Thames, and had extended gradually as the demand for housing increased, and more and more people moved to the capital in a bid to improve their life and their livelihood, or simply to find work in the citys many inns, trading vessels or even, if they were lucky, the queens household.London itself, though, was a stinking cesspit in the 16th century. Poor hygiene practices, such as no proper sewage systems, meant that people threw their waste out of windows, which covered the street below. The streets, particularly in the poorer areas of the city, were coated in a mixture of human and animal excrement, and germs and disease were rife.To add to the calamity, Queen Elizabeth I was only five years into her reign and had to deal with an ever-expanding population. More and more people moving into an already crowded capital city meant that the spread of disease was inevitable.However, the city had not had a plague outbreak for some twelve years, so many citizens were unconcerned about another bout of plague or a new disease epidemic. When news reached London that plague had erupted in the East Midlands, notably the cities of Derby and Leicester, many remained unconcerned.The Arrival of the Plague Into LondonElizabeth I, c. 1600. Source: Art UKUnsurprisingly, it was during the summer that the plague began to appear in London in 1563. The stifling heat of the city combined with the shocking sanitary conditions meant that it was a hotbed for infectious diseaseso when the first cases of plague were recorded in June 1563, it was not long before it began to spread.Where this plague came from is unclear. As mentioned earlier, outbreaks in Derby and Leicester in the Midlands could well have been the cause, particularly with merchants travelling down to London, but it could also have come from anywhere across the continent, especially if their vessel docked in the River Thames and it began to spread that way.Responses to the Elizabethan PlagueThe White Tower at the Tower of London. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe response was fairly mixed from Elizabeth and her government and can be seen as a combination of learning from history and attempting to curb the spread.The bills of mortality for 1563 show that the week commencing on June 12 saw 17 plague deaths, so this is generally considered the start of the plague. The deaths were enough to spur the authorities into action, suggesting that they had learned from previous outbreaks. Nobody wanted a repeat of the 14th century Black Death.Elizabeth herself headed the plague response, communicating orders to her people through the Churchthe majority of Londoners were regular churchgoers at the time, so this was the quickest way to spread news in the city.Bring Out Your Dead, A street during the Great Plague in London, 1665, with a death cart and mourners. Source: Wellcome CollectionChurchwardens were instructed to tell any sick parishioners to stay home until they were better for fear of spreading the disease and not to come to the church until a few weeks after they felt better.Again, this seems to be a development in plague responsethe idea that a few weeks after they have recovered would make them sufficiently better, not as soon as the symptoms had disappeared.Other local government responses involved a cull of all stray cats and dogsagain, by the Elizabethan Era, it was realized that the plague was spread through animals, though many people were not aware that it was by fleas on these animals. Nevertheless, the culling of stray cats and dogs likely prevented the plague from spreading as far as it could have done. These stray animals were also under strict orders to be buried, which again likely stopped the spread from rotten animal corpses.The houses of known infected victims were painted with a blue cross so that people knew to stay away from them and so that victims were less inclined to leave their homes for fear of being discovered by a neighbor. This, again, was likely a positive measure and a good response from the government.The Height of the EpidemicWindsor Castle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMany contemporaries at the time still believed the theories that had been around during the 14th-century pandemic, citing miasma or bad air as being the primary cause of the plague. This meant that many people lit bonfires to clear the air, when in reality, they were simply adding to the stifling heat of the city in the middle of the summer and not helping the situation.However, this initiative was also picked up by Elizabeths government, who quickly issued a decree that all households should light bonfires at seven in the evening to clear the air.The facts are that this did nothing, and the plague continued to spread. In July, deaths were recorded at 131 for the week ending July 3, and as the summer wore on, they continued to increase even furtherhundreds per week were being recorded by the end of July.Some of the hardest hit areas of London were sadly the most deprived areas, such as Seacoal Lane and Saint Poulkars Parish, which was the worst affected parish. This is because Saint Poulkars had lots of fruit merchants coming to trade in the area, and lots of fruit attracted lots of rats, which in turn attracted lots of fleas, and these transferred to people, infecting hundreds in the area.Even Elizabeth and her court had begun to seriously worry that they might be affected as the plague raged on throughout the streets of London.A view of London as it appeared in the 16th century, by Nathaniel Whittock, 1849. Source: PicrylIn late August, reports of 1,000 Londoners per week dying of the plague, the peak of the epidemic, and London was experiencing a widespread plague-induced panic and frenzy. It was around this time that Elizabeth ordered the removal of Lady Katherine Grey (sister of Lady Jane Grey) and her husband, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, from the Tower of London for fear that they would become infected with the plague and bring it into the Elizabethan court.Elizabeth and her Royal Council also made the conscious decision to avoid the City of London entirely, and Elizabeth even moved the Royal Court to Windsor to escape the plague-ridden capital.To make sure that nobody followed them to Windsor, Elizabeth had a gallows erected in the town square to serve as a reminder of what would happen to people who followed the royal entourage out of London.It is also evident from Elizabeths own writings that she was afraid that she might catch the plague, as she is recorded writing to Thomas Young, the Archbishop of York, in either August or September 1563 saying that she recommended universal prayer and fasting for quickening up the process of curing the plague in her realm.The Decline of the PlagueThe Dance of Death, from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. Source: The MET, New YorkAfter the plague reached its peak number of deaths in late September 1563, with 1,828 deaths in one week, Elizabeth and her government made the decision on September 30 that all houses with infected members must be boarded up, and nobody was allowed to leave for 40 days.Drastic as it was, this response seems to have worked almost immediately, with plague deaths dropping 30% in the space of just one week.Over the remaining autumn months and into the winter, the plague deaths began to steadily decrease. This was largely due to the cold weather forcing the rats out of the city to find shelter in the countryside or simply unable to survive the elements and perishing along with their fleas, which no longer had a live host to infect.By late January 1564, the plague had all but disappeared from London, and normal service was resumed.The Plague Under Elizabeth I: In ConclusionElizabeth I, by William Sonmans, c. 1670. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSo, did the Black Death happen during Queen Elizabeths reign? The answer is both yes and no.Yes, because Yersinia Pestis did, in fact, occur in London during Elizabeth Is reign, and thousands of Londoners lost their lives in the plague of 1563-64.However, the Black Death primarily refers to the 14th-century pandemic rather than this epidemic, which mainly just affected London.

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