SOUTH KINGSTOWN, R.I.One of Rhode Islands most famous restaurants has been damaged after a fire broke out early Tuesday morning.Union Fire District Steve Pinch says firefighters arrived at 3:45

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The never-before-seen Archaeopteryx feathers reveal how (some) dinosaurs took to the air.

You may think youre free of addictions, but theres a better than 50/50 chance that when the alarm goes off your response is bad for you.

The story of the twelve labors tells the tale of Heracless journey from a sinful pariah to the ancient worlds most revered hero. To atone for a crime he committed while under the curse of his stepmother Hera, Heracles undertook twelve seemingly impossible tasks from his cousin King Eurystheus. He defeated unkillable monsters, captured the uncapturable, traveled to the worlds edge, and descended into the land of the dead. Read on to learn about the twelve labors of Heracles, one of the most well-known stories of ancient Greek mythology.The Cause of the Labors of Heracles: The Curse of Being BornThe young Hercules with the snakes, by Pieter van der Werff, 17001722. Source: RijksmuseumHeracles was the son of the mortal princess Alcmene and Zeus, King of the gods. Zeus disguised himself as Alcmenes husband, Amphitryon, and slept with her, which resulted in her becoming pregnant with twins. One of the twins was the son of Zeus, while the other was Amphitryons. When Hera, Queen of Olympus, learned of the affair, she was furious and decided to torment Zeuss child.The twins were named Alcides and Iphicles, and Hera tried to prevent their birth by prolonging Alcmenes labor but failed. Unsure which twin was Zeuss son, Hera sent two snakes to kill them. The following day, Alcides was found strangling the two snakes in his crib, revealing him to be the son of Zeus. Alcidess parents changed his name to Heracles to appease Hera, meaning Heras pride or glory.Mosaic with the Labors of Hercules found in Lliria (Valencia), unknown, 3rd century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs a young adult, Heracles became a protector of Thebes. He married his love, Princess Megara, and they had several children. However, Hera refused to let Heracles be happy and cursed him. In a fit of madness, he unknowingly killed his wife and children, which was a tragic turn in his otherwise happy existence.Heracles, burdened with guilt, shunned by society, and facing the wrath of the vengeful Erinyes, sought advice from the Oracle of Delphi. The Oracle proclaimed that he must serve his cousin, King Eurystheus of Mycenae, without complaint, assistance, or pay for ten years to atone for his blood guilt. Eurystheus, a devout follower of Hera, devised ten impossible tasks to punish Heracles for the crime of being born as a child of Zeus.1. The Slaying of the Nemean LionHercules fighting the Nemean Lion, by Francisco de Zurbarn, 1634. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHeracless first labor was to kill the Nemean lion, a beast that was terrorizing the people of Nemea. This lion was believed to be the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, the parents of some of ancient Greeces most infamous monsters. The Nemean lion had a thick coat of impenetrable golden fur, razor-sharp claws, and mighty jaws that could cut through rock. Heracles spent weeks tracking the lion and tried slaying it with arrows, but they bounced off its impenetrable golden fur. Realizing his weapons were ineffective, he changed tactics and devised a plan to overpower the beast with his strength and bare hands.Hercules and the Nemean lion, After Peter Paul Rubens, 18th century-early 19th century. Source: Victoria and Albert MuseumHeracles crept in as stealthily as a man his size could into the lions den to take it by surprise while it slept. Once the beast was in sight, Heracles attacked the lion and wrestled it to the ground. The lion was caught entirely off-guard. Heracles grappled with it and refused to yield to any of its attacks. The fierce fight between the hero and the monstrous lion raged for hours as Heracles gradually tightened his grip around the lions throat.The Nemean Lions impenetrable golden fur proved useless against Heracless powerful grip. After a grueling struggle, the supposedly invincible lion began to gasp and finally breathed its last breath, dying at the hands of Heracles.With Athenas help, Heracles skinned the lion and turned its impenetrable golden fur into a cloak, which, along with his olive tree club, would become his iconic look and brand.2. Slaying the Multi-headed Lernaean HydraHercules and the Hydra, by Francisco de Zurbarn, 1634. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHeracless second labor was to slay the Lernaean Hydra, a monstrous creature believed to be impossible to kill. The Hydra, the terrifying offspring of Typhon and Echidna, contaminated Lake Lerna and began killing all the nearby inhabitants. It had a massive water snakes body with six to nine snakeheads. One of the heads was immortal and undying.The Hydras venom was the deadliest poison in the known world, and contact with it was a death sentence. The venom was infused in the monsters blood and breath and could be spat like ranged missiles. However, the real danger was its regenerative abilities; two new heads would regrow whenever the Hydra lost a head.Heracles wrapped his face in cloth to protect himself from the toxic fumes before attacking the massive serpent outside its den. Each time Heracles cut off a head, two more grew in its place. Hera sent a giant crab named Carcinus to hinder Heracles. Hera hoped the crab would distract Heracles long enough for the Hydra to land the killing blow. Heracles quickly crushed Carcinus, but the Hydra had grown to over 50 heads, so he retreated to devise a new strategy.Hercules overwint de hydra van Lerna, by Cornelis Cort, 1563. Source: RijksmuseumHeracles met with his squire, charioteer, and nephew, Iolaus, to discuss how to defeat the Hydra. Guided by Athenas wisdom, Iolaus developed a new strategy. Iolaus suggested he accompany Heracles and that they launch a coordinated attack against the Hydra. Heracles would cut off a head, and Iolaus would cauterize the wound with a flaming torch to prevent new heads from growing. The plan worked, reducing the Hydra from 50 heads to one. The remaining immortal head refused to die, so Heracles buried it deep underground and placed a boulder over it, trapping it forever.After defeating the Hydra, Heracles dipped all his arrows in the Hydras venom. These venom-coated arrows became one of the heros signature weapons in future labors. After returning, Eurystheus accused Heracles of breaking the rules of his atonement by receiving assistance from Iolaus. As a result, he declared the second labor null and void. To make up for Heracless alleged cheating, Eurystheus increased the number of tasks from ten to eleven.3. Capturing the Ceryneian HindHercules Wrestling the Golden Hind, by Adolf Schmidt, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHeracles third labor was to capture the Ceryneian Hind. The Ceryneian Hind was a mythical female deer with golden horns, dapple hide and bronze hooves. It was as big as a bull and was said to be one of the fastest animals in the world. However, its speed was only part of the challenge. The main issue was that the Ceryneian Hind was sacred to the goddess Artemis, and any attempt to harm the deer would bring down the goddesss divine wrath.Located in the Ceryneia forests, the Ceryneian Hind was easy to spot thanks to its glittering golden horns. However, Heracles could not rely on his strength for once. If he injured the beast, Artemis might kill him instantly or transform him into an animal and hunt him down. Heracles had only one option: approaching the creature and gently restraining her. However, whenever Heracles got too close, the Hind would dart away. Due to the creatures speed and Heracless caution, an intricate game of cat and mouse ensued, lasting for over a year.Hercules and the Hind of Mount Cerynea, by Antonio Tempesta, 1608. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of ArtHeracles pursued the Ceryneian Hind across mainland Greece, all the way to the mythical land of Hyperborea in the far north and then back south to Mount Artemisium in the Peloponnese. Despite its speed, the Hinds grew exhausted after the year-long chase, while Heracles, known for his supernatural endurance, never tired. When the Hind started to cross the Ladon River, Heracles saw his chance and shot an arrow in front of the Hind. This caused her to trip, enabling him to grab her horns and wrestle the Ceryneian Hind to the ground.Not long after capturing the Hind, Artemis and her brother Apollo appeared. Rather than fight two Olympians, Heracles surrendered and apologized. He explained that Eurystheus and Hera had forced him to capture the Hind. The divine twins could empathize with Heracless situation. Hera had tormented their mother, the Titaness Leto, when she became pregnant with them after having an affair with Zeus. Hera cursed the land, trying to deny Leto a sanctuary in which to give birth. To foil Hera, Artemis allowed Heracles to take the Hind on the condition that he release her after his labor. Despite King Eurystheuss wish to keep the Hind as a pet, Heracles managed to outsmart the King and free the Hind as he had promised Artemis.4. Capturing the Erymanthian BoarHercules and the Erymanthian Boar, by Francisco de Zurbarn, 1634. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHeracless fourth labor was to capture and deliver the Erymanthian Boar, causing havoc near Mount Erymanthos to Eurystheus. The Erymanthian Boar was not a mythical monster but a colossal mundane animal with unmatched aggression, a thick, shaggy hide, and tusks that could pierce through armor. The boars immense weight and aggressive behavior made it a formidable adversary. Killing the boar would have been easy, but Heracles had to capture it alive and trap it without directly confronting it. Heracles knew a confrontation would likely result in only one survivor due to the boars ferocity.To capture the boar unharmed, Heracles sought advice from his friend, Pholus the Centaur, who lived on Mount Pelion. While centaurs were traditionally impulsive and wild creatures, exceptions such as Pholus and Chiron were renowned as wise mentors of heroes. Pholus suggested that Heracles drive the boar toward the snowy peaks of Mount Erymanthos by shouting and throwing stones from a distance. This strategy would allow Heracles to exhaust the boar by making it run through deep mountain snow until it got stuck, enabling Heracles to capture it using thick metal chains.Hercules in gevecht met de centauren, by Simon Frisius after Antonio Tempesta, 1610. Source: RijksmuseumHeracles loved the idea and suggested drinking wine that Pholus had had blessed by Dionysus. The wine belonged to all the local centaurs, and Pholus was hesitant to drink it, but Heracles ignored him. The aroma of the wine intoxicated all the nearby centaurs, leading them to stampedeinto Pholuss cave, looking for it. The commotion confused an intoxicated Heracles, who lost his temper and attacked the centaurs, killing many of them with his Hydra arrows.As Heracles fought, Pholus examined one of the poisonous arrows and accidentally killed himself. Afterwards, Heracles buried Pholus and left Mount Pelion. Nessus, a surviving centaur, became a ferryman on the Euenos River. Years later, driven by revenge, he orchestrated a plan that led to the death of Heracles.Hercules Terrifying King Eurytheus with the Erymanthian Boar, 1670-1699. Source: National Trust the Scarsdale CollectionHeracles used Pholuss strategy to trap the boar in the deep Erymanthos Mountain snow. He then bound it in heavy chains. When Heracles presented the Erymanthian Boar to King Eurystheus, the King was terrified and hid in a large storage jar. When Heracles asked what to do with the boar, Eurystheus commanded him to remove it. So, Heracles hurled the boar into the sea, and some say the boar swam to Italy and lived there.5. Cleaning the Augean Stables in a Single DayHercules diverting the Course of the River Alpheus, by Francisco de Zurbarn, 1634. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHeracless fifth labor was to clean the stables of King Augeas of Elis in a single day. The Augean Stables housed over 3,000 cattle, gifted to the King by his father, the sun god Helios. The cattle were immortal but produced an abnormally large amount of waste that had not been cleaned in decades, resulting in an enormous mountain of stinking dung. Clearing out all the manure in one day was impossible, even for Heracles. When Heracles arrived in Elis, he made a deal with King Augeas to clean the stables in exchange for a tenth of his divine cattle.Heracles is often depicted as a simple-minded hero of brute force, but he was anything but foolish. Despite not being renowned for his cunning, Heracles devised a remarkably straightforward and innovative plan. Rather than clearing the stables by hand, Heracles diverted the local Alpheus and Peneus rivers, creating a primitive toilet that flushed away the mountains of dung that had haunted the stables for decades. The plan was simple but relied on the supernatural strength and endurance that only Heracles possessed.Hercules Cleaning the Augean Stables, by Gerard van der Gucht, 1725-1732. Source: The British MuseumAfter completing the impossible task, Heracles demanded payment from King Augeas. However, the King refused, claiming that the task was part of the labors set by King Eurystheus. Heracles took Augeas to court, where Augeass son, Phyleus, defended Heracles. Despite this, the court, comprised of Augeass subjects, ruled in favor of their King, and Phyleus and Heracles were banished from Elis.As he left, Heracles vowed to return and seek revenge against Augeas for breaking their agreement. According to the rules of Heracless atonement, he must complete all labors without complaint, assistance, or pay. Heracless deal with Augeas broke this rule, so Eurystheus imposed another labor, increasing the total from eleven to the titular twelve.6. Slaying the Stymphalian BirdsHercules Killing the Stymphalian Birds, by Albrecht Drer, 1500. Source: Germanisches NationalmuseumHeracless sixth labor was to exterminate the man-eating Stymphalian birds. Considered sacred to Ares, these birds were as large as cranes and had razor-sharp talons, metallic feathers, and elongated bronze beaks, earning them the nickname bronze birds. The predatory birds could shoot metallic feathers like arrows, and their beaks were sharp enough to pierce through armor. They numbered in the thousands and functioned as an organized army, strategically coordinating their attacks to maximize devastation, and annihilating entire communities in a single deadly assault.Before Heracles could face the birds, he first had to get to them. The birds made their nests in the inhospitable swampy marshlands around Lake Stymphalia. Heracles found himself unable to navigate the swamps due to his hulking frame, which caused him to sink into the soft swamp ground. This forced him to retreat and devise a better plan to confront the birds.Heracles Destroys the Birds of Stymphalia, by Edgard Maxence, 1893. Source: Muse dOrsayAs Heracles struggled to formulate a plan, Athena, the goddess of wisdom, appeared to offer her assistance and a gift. The gift was not a weapon but a crotalum, a percussion musical instrument consisting of finger cymbals. This was no ordinary instrument. Athena had requested that Hephaestus, the god of the forge and fire, create it and imbue it with magical properties that amplified its sound. Athena instructed Heracles to climb the nearby mountain and play the cymbals. Their booming sound would reverberate across the land and draw the Stymphalian birds out of their swampy sanctuary.Upon reaching the mountain peak, Heracles began to play the cymbals, sending reverberations echoing through the air. In moments, a black mass rose from the swampy trees as the birds attempted to escape from Heracless thunderous symphony. With the birds now in sight, Heracles drew his bow and unleashed a volley of arrows, eradicating nearly all of them over the next few hours. However, a few hundred birds escaped to the island of Aretias, where they caused chaos until the Argonauts eventually eliminated them.7. Capturing the Cretan BullHercules and the Cretan Bull, by Francisco de Zurbarn, 1634. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHeracless seventh labor was to help King Minos of Crete by capturing the Cretan Bull and delivering it to Eurystheus. This task marked the halfway point of Heracless twelve labors and the beginning of his non-Peloponnesian labors. During this time, the hero traveled to various locations across the Mediterranean and beyond.King Minos was a legendary and influential ruler who, with the help of his father Zeus, established the first known constitution and legal system. However, he was also directly responsible for the appearance of the Cretan bull, causing devastation throughout his kingdom.After the King of Crete died, his son Minos prayed to Poseidon to prove his right to the throne instead of his brothers, Sarpedon and Rhadamanthys. Poseidon sent a snow-white bull to show that Minos should be King. Minos became King but did not thank Poseidon by sacrificing the bull as promised. In retaliation, Poseidon cursed Minoss wife, Queen Pasiphae, with an unnatural lust for the bull. Pasiphae ordered the inventor Daedalus to create a contraption that allowed her to mate with the bull, resulting in the birth of Asterion the Minotaur. Afterwards, Poseidon lifted the curse on Pasiphae and sent the bull mad, unleashing devastation across the island.Hercules and the Cretan Bull, by Gerard van der Gucht, 18th century. Source: The Harvard Art MuseumsBy Heracless arrival, the mad bull had been wreaking havoc for months, causing untold death and destruction. Although sent by Poseidon, the bull did not have an impenetrable hide, immortality, or supernatural strength and speed; it was simply a creature of untamed fury. When Heracles found the bull, he started yelling and throwing rocks, provoking it to charge him. As the bull charged, Heracles ran toward it head-on. Heracles had to capture and bring the bull back to Eurystheus unharmed and devised a simple strategy: charge and grab the bull by the horns.After their thunderous collision, Heracles wrestled the Cretan bull into submission and carried it back to King Eurystheus. Once Heracles delivered the bull, he let it go, and it settled near Marathon in Attica, where it continued its rampage until the hero, Theseus, stopped it.8. Stealing the Mares of DiomedesDiomedes King of Thrace Killed by Hercules and Devoured by his own Horses, by Jean-Baptiste Marie Pierre, 1742. Source: Muse FabreHeracless eighth labor was to steal the mares of Diomedes. Diomedes was a cruel Thracian King of the Bistones who fed his adversaries to his four mad, fire-breathing horses, believed to be a gift from his father, Ares. The horses names were Podargos (swift), Lampon (shining), Xanthos (yellow), and Deinos (terrible). They were tall, almost gigantic creatures with snow-white coats and manes of yellow and brown. Their madness was the result of being forced to eat human flesh, which made them extraordinarily aggressive. They had to be restrained with iron chains to a bronze trough and would only calm down once they ate human flesh.Aesculapius (representing medicine) routing death, Ceres, by Jacques-Charles Bordier du Bignon, 1822. Source: Wellcome CollectionAs Heracles traveled to Diomedess capital by the Black Sea, he visited his friends, the King and Queen of Pherae in Thessaly, Admetus and Alcestis. This seemingly innocent visit led to one of his most impressive feats.Years earlier, Zeus executed Apollos son, Asclepius, for creating an elixir that cured death. To punish Zeus, Apollo killed the Cyclops responsible for creating Zeus thunderbolts. Zeus disciplined Apollo by making him serve as King Admetuss herdsman for a year. Apollo and Admetus became friends and lovers, and the god not only helped Admetus find his wife, Alcestis but also decided to try to make him immortal. Apollo asked the sisters of fate for help, and they agreed to make Admetus immortal if a willing volunteer died in his place. Despite Admetuss search, no one volunteered until Alcestis eventually did. Obsessed with immortality, Admetus accepted Alcestiss sacrifice.Hercules Wrestling with Death for the Body of Alcestis, by Frederic Leighton, 1870. Source: The Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of ArtShortly after Alcestiss sacrifice, Admetus realised how unbearable life would be without her. Heracles arrived soon after, and Admetus, known for his hospitality, hosted a lavish banquet for Heracles while keeping Alcestiss death a secret. However, Heracles soon discovered the truth and decided to rescue Alcestis from the underworld. At Alcestiss tomb, Heracles encountered Thanatos, death personified, taking Alcestis to Hades. Heracles managed to wrestle Alcestis from the hands of death and reunite her with Admetus before continuing his journey.On the long road to Thrace, Heracles befriended Abderus, a son of Hermes, and the pair became lovers. As the son of the god of thieves, Abderus offered to help Heracles steal the horses and helped him devise a simple plan: first, secure the horses; second, lead the mares out of the palace; and finally, defeat any Thracians who tried to stop steps one and two. With Abderuss help, Heracles located and quickly stole the horses, but not without alerting Diomedes.Eurystheus neglected to tell Heracles that the horses ate human flesh and breathed fire and Heracles unwittingly left them with Abderus while he confronted Diomedes. While Heracles fought Diomedes, the horses killed and devoured Abderus. After capturing Diomedes, Heracles found what was left of Abderus and, enraged, fed Diomedes to his horses.Diomedes devoured by his horses, by Gustave Moreau, 1865. Source: Muse des Beaux-Arts de RouenAfter eating Diomedes, the horses became permanently calm, allowing Heracles to deliver them to Eurystheus without trouble. Eurystheus went on to breed Diomedess mares, creating a line of thoroughbreds. Supposedly, one of the descendants of this line of horses was Bucephalus, the much-loved steed of Alexander the Great.9. Obtaining the Girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the AmazonsHercules Obtaining the Girdle of Hyppolita, by Nicolaes Knpfer, 1640s. Source: RKD ResearchHeracless ninth labor was to obtain the Belt of Hippolyta for Eurystheuss daughter, Princess Admete. Queen Hippolyta, the daughter of Ares, ruled the Amazons, an all-female warrior society known for their military prowess and horse-riding skills. Hippolyta, a formidable military leader, wore a leather belt or girdle gifted by Ares, which granted her supernatural strength and invincibility in battle.Heracles sailed with a crew to the Amazonian capital, Themiscyra, located on the northern coast of Anatolia. Heracless crew consisted of renowned heroes such as Peleus, the father of Achilles, and Theseus of Athens. They expected a tough battle to obtain Hippolytas belt, as the Amazons usually forbid men from entering Themiscyra. However, when Heracles and his crew reached Themiscyra, they were welcomed as honored guests. Word of Heracless labors had reached the Amazons, who respected and admired his exploits enough to invite him and his crew into their city despite their distrust of men.Triumph of the Amazons, by Claude Druet, 1620s. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe Amazons held a grand feast, and Heracles and Hippolytas mutual respect quickly evolved into a passionate romance. After spending several days with the Amazons, Heracles told Hippolyta why he had come to see her. Hippolyta, who now greatly respected Heracles, willingly gave him her belt to complete his labor.Heracless ninth labor seemed like his easiest mission yet. However, Hera refused to allow Heracless life to be easy. The goddess disguised as an Amazon snuck into the city and began spreading rumors among the Amazons that Heracles was about to abduct Hippolyta. Hera used magic to rile the Amazon into attacking Heracless crew while they slept. When Heracles found out, he believed Hippolyta had betrayed him and killed her in a rage. Heracles then rallied his remaining crew and escaped Themiscyra with the belt. In some versions, Hippolyta is not killed by Heracles but is captured by Theseus. The Amazonian Queen or, in most cases, her sister Antiope, would go on to play a significant role in the myth of Theseus.Heracles frees Hesione, by Charles Le Brun, 1650-1655. Source: Staatliche Kunsthalle KarlsruheOn the way back to Eurystheus, Heracles stopped at the city of Troy and rescued the Trojan princess Hesione from a sea monster. The greedy Trojan King, Laomedon, was forced to sacrifice his daughter to appease Apollo and Poseidon for not paying them after they built Troys walls. Laomedon hired Heracles to rescue his daughter but refused to pay him afterwards. Heracles continued his voyage to Eurystheus but vowed to return to get revenge.10. Obtaining the Cattle of the Three-Bodied Giant GeryonHercules defeats King Geryon, by Francisco de Zurbarn, 1634. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHeracless tenth labor was to steal the cattle of the three-headed giant Geryon, the King of Erytheia. The exact location of Erytheia was debated. Ancient writers thought it resided near the worlds western edge, beyond the Iberian Peninsula and modern-day Morocco in the Atlantic Ocean. Heracles decided to travel west from Egypt, across the Libyan desert, to find the fabled island.The scorching desert heat frustrated Heracles, causing him to fire his lethal Hydra venom arrows at the sun. Helios, the sun god, appeared before Heracles, demanding he stop. However, Heracles refused to do so unless Helios lessened the suns heat or agreed to help him on his journey. Helios allowed Heracles to travel in his golden cup, a fast vessel that the sun god used to journey across the ocean every night to restart the suns cycle. With this vessel, Heracles quickly reached the island of Erytheia.Hercules kills Geryon and his dog, by Cornelis Cort, after Frans Floris, 15631595. Source: RijksmuseumGeryon was a formidable giant with three heads and, in some depictions, three torsos sprouting out of one pair of legs. He was famous for his prized cattle, a unique red color reminiscent of the dusk sky. Many desired the uniquely colored cattle, and Geryon ensured they were well-guarded. To protect them, Geryon hired Eurytion, Aress giant son and Cerberuss brother Orthus, a two-headed guard dog with a snake for a tail.After reaching Erytheia, Heracles found the red-coated cattle and easily defeated their guardians, Orthus and Eurytion, using his mighty club. As he drove the cattle back to the shore, Geryon confronted him. Geryon was equipped in shining armor, but Heracles fired a barrage of venom-coated arrows, killing Geryon before he could rescue his beloved cows.After defeating Geryon, Heracles brought the cattle back to the mainland, where the Mediterranean Sea meets the Atlantic Ocean. There, he erected two pillars, called the Pillars of Heracles, to memorialize his journey to the westernmost edge of the known world.Hercules Killing Cacus, by Laurent Cars, 1755. Source: Harvard Art MuseumsAs Heracles drove the cattle east back to Eurystheus, he encountered several challenges. He fought a cannibalistic, fire-breathing giant in Italy named Cacus, who tried to steal the cattle. Afterwards, he chased an escaped cow across Italy to Sicily. Just before Heracles entered Greece in Thrace, Hera released an army of gadflies to torment him and the cattle. Heracles had not lost any cattle on the long journey, but the gadflies caused the cattle to panic and scatter. Although he could not find all the scattered cattle, Heracles eventually delivered most of them to King Eurystheus.11. Stealing Three of the Golden Apples of the HesperidesThe Garden of the Hesperides, by Frederic Leighton, 1892. Source: Lady Lever Art GalleryHeracless eleventh labor was to steal three golden apples of the Hesperides. The golden apples that grew in Herass garden could grant immortality and were guarded by the Hesperides, nymphs of the evening, and a hundred-headed dragon named Ladon. The apples location was a mystery, with some claiming it was in the far north and others claiming it was on an island at the worlds western edge.Heracles eventually obtained directions from the elusive sea god Nereus, who attempted to evade Heracles by transforming into various sea creatures. Nereus informed Heracles that the apples were on an island near Erytheia, where Heracles stole Geryons cattle.Hercules captivates Nereus, by Eugne Delacroix, 1849. Source: RijksmuseumHeracles decided to go west across the Libyan desert, searching for the island. Along the way, he defeated the cruel Egyptian King Busiris, who sacrificed strangers to Osiris. He also encountered a giant named Antaeus, who challenged travelers to deadly wrestling matches. Heracles fought Antaeus and almost lost until he realized that the giant drew strength from his mother, Gaia, every time he touched the ground. With this knowledge, Heracles lifted Antaeus above his head, crushing him and ending the fight.Hercules fighting with Antaeus, by Francisco de Zurbarn, 1634. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoThe myths do not detail how Heracles reached the island of the Hesperides, but some claim he used Helioss cup again. Heracles quickly found Heras garden, which contained an orchard of glittering golden apples. Although the Hesperides were nowhere to be seen, standing between Heracles and the apples was Ladon, the immortal hundred-headed dragon.Heracles shot a barrage of Hydra venom arrows to slay Ladon rather than confront the dragon at close range. However, when Heracles tried to pick an apple, it would vanish and reappear out of his reach. Only immortals could pluck the apples, forcing Heracles to leave and find an immortal to help him steal the apples.Hercules Killing the Dragon in the Garden of the Hesperides, by Paul Peter Rubens, 1635-1640. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHeracless search for an immortal accomplice led him across the Mediterranean to the Caucasus Mountains. He heard a voice calling his name and followed it to Mount Elbrus. At the summit, he found a giant eagle attacking a man bound to the mountain in iron chains. The man pleaded for help, and Heracles killed the eagle with an arrow. The man was the Titan Prometheus, the trickster hero who stole fire from the gods for humanity. As punishment, Zeus bound Prometheus to Mount Elbrus, where an eagle would torment him by tearing out his liver every day.Heracles freed Prometheus, and as a gesture of gratitude, the Titan instructed Heracles to seek out his brother Atlas and ask him to retrieve the apples. After the Titanomachy, the war between the Titans and Olympians, Zeus punished Atlas by making him hold up Ouranosthe personification of the skyfor eternity. Atlas was friendly with the Hesperides and would not hesitate to steal from an Olympian like Hera. However, Prometheus warned Heracles that Atlas would inevitably try to trick him.Hercules Freeing Prometheus, by Nicolas Bertin, 1703. Source: Birmingham Museum of ArtHeracles found Atlas in the mountain range that now bears his name in northwestern Africa. Atlas agreed to help Heracles, but he could not leave because if he let go of the sky, it would fall onto the earth. Atlas asked Heracles to take his place while he fetched the golden apples. Without much choice, Heracles agreed. Nothing tested Heracless strength more than the burden of holding up the sky. After several days, Atlas reappeared with three golden apples and then offered to deliver them to King Eurystheus and switch places with Heracles afterward.Hercules Supporting the World in Place of Atlas, by Cornelis Cort, 1533-1578. Source: Municipal Library of LyonThanks to Prometheuss warning, Heracles was prepared for Atlass trickery. Heracles agreed to Atlass request but asked Atlas to briefly take back the sky so he could use his cloak to pad his neck and make the burden more comfortable. Atlas agreed to switch places for a moment, and as Atlas shouldered the weight of the sky once more, Heracles snatched the apples and ran.After Heracles delivered the apples, King Eurystheus placed them in Heras temple so Athena could return them to the Hesperides. The apples belonged to Hera, Eurystheuss patron goddess, and could not be kept by mortals.12. Capturing and Bringing Back CerberusHercules and Cerberus, by Francisco de Zurbarn, 1634. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHeracless twelfth labor was to go to the Underworld and bring back Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of Hades. In Greek mythology, the underworld was a physical place accessible through unique entryways. Journeying to the underworld was known as a Katabasis, and gaining entry was relatively simple. Hades, the god of the dead and riches, welcomed all new souls, whether living or deceased. What Hades did not appreciate was letting souls leave. Unlike an average guard dog, Cerberus only attacked those who attempted to leave the Underworld.The Return of Persephone, by Frederic Leighton, 1891. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEntering the Underworld meant being at Hadess mercy. Rather than attempt to abduct Cerberus from under Hadess nose, Heracles decided to ask Hades for permission to take the dog. While not unheard of, persuading Hades to release anything from his realm was incredibly difficult. Heracles decided to gain favor with Hadess wife, Persephone, Queen of the underworld, by joining the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Mysteries commemorated the cycle of death and renewal by reenacting Persephones seasonal descent to the underworld and her return. Heracles gained favor with Persephone and insight into his descent into the Underworld by participating in the Mysteries.Heracles entered the Underworld through a cave at Cape Tainaron, the southernmost point of mainland Greece, now called Cape Matapan. At the cave entrances, Heracles met Hermes, who offered to guide him through the Underworld. Hermes was the ideal guide, the supreme psychopomp, the conductor of souls who guided the dead through the Underworld.Souls on the Banks of the Acheron, by Adolf Hirmy-Hirschl, 1898. Source: BelvedereAs Heracles and Hermes descended into the underworld, they encountered the hero Theseus and his friend Pirithous. Persephone imprisoned the pair on the chair of forgetfulness as punishment for attempting to abduct her to marry Pirithous. Heracles managed to free Theseus, who fled to the surface, but Persephone refused to release Pirithous. Heracles then encountered the spirit of his friend Meleager, who died at the end of the Calydonian boar hunt. Meleager asked Heracles to marry and care for his sister, Deianira. Heracles agreed, but this marriage ultimately contributed to his demise.Hell, by Francois de Nome, 1622. Source: French Ministry of CultureWhen Heracles arrived at Hadess palace, he convinced Hades, with the support of Persephone, by arguing that helping him would upset Hera. Persephones approval and the satisfaction of annoying an Olympian were enough for Hades to allow Heracles to take Cerberus under certain conditions: Heracles had to capture Cerberus on his own without using weapons and return Cerberus to the Underworld once his task was completed.Cerberus, by William Blake, 18241827. Source: The TateCerberus, the offspring of Echidna and Typhon, was a colossal three-headed dog with the claws of a lion, a mane of snakes, and a snakes tail. Although Heracles could not use weapons, Hades said nothing about him using his clothes. Heracles used his lion skin cloak to deflect Cerberuss attacks, allowing him to leap onto Cerberuss central head and wrestle the three heads into a chokehold. Despite Cerberuss fierce resistance, Heracles never relented and eventually subdued the creature, achieving the impossible once again.Heracles bound Cerberus in chains and toured Greece with the hound before delivering it to King Eurystheus. The King was terrified and demanded that Heracles dispose of Cerberus immediately. Heracles refused and would only release Cerberus when the king officially absolved him of his crime. After the king proclaimed that Heracles was cleansed of guilt, Heracles returned Cerberus to the Underworld and completed his twelve labors, finally freeing himself from servitude.Hercules and Cerberus, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1636. Source: Museo Nacional del PradoHera designed the labors to punish Heracles for being the son of Zeus. Nevertheless, Heracles resisted Hera at every turn; he accomplished the impossible, journeyed to the ends of the earth, outsmarted immortals, and made the world safer by defeating many of its most dangerous monsters.Despite Heras opposition, Heracles became the revered champion of ancient Greece, honored as its greatest hero. However, Heracless story was far from over, as the hero still had a lifetime of adventure, love, and tragedy ahead of him. The twelve labors only offer a glimpse into the eventful and legendary life of ancient Greeces most virtuous hero, Heracles.

On September 11, 1973, Chile entered a new era. On this day, Augusto Pinochet took power and began a reign that would be characterized by brutal anti-communist sentiment and consolidation of right-wing principles. One of many instances of illegal interference in foreign governments, the coup in Chile was supported and organized in no small part by the CIA, which developed a reputation for propping up dictatorships in South America and beyond. The extent and impact of US involvement is a subject of academic debate and harsh criticism today.Before Pinochet: The US in ChileUS involvement in regime change across the Americas. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLong before the 1973 coup in which Augusto Pinochet took power and ousted the democratically elected left-wing Salvador Allende, the United States had already established deep roots in Chiles economic system. US involvement in Chiles economy and interest in its government dates back to the beginning of the 19th century.As far back as 1811, the US was investing in Chilean governance. Under President James Madison, the US sent an agent to Chile to assess the power of the revolutionaries against Spanish control in Chile.Nine decades later, the US supported and assisted the efforts of President Jos Manuel Balmaceda during the Chilean Civil War. During the war, multiple incidents occurred between Americans and Chileans that were cause for concern. The US seized arms shipments bound for Congressional forces fighting against Balmaceda, and American sailors were attacked in Valparaiso as a response.The diplomatic incident almost led to a war, but the situation was cooled down by US Secretary of State James G. Blaine. Balmacedas eventual defeat and suicide meant the end of the Liberal Republic and the commencement of the Parliamentary Era.After the First World War, the United States intensified its interventionist policy in Chile. As global power shifted from the United Kingdom to the United States, the latter found itself with greater power to influence world affairs in its favor.Salvador Allende and Cold War Politics in ChileSalvador Allende in 1972. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring the 1950s and 1960s, considerable effort was poured into guiding Chiles political dynamic. The main goal of these efforts was preventing Salvador Allende of the Frente de Accin Popular, Popular Action Front, and later the Popular Unity Alliance, from taking power. He had been described as a democratic socialist and a Marxist, and his policies were significantly to the left of the political spectrum.From 1958 to 1964, under the presidential leadership of Jorge Alessandri and his right-wing policies, Chile was a welcoming place for US businesses, and US economic interests found firm footing in the country. He dealt with Chiles runaway inflation by instituting austerity measures. He saw some success in stabilizing the economy, but a series of earthquakes during his tenure made relief efforts and rebuilding a primary concern, and there was little money to deal with other pressing issues. His hesitancy in dealing with agrarian reform, unemployment, and housing lost him the support of many sectors of Chilean society, which migrated to the left of the political spectrum.Alessandri stood against Allende in the crucial 1970 election that would push US efforts into overdrive. What happened at this time is retold in detail in declassified CIA documents, which have been a source of criticism and debate by many academics.The director of the Chilean Documentation Project of the National Security Archive, Peter Kornbluh, is one of those who led the charge in getting documents regarding US relations with Chile declassified. His work in the field was instrumental in bringing to light the depth of US involvement in regime change in the 1960s, and the propping up of the Pinochet government in the 1970s.Richard Nixon (left) and Henry Kissinger (right). Source: Creative Commons / RawpixelIn September 1970, Chile held elections and voted the left-wing Salvador Allende into power. The US was fearful that if Allende were successful with his policies, other Latin American countries would follow suit and shift towards socialism.Kornbluh states that US plans to intervene began a day after the election, several weeks before Allende was even inaugurated. National Security Adviser and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and President Richard Nixon headed the efforts to ensure that Allendes government failed.The US began an invisible economic blockade of Chile, paired with efforts to influence the military, and funneled money to the parts of Chiles media that opposed Allende and socialism.According to a CIA report, in the period between 1970 and the 1973 coup that would topple Allende, the CIA spent a total of 8 million dollars (between 55 and 59 million USD today) in its effort to effect regime change. This money was funneled into supporting Allendes enemies and funding assets for intelligence gathering.After Allende was elected, he began a program of nationalization that would further provoke US desires to have him removed. Foreign companies that were engaged in excessive profit-making were targeted. While many companies were compensated based on a percentage of the market value, US-owned mines were given very little for the transfer of ownership.The reforms were initially successful and wages increased, but this only created a rise in consumerism, and Chile could not meet the demand. This dynamic was perfect for CIA meddling, and by courting the Chilean military, the CIA helped guide the country toward a military coup.The CIAs Plans for Regime Change: Track 1Eduardo Frei Montalva, president of Chile from 1964 to 1970. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe United States pursued two main plans to oust Allende after he had won the presidential election but before he could be inaugurated. The 1970 election had been a three-way contest, with Allende narrowly winning the largest percentage. The content was then sent to the Chilean Congress, which would vote between the top two candidates.Track 1 involved Eduardo Frei, the president of the centrist Christian Democratic Party who had been president of Chile since 1964. This plan called for Frei to support and confirm Jorge Alessandri as president, after which Alessandri was to resign and leave Frei to run against Allende in new elections. The US planned to buy the votes of Chilean senators to block Allende from being inaugurated.In the event that this plan failed, US Ambassador Edward Korry was to convince Frei to attempt a constitutional coup. The final measure of the plan, if all the preceding attempts failed, was to garner international media attention that would doom Allendes government by imposing economic measures that would reduce Chiles people to poverty and force Allende to adopt policies that would turn Chile into a police state. Thus, the US would be able to justify their condemnation of Allende.Winning Over the Military: Track 2General Ren Schneider. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de ChileThe second plan, Track 2, would focus on the Chilean military and foment support for a military coup. A significant obstacle in this approach was removing the chief commander of the Chilean Army, General Ren Schneider, from power. Schneider was a constitutionalist who would not support any attempt at a military coup.The CIA funded and organized an attempted kidnapping of Schneider. The plan had called for Schneider to be kidnapped and flown to Argentina. Schneider would then be replaced with a coup supporter, and the kidnapping would be blamed on Allendes supporters. None of this, however, came to fruition, as the first step in the plan was botched. During the kidnapping attempt, Schneider resisted and was fatally shot.This tragic turn of events upended US plans; the Chilean people, shocked at the murder, rallied in support of constitutionalism and Allende. Nothing could stop his accession to the presidency. The Chilean Congress voted to inaugurate Allende on October 24, 1970.From this point on, having failed to prevent Allendes presidency, the United States worked to undermine it. One of Kissingers main concerns was that having a Marxist freely elected by democratic means would set a dangerous precedent for neighboring countries to follow suit.Fomenting Discontent: Undermining Allendes PresidencyHenry Kissinger. Source: GetArchiveAt the end of 1970, Kissinger drew up the Covert Action Program to target Allendes presidency. From an internal position, Chile was already divided. Having only narrowly become president, Allende was already on shaky ground.Both the far left and the far right mobilized under this dynamic. For the United States, Chile was fertile ground for further interference. Under the Covert Action Plan, the United States divided Allendes supporters, continued to look for anti-Allende opportunities in the military, supported and funded non-communist entities in Chile, helped the Chilean media run anti-Allende campaigns, and engaged in slander against Allende, accusing him of being undemocratic.Coup: September 11, 1973Photographer Sylvain Julienne with Chilean troops during the September 1973 coup in Chile. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile the events of September 11, 1973 are generally clear, there is debate as to the extent of CIA involvement. While the CIA maintains it did not take direct part in the coup, the academic assessments of authors such as Peter Kornbluh, Tim Weiner, and Peter Winn agree that the support that the CIA gave to Allendes opponents laid the groundwork for a coup as well as the Pinochet regime thereafter.The CIA was well aware that plans were afoot to oust Allende, and even if it did not physically participate, it offered a great deal of support to those who were going to carry it out. Kissinger told Nixon, We didnt do it. I mean we helped them. [Word missing] created the conditions as great as possible.On September 11, 1973, the military launched a coup. The presidential palace was surrounded, and Allende purportedly committed suicide rather than be taken into custody. In his place, General Augusto Pinochet, the army chief that Allende had mistakenly trusted as a loyal asset, took power and began a brutal rule that lasted 17 years.The Pinochet RegimeAugusto Pinochet in 1971. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPinochets rule was characterized by the murder and forced disappearance of thousands of people thought to harbor communist ideals. Crackdowns on left-leaning elements of society were commonplace, and torture camps engaged in horrific practices.While the United States was predisposed to the junta that had taken power and supplied it with material support, it openly criticized the dictatorship in an attempt to ensure the American public did not associate the US government with support for a brutal dictatorship.Efforts, however, were useless in the face of thousands of refugees and exiles who came with their stories of what was happening in Chile. By the mid-1970s, the truth was out, and the American public was aware that their government had aided in a coup to oust a democratically elected leader and then supported a dictator known to be engaging in human rights abuses.Ted Kennedy in 1974, taken by Stevan Kragujevi. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe American people were already incensed by the mounting losses in Vietnam, and attempts by the US government to curtail communism in Chile proved to be widely unpopular. Not only were there efforts from the populace to end US support for Pinochet, but many members of Congress took action.Senator Ted Kennedy introduced amendments to cut off military aid to Chile, from financing to the sale of weapons to the Pinochet regime. As Congress saw significant success in the 1970s in forcing the US government to end aid to Pinochet, they also initiated the creation of the Bureau of Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs within the State Department to assess countries actions across the world regarding human rights violations. This Bureau, championed by Jimmy Carter, condemned the Chilean regime and added its voice to hundreds of thousands of exiled Chileans around the world, drumming up support against Pinochet.Aftermath: A Turning Point for US-Latin America Relations?Augusto Pinochet. Photograph by Chas Gerretsen. Source: Iconic PhotosAfter the Washington D.C. assassination of a former ambassador in Allendes government, Orlando Letelier, by a car bomb, the strained relations between Pinochets regime and the US government hit a new low. The US began to accept that it had to push for democratic reform in Chile. Not even the conservative Reagan era granted a reprieve for Pinochet.This represented a complete u-turn in US governmental attitudes towards Chile as it now had to deal with the consequences of its own actions. To this day, the United States government and the CIA continue to face criticism for decades of meddling in Latin American politics.

For 220 years, Japan was isolated from the outside world due to years of internal conflict and fear of colonization by European powers. When Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Edo Bay in 1853, he changed the course of history in the Pacific. The opening of Japan would have direct consequences on the balance of power in Asia.Who Was Matthew Perry?US Navy Commodore Matthew Perry in his dress uniform, 1853. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMatthew Calbraith Perry was born on April 10, 1794, in Newport, Rhode Island into a prominent naval family. His father was a captain and one of his siblings was the famed Commodore Oliver Perry, the victor of the Battle of Lake Erie in the War of 1812. After some brief schooling, he joined the navy as a young midshipman in 1809 and gradually rose up the ranks after serving on several frigates during the War of 1812.In 1821, he received his first command of a 12-gun sloop called the USS Shark. After seeing service in the Caribbean, he was promoted to captain in 1837. While serving at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, he became a major proponent of the use of steam-powered warships and oversaw the construction of the USS Fulton. He took command of the ship and acquired the nickname the The Father of the Steam Navy. His abilities were noted in Washington, leading to his promotion to commodore in 1841. The navy did not have admirals yet, meaning that Perry was now one of the highest-ranking officers in the United States military.During the Mexican-American War, Perry took command of the Home Squadron, the navys preeminent force. He commanded assaults on Mexican ports in conjunction with the army, including a major amphibious assault on Veracruz. He also personally led an assault on the port of Tabasco. His wartime performance made him a legend, leading President Millard Fillmore to select him for what would be his most famous naval accomplishment.The Tokugawa Shogunate and Japans IsolationDutch and Chinese ships docked in Nagasaki harbor during the Edo period (date unknown). Source: The British MuseumBefore the US Navy arrived in 1853, Japan was undergoing a period of isolation called Sakoku. In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu took control of all of Japan from other warlords known as daimyo. He established the Tokugawa Shogunate, in which a shogun, or senior military leader, ruled Japan through a dictatorship. Also known as the Bakufu, the institution of the shogunate had first been established in the late 12th century and would last until the mid-19th century with the exception of a period of fragmentation in the 16th century. Under this form of government, the emperor remained an important symbolic and religious figure but political power was concentrated in the hands of the shogun.The Shogunate maintained a strict system of class segregation and repression. Warriors led by the daimyo and shogun were known as samurai. Ieyasu feared a resurgence of anarchy that preceded his rule, so he insisted on maximum control. Nonetheless, Japanese culture flourished during this period and the economy on the four main islands of Japan boomed.Members of the Tokugawa clan feared that the entry of foreigners would lead to the erosion of their power and that Christianity would overtake Shintoism as the religion of the state. Therefore, they insisted on little contact with the outside world. However, some concessions were made: Dutch ships could dock on an artificial island in Nagasaki and some Chinese merchants were allowed to visit. However, no other contact was tolerated and the shogunate was determined to ensure that no foreign influence could take hold in Japan. Even after Perry arrived in Japan, the samurai insisted on retaining as much power as possible.The Squadrons Composition and PlanUSS Mississippi, flagship of Perrys expedition, seen here after running aground during the Civil War, 1863. Source: Louisiana State University LibraryPresident Millard Fillmore was a supporter of Manifest Destiny, the belief that America was ordained by God to become a great power. His Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, had written a letter to the emperor asking for American ships to gain entry to Japan to return some shipwrecked sailors. Some American ships had tried to visit prior to 1853, but were either turned away or attacked. When this letter went unanswered, Fillmores cabinet resorted to gunboat diplomacy and decided to send some warships to Japan with the hope of formally opening trade ties.At first, Perry hoped to avoid such a mission since he did not know enough about Japan. When his request to command the Mediterranean Squadron was turned down, he set about preparing a force to go to Japan. He and several subordinates read books on Japan from authors including Philipp Franz von Siebold, who had lived in Nagasaki for several years. Webster and the Navy Department granted him latitude to pursue his task, including threatening the use of force if necessary.For his expedition, Perry chose several officers whom he had known from the Mexican-American War. His flagship was the steam-powered frigate USS Mississippi. The frigates Susquehanna, and Powhatan, the armed store steamships Lexington, Supply, and Southampton, and the sailing sloops Macedonian, Plymouth, and Saratoga rounded out the rest of the squadron. Commander Henry Adams served as his chief of staff. Gifts were brought on board for the shogun and the Japanese court. In the event of hostility, the ships were well armed and Marine detachments brought extra small arms.The Voyage to JapanDrawing of the USS Powhatan, 1854. Source: Library of CongressOn November 24, 1852, Perry took his squadron out of Hampton Roads, Virginia, and headed for Madeira. He hoped to avoid sailing around the treacherous waters of Cape Horn in South America by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope instead. His fleet made repeated stops for resupply and to let the men rest on the way. By early 1853, the squadron rounded the Cape of Good Hope and after a couple of more stops, arrived in China in April 1853.While in Hong Kong and Shanghai, Perry met with local dignitaries and American diplomats to prepare for his final trip into Japan and to drop off mail. He planned to go to Japan with four ships: the Susquehanna, Mississippi, Plymouth and Saratoga. He also switched his flag to the Susquehanna before setting out for the Ryukyu island chain, a small archipelago south of the Japanese Home Islands.The Ryukus were ruled by a local nobility that also shunned outsiders. In late May, Perry arrived with his reduced squadron at Okinawa, the main island in the Ryukyus. He demanded the right to land sailors and marines, as well as a coal station and trading rights. Perry knew that the shoguns government would be aware of his visit to the islands. After meeting with Ryukyu King Sh Tai at Shuri Castle, he obtained promises that the Ryukus would be open to trade with the United States. His success confirmed the power of gunboat diplomacy and his squadron prepared to descend on Japan in June 1853.The First Visit in 1853Dinner aboard the USS Powhatan during its first visit to Japan, 1853. Source: nomunication.jpOn July 8, 1853, Perrys squadron arrived at Edo Bay near what is today Tokyo. His ships were surrounded by Japanese guard ships ordering him to withdraw. When he refused, both Japanese and American vessels remained at anchor, waiting for the impasse to end. Perry turned away port officials and demanded to meet with high-ranking Japanese diplomats because he wanted to deliver the Webster letter. He also refused to take his fleet to Nagasaki when asked to do so.On land, the Shogunate was in serious turmoil. Shogun Ieyoshi was very sick and his government was divided. Many Japanese feared that they did not have the firepower to stand up to the Americans. After emergency consultations, Japanese advisors to the shogun including Abe Masahiro decided that accepting the American letter was not a violation of Japans sovereignty. They also allowed Perry to land a small party in Kurihama.On July 14, Perry landed with 250 sailors and marines and formally delivered the letter. His squadron left, promising to return when the Japanese had an answer to the Fillmore administrations inquiry. Ieyoshi died shortly afterwards and was replaced by his son, Tokugawa Iesada. All the daimys were consulted on how to respond; they were equally divided. Some believed that trade ties with America would benefit Japan and that Japan was too weak to fight. Others insisted that giving in to Americas demands would be a violation of Japans sovereignty. In the meantime, Japan prepared its defenses for Perrys return.Perrys Return in 1854Commodore Perry during the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa, 1854. Source: ThoughtCoPerry hoped to reinforce the notion that he was serious about Japan accepting the terms of his agreement. When his fleet returned to Edo Bay on February 13, 1854, he had eight ships instead of the original four and a complement of 1,600 sailors and marines. Another supply ship arrived later. By this point, the shogunate had agreed to almost all of the American demands. However, there was a disagreement about where to meet. After repeated threats, both sides settled on the village of Yokohama. Perry landed there with a party of 500 sailors and marines.Notwithstanding Perrys prior threats, he did bring with him gifts for the emperor and shogun. Many of the American gifts were designed to highlight the technological prowess of the United States: for instance, one of the gifts was a miniature steam locomotive. Several ceremonies toned down the tension between both countries. Finally, after some additional negotiations, the Americans and Japanese signed the Treaty of Kanagawa. This agreement gave the United States the ability to build coaling stations at the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate. It also allowed for the creation of an American consulate. Perry left Japan in early summer.Japanese troops in action during the First Sino-Japanese War, 1894-1895. Source: The Japan VisitorThe Tokugawa shoguns concerns that they would lose power upon opening up to foreigners were not misplaced. While the process took over a decade, the Treaty of Kanagawa and the arrival of other European powers such as the British and the French led to the Meiji Restoration in 1868, which brought an end to both the Sakoku policy and the shogunate itself.The Meiji Emperor and his advisors sought to modernize Japan with western technology, but remained anxious about encroachments by the United States and European powers. Japan sought imperial expansion on its own account, defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and Russia a decade later in the Russo-Japanese War. When Commodore Perry opened the door to Japan in 1854, he inadvertently set the stage for the clash between the United States and Japan in the Pacific during the Second World War.

From 1907 to 1909, President Theodore Roosevelt sent a fleet including 16 capital ships around the world as a demonstration of American power. This so-called Great White Fleet voyage helped solidify the United States reputation as a prominent naval power at the beginning of the 20th century. It also gave the US Navy valuable experience in fleet operations.Roosevelts Belief in Naval PowerTheodore Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy with Naval War College faculty, 1897. Source: US Naval InstituteEver since he was a young man, Theodore Roosevelt had always expressed an interest in American naval power. He had long been a proponent of the belief that the United States needed to project military force abroad in order to display its strength. As Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he established a close relationship with Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, who was a major proponent of the idea that naval power defined a nations capabilities. Roosevelt incorporated Mahans ideas into his policies during his presidency.When Roosevelt was inaugurated following the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, the US Navy had 160 warships available for combat operations. Senior politicians and admirals had ambitions for an even larger fleet. Roosevelt had been impressed by the US Navys performance against the Spanish and he hoped to demonstrate to other European countries that the United States was a world power. Additionally, there were tensions between the United States and Japan after the Japanese blamed Roosevelts mediation of the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth to end the Russo-Japanese War for denying them reparations from Russia. The administration believed that a visit by the US fleet bearing gifts would cool down some of the anger from the riots.Naval expeditions to show strength were not a new concept in American history. In 1838, several American vessels sailed across the Pacific as part of the Exploring Expedition to conduct scientific research. This expedition, however, would be one of the largest in American history to date in terms of tonnage. It provided an opportunity for American sailors to conduct fleet maneuvers and practice long-distance sailing procedures.Preparing the FleetRear Admiral Robley Evans, the first commander of the squadron when it left Hampton Roads, 1912. Source: Army-Navy ClubWhile the navy had a large number of warships available for the expedition, it faced some major logistical challenges. There was a lack of coal stations available, meaning that the fleet would have to stop at British coal stations on its voyage. Additionally, some of the ships in the fleet were not fully seaworthy by the scheduled date of departure. Nonetheless, Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, the first commanding officer of the fleet, was determined to sail on his scheduled date and contracted several colliers (ships designed to carry coal) to join his ships. Evans, an experienced veteran of the Civil War and Spanish-American War, had the confidence of much of Washington to accomplish his mission.The fleet was scheduled to leave Hampton Roads in Virginia in December 1907. Every ship had been built after the war against Spain, but all were technically outdated because they were pre-dreadnoughts. Nonetheless, they packed a potent punch and could carry sufficient supplies for the voyage. 16 capital ships were part of the fleet, led by the USS Connecticut, the lead ship of the Connecticut class of pre-dreadnoughts. The battleships were organized in four divisions, all led by a rear admiral, with auxiliary ships bringing up the rear. During the voyage, some ships were detached for additional duties.Roosevelt was determined to see the expedition sail, even against congressional opposition. Maine Senator Eugene Hale, a fellow Republican, announced he would oppose any funding for the fleet, arguing it was a waste of money. Roosevelt responded by saying that the fleet would sail anyway.The Fleet Sets SailThe Great White Fleet. Painting by John Charles Roach, 1984. Source: US Naval History and Heritage CommandOn December 16, 1907, the USS Connecticut led the first ships of the Great White Fleet out of Hampton Roads. The fleets departure was a memorable sight as thousands of onlookers gathered to watch. President Roosevelt himself watched from the presidential yacht Mayflower, remarking, Did you ever see such a fleet and such a day? The ships sailed several hundred yards apart from one another, maintaining a tight formation. Admiral Evans hoped to make good time as the fleet sailed into the South Atlantic.The fleets plan was to sail around Cape Horn and get to San Francisco by the spring of 1908. Despite the notorious winds and storms routinely striking the cape, enough sailors had gone around it so that future crews could avoid the worst conditions in the area. Despite no pilot showing up to help the fleet through the Magellan Strait, Admiral Evans ordered the fleet to sail. No ships were lost or seriously damaged during this passage. In February 1908, the fleet arrived in the Chilean port of Valparaiso and continued northward to Callao, Peru.Part of the voyages purpose was to train officers and crews in large fleet maneuvers. Before entering Callaos harbor, Admiral Evans ordered the fleet to execute a gridiron turn. This involved all the ships in tight formation turning sharply together. After visiting Peru, the fleet continued on to Mexico and arrived at San Francisco on May 6, 1908. The first leg of the trip had been completed successfully.From California to ManilaPostcard of the fleet near the Columbia River in Oregon, 1908. Source: greatwhitefleet.usFrom May to July, the fleet steamed up and down the Pacific coast, attracting massive crowds along the way. When it arrived at Seattle, some 400,000 people gathered to watch it enter the harbor. In late May, the fleet returned to San Francisco to prepare for its voyage across the Pacific to the Philippines. At this point, Admiral Evans had fallen ill and had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Charles Sperry. Sperry was a less experienced officer than Evans but was still considered capable enough to carry out Roosevelts mission.When the fleet left San Francisco for the second time in July 1908, its composition had changed slightly. The battleships Maine and Alabama had to remain in port because of engine problems that had bedeviled them on the first part of the voyage. They were replaced by the ships Nebraska and Wisconsin which had been scheduled to return to the East Coast regardless of the Great White Fleets scheduled stop. While on the West Coast, 129 men deserted, a relatively low number for the time.Later in the month, the fleet stopped in Hawaii, at this point a territory of the United States. The major facilities that came to define Pearl Harbor had not been developed yet, so Admiral Sperry could not remain long. The next leg of the trip was the longest stretch without docking. After stopping in New Zealand and Australia, the fleet went on to the Philippines, recently conquered from Spain in the Spanish-American War, and called at Manila.The Last Leg HomeRubble from the earthquake in Messina, Italy, which occurred when the fleet was in port, 1908. Source: greatwhitefleet.usThe fleets time in Manila was marred by a cholera outbreak in the city, meaning that all leave was canceled. After a week, Admiral Sperry ordered his ships to sail on to Yokohama harbor in Japan. Roosevelt had insisted the fleet stop there as a courtesy in order to tone down the tensions between the United States and Japan. Japan reciprocated, pulling out all the stops to welcome Admiral Sperry and his crews. After a week in Japan, the fleet split in two, with one squadron headed to Amoy (Xiamen), China, and the rest headed back to Manila.Relations between the Chinese and the Americans were tense because of the fear that the United States wanted to take control of a Chinese port. While these concerns were justified, since several European colonial powers had obtained concessions in Chinese ports during the latter half of the 19th century, American officers sought to convince Chinese officials that they had good intentions, and no major incidents occurred during the brief stay. On December 1, the reassembled fleet left Manila after performing some battle drills. They stopped in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and headed through the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean.Their time in the Mediterranean Sea coincided with a major earthquake off the coast of Messina in Sicily, causing major damage and devastation to the island. Several ships were detached to provide supplies to the victims, including the flagship USS Connecticut. Other vessels were sent to visit different ports in the region as a courtesy call before the fleet went back to Hampton Roads. When the fleet reassembled at Gibraltar, two captains were relieved of duty. On February 22, 1909, the Great White Fleet reentered Hampton Roads after braving severe storms in the Atlantic Ocean.Aftermath and LegacyPresident Roosevelt speaking to the crew of the USS Connecticut after their return home, 1909. Source: Naval GazingBy sailing a major fleet around the world, the United States showcased the ability to project force far from its borders. The expedition was a manifestation of Roosevelts Big Stick Policy: the idea that by making a great show of force, the United States would not have to resort to it. He also hoped that the United States would take Great Britains place as the worlds predominant naval power, a process that would take place gradually over the first half of the 20th century.The expedition highlighted important strengths of the navy, such as the sailing proficiency of its crews and low desertion rates. It also exposed some weaknesses. The ships, while all were recently built, were outdated by new dreadnoughts appearing in other navies. The lack of resupply stations abroad meant that the fleet was reliant on resupply from other countries. Additionally, none of the warships got involved in combat while sailing. This meant that some deficiencies were not addressed until WWI.As the fleet circumnavigated the globe, the first dreadnoughts in the US Navy were undergoing sea trials. The start of the 20th century saw a massive shift in the projection of naval power. More ships were armed with heavy guns and bigger engines. When the US Navy joined the Allied fleet in the North Sea to blockade German ports during the First World War, it was manned by crews who had learned from the Great White Fleet on how to conduct fleet maneuvers at sea far from home.

The use of military force to secure political and diplomatic objectives has been commonplace throughout history, but gunboat diplomacy is used to refer to how European countries and the United States used threats of naval force to bully weaker countries into granting them concessions. While gunboat diplomacy was a major facet of the Age of Imperialism that characterized the international order before the world wars, there are more recent examples in the 20th century.What Is Gunboat Diplomacy?Front cover of James Cables book on gunboat diplomacy, 2016. Source: SpringerIn October 2001, the Daily Telegraph wrote an obituary about the seminal British thinker and diplomat James Cable, describing him as one of the most influential naval strategic thinkers of the last half-century. Born in 1920, Cable was a veteran of military service during the Second World War, the UK ambassador to Finland, and a lifelong diplomat in the UK Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office. Cable wrote nine books on the use of military power in supporting diplomatic objectives. Two of his books became famous for their discussions about the power of gunboat diplomacy.In his writing on the topic, Cable defined gunboat diplomacy as the use or threat of limited naval force, otherwise than as an act of war, in order to secure advantage or to avert loss, either in furtherance of an international dispute or else against foreign nationals within the territory or the jurisdiction of their own state. He broke down the topic into four subcategories: definitive, expressive, catalytic, and purposeful. While all four types of gunboat diplomacy differed in their approaches, they all had the same outcome: achieving ones objectives through the military threat.Cables writing was not unique; other analysts had written about the concept of using force to gain what they wanted. However, his work created a bedrock of research for other scholars to emulate. He also argued that the practice did not end after the 19th century, but continued to be used at the time he wrote his books. His analysis was the most thorough of any scholar who researched the topic.The Pacifico AffairLord Palmerston, Britains foreign minister during the Pacifico Affair, date unknown. Source: HistoricUKOne prominent case study of gunboat diplomacy was the Pacifico Affair in 1850. In April 1847, the prominent British businessman James Mayer de Rothschild visited Athens, Greece to negotiate a loan with the Greek government. The annual burning in effigy of Judas Iscariot was canceled because the Greek government thought it would offend Rothschild. Many local Greeks were enraged and blamed Don David Pacifico, a former Portuguese diplomat and British citizen. A crowd rioted outside his home and broke in to seize his belongings.The British government was angered by the attack on one of its citizens. Foreign Minister Lord Palmerston, who would later serve two terms as prime minister, asked that Pacifico compile a list of the property stolen from him. Palmerston had supported Greek independence, but he insisted that the Greeks compensate Pacifico. Over 16 months elapsed before Pacifico complained to the British government that the Greeks had not helped him. As a result, the British were resolved to act and Palmerston asked the Royal Navy to blockade Athens and, if necessary, seize Greeces fleet.From January to March 1850, the British Royal Navy blockaded Athens and seized several Greek ships. This caused a dispute with France and Russia, who were also backers of Greece. However, King Otto relented and agreed to compensate Pacifico for the property seized from him with 120,000 drachmas. Despite backlash in London, Palmerston successfully showed that British naval power was capable of gaining concessions without even needing to use force, simply because of its power and reputation.The Second American-Barbary WarShips of the US Navy led by Commodore William Bainbridge returning from North Africa in 1815, 1905. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough the US Navy was still in its infancy, the United States practised gunboat diplomacy soon after gaining independence. At the start of the 19th century, several US naval squadrons went to the North African coastline to protect American ships from being seized by vessels of the North African kingdoms. The Tripolitans engaged in serious hostilities with the Americans before being forced to sign a treaty promising to stop attacking American ships. However, the Algerians continued to attack American ships because the United States was distracted by the War of 1812.In February 1815, President James Madison asked Congress for funds to send a squadron to force Algiers to stop seizing American ships and sailors. Commodores Stephen Decatur and William Bainbridge took two separate flotillas to blockade Algiers and force Dey Omar Agha to sign a treaty. Several Algerian ships were taken by force and the US Navy blockaded Algiers in June 1815. Realizing that his forces were outmatched, Agha agreed to sign a peace treaty with the United States that involved releasing seized American ships and sailors.The Americans did not need to actually seize control of Algiers to gain what they wanted. Even though Agha continued to seize foreign ships, he did not attack American vessels going forward. American policymakers learned from this that naval power was essential to the countrys ability to grow on the international stage. To this day, the United States has a fleet stationed in the Mediterranean to promote its interests, a legacy of its longstanding commitment to the region.Independence of PanamaConstruction of the Panama Canal, 1903. Source: The GuardianA major reason Panama has independence today is because the United States used gunboat diplomacy to force Colombia to recognize Panamanian sovereignty. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major supporter of the practice of using force to expand Americas global reach. For several decades, the US government envisaged building a canal in Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Roosevelt intended for the canal to run through the Panamanian isthmus, then controlled by Colombia. Because Colombias government, led by Jos Manuel Marroqun, refused to support American ownership of the canal, Roosevelt vowed to support Panamanian secession in the hope that a new government would grant him his wish.In October 1903, the US Navy sent ships to steam off Panamas coast and landed Marines to seize the railroad line. They landed more forces in November to deter any Colombian response. On November 4, Panamanian rebels declared independence from Colombia. The US recognized Panamanian independence immediately and worked on a treaty with the new government led by Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero.On November 18, 1903, the US and Panamanian governments signed the Panama Canal Treaty ensuring that the US would protect Panama from Colombia in exchange for control of the Canal Zone. Colombia had no choice but to recognize Panamas independence because it was too weak to stand up to the United States. Without any major battles, the United States supported the secession of a territory from a sovereign nation for political and economic gains, a case of what Cable called purposeful force.The Danzig Crisis in 1932Polish destroyer ORP Wicher at anchor, 1930. Source: ww2aircraft.netThe period leading up to WWII saw new powers in Central and Eastern Europe attempt to use force to gain concessions from their neighbors. One major issue bedeviling the Polish government was how to resolve the issue of control over Danzig. After Poland gained independence, the city of Danzig (Gdnsk) was designated a Free City supervised by the League of Nations. While Poland agreed to respect the citys autonomy, it insisted on representing Danzig at the League of Nations and being allowed to station warships in the city harbor.In March 1931, Danzigs Senate stripped Poland of the right to dock warships in the citys harbor. This was in part due to pressure from Germany, which opposed any more Polish control over the city and its environs. Fearing that Poland would be cornered on this issue at the Lausanne Conference, Jzef Pisudski, the de facto Polish leader, decided to order the destroyer ORP Wicher to sail to the harbor at the same time some British warships were visiting. He hoped to force Danzig to accept terms favorable to Warsaw.On June 15, 1932, the Wicher arrived at Danzig alongside several British vessels and docked in the port. Apart from some protests, no one harassed the crew. After a couple of days, the Polish and British ships departed. Foreign Minister August Zaleski pleaded Polands case and managed to secure terms for a new treaty ensuring Poland had a right to dock ships in Danzigs harbor. It was the only time Poland engaged in gunboat diplomacy in its history.Operation VantageIraqi Prime Minister Abd al-Karim Qasim in uniform during a military exercise, 1961. Source: Al MajallaEven as Britains empire eroded after WWII, London hoped to maintain as much influence as possible on the international stage. It propped up several friendly Middle Eastern governments, especially the Kingdom of Kuwait. There was a fear that Pan-Arab governments like Iraq and Egypt posed a threat to the UKs allies in the region. In 1958, when General Abdul-Karim Qasim seized power in Baghdad, Western policymakers became very concerned about Jordan and Kuwaits stability.Prime Minister Qasim was not a Pan-Arabist, nor did he desire a conflict with the West. However, he shared many Iraqi nationalists views on Kuwait being a fake country that should be incorporated into Iraq. Kuwait had declared independence in June 1961, something that officials in Baghdad opposed. Qasim ordered Iraqi forces to the border of the new state and declared Kuwait to be a part of Iraq. He was opposed by the Arab League, which pledged to support Kuwaits emir, Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah. Al-Sabah also requested assistance from UK Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. Thousands of Saudi and British troops arrived in Kuwait, backed up by the Royal Navy.Qasim backed off and was subsequently overthrown in a coup in 1963. By moving ground and naval forces to Kuwait, Britain successfully engaged in what Cable called catalytic force, or the use of military power to buy actors time to resolve a problem. Kuwait faced more trouble from Iraq in 1991 but was saved again by the Arab League and Western powers.

There is no denying that Captain John Smith led an extraordinary life. From humble beginnings on a farm to life as a soldier and later a founding member of Jamestowns Virginia Colony, Smiths existence was rife with adventure and accomplishments. Contemporary accounts, then later histories and mediafrom novels to Disney moviestold his stories. His interesting activities were further elaborated in his writings and memoirs-but how much of his recollection is true? What is myth and what is the truth behind the man that was John Smith?Farmers Son to SoldierCaptain John Smith portrayed in lithograph. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia CommonsAlice Rickard Smith gave birth to her eldest son with husband George on January 9, 1580. Four more sons and a daughter would follow, completing the Smith family that lived in Lincolnshire, England. The oldest Smith son, John, was educated at King Edward VI Grammar School and later became an apprentice to a merchant. He desired to become a sailor, even running away at one point to seek work on a ship. His father contested his plan and returned his son to land. However, when the boy was 16, his father died, and his mother remarried. He decided to terminate his apprenticeship and leave his home country, eager to see the world. John sailed to France to join his countrymen who were serving as soldiers fighting the Spanish. He had no military experience but learned in the field. After two years of service, he returned to England an effective fighting man.A replica of the Discovery, one of the three ships that left England to found Jamestown. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSmith spent some time at home in England, building a crude shelter and living off the land. He spent a lot of time reading and improving his horsemanship. Within two years, he was back on the battlefield. Smith fought on behalf of the Holy Roman Empire, spending time waging war in Slovenia, Romania, and Austria, among other locations. He was promoted to captain and received several awards for bravery.However, despite Smiths accomplishments, he wasnt invincible. In 1602, he was wounded in a battle against the Turks. Subsequently, he was captured and forced into slavery. He was marched 600 miles to Constantinople under his new captors direction, then was moved to what is now Russia to serve a new master. After some time in slavery, he eventually killed his holder and escaped. Traveling a great distance, Smith traveled through what is now Russia, Ukraine, Germany, France, Spain, and Morocco to make his way home to England by 1604.Some historians estimate that his travels covered over 10,000 miles. His exploits impressed important people, and Smith caught the eye of men who were eyeing the New World for permanent settlement. The board of the Virginia Company of London recruited him to join their envoy, set on establishing a colony in Virginia. In December 1606, Smith was among the 104 settlers on three ships bound for the American coast.Adventures in JamestownReconstruction of homes in the Jamestown Settlement in Virginia. Source: Morgan Riley via Wikimedia CommonsSmith was 27 when he undertook the dangerous journey to the New World. It proved to be even riskier than he expected, as on the voyage, he was accused of mutinous actions and imprisoned in the ships hold. However, tides changed for Smith upon arrival in Virginia. A sealed letter from the Virginia Company was opened upon landing, providing instructions for the implementation of the new colony. In the letter, Smith was one of seven men named to the settlements governing council, resulting in his release. There was some disagreement as to whether he should take his seat, but in the end, supporters, including the colonys minister, helped him secure his place on the council.Remnants of the Jamestown settlement in Virginia. Source: Ken Lund via Wikimedia CommonsThe colony continued to have difficulties as it attempted to carve out an existence in the wilds of Virginia. The colonists had arrived in the New World during a period of severe drought, which made establishing crops incredibly difficult. In addition to food shortages, the settlers faced challenges in finding clean drinking water, and suffering from disease. The brackishness of the James River seemed to make the settlers more susceptible to illnesses like typhoid and dysentery. There was an intent to focus on searching for the gold that was rumored to be hiding in the wilds of the area rather than making efforts to help the colony survive.Bickering was common among the colonists and the members of the governing board. By the end of the first year in Jamestown, only 38 of the over 100 original men remained alive. Adding to their tenuous existence was an up-and-down relationship with Native Americans. Though Smith had organized some trade agreements with the locals, tension still existed as settlers expanded their territory, movements, and use of local resources.Powhatan prepared to receive John Smith, an image detail from Smiths maps of Virginia. Source: Internet Book Archive via Wikimedia CommonsDuring the winter of 1607, Smith was exploring when he was intercepted by Opechancanough, the chief of the Pamunkey tribe. Opechancanough, who would later prove to be an influential player during King Philips War, turned Smith over to Powhatan, the leader of the local Indigenous confederacy. In spending time with Powhatan, Smith observed several traditional ceremonies. He later wrote of meeting Powhatans daughter Pocahontas, whom he claimed saved his life after he was sentenced to death. Powhatan eventually released his prisoner, and Smith returned to Jamestown to meet the new colonists who had arrived in January 1608. There were stipulations attached to Smiths release, including the expectation that a trade relationship with Powhatan was to commence. Jamestown would pay the tribe with firearms and other goods and in return, would be provided with food.Conflict & EnemiesStatue of Smith in Bow Churchyard in England. Source: Andrew Wilkinson via Wikimedia CommonsSmith spent the summer of 1608 mapping the Chesapeake Bay region and searching for gold and the Northwest Passage. While his searches proved fruitless, the journeys did result in detailed maps and written descriptions of the area. When he returned, Smith was named president of Jamestowns governing council. He recognized the importance of focusing on the immediate survival of the colony rather than searching for riches and instituted a policy of he that will not work shall not eat.While Smiths strict leadership reduced the colonys death toll and ushered in an era of improvements, his strongarm rule resulted in a cultivation of a group of enemies. Many of these men were from the gentleman class in England and were not used to laboring alongside those they considered lower class. Smiths relationship with Powhatan proved useful in providing the colony with food, though the relationship between Jamestown and the Powhatan Confederacy fluctuated.In 1609, Smith was injured in a gunpowder explosion, a mishap considered by historians to be suspicious. A second assassination attempt not long after also failed as the selected assassin failed to follow through on his assignment. Smiths injuries as a result of the gunpowder incident resulted in his being forced to give up leadership and return to England.Memoirs or Tall Tales?Title page of Smiths The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles. Source: Barry Lawrence Ruderman via Wikimedia CommonsUpon his return to England, Smith refused to give up his life of adventure. He returned to the American coast to map New England and visited Pocahontas, who had married tobacco grower John Rolfe, in England. He spent time writing, releasing The Generall Historie of Virginia and The True Adventures and Observations of Captain John Smith. While Smiths writings proved popular and have provided details to historians through the ages for their rich descriptions and geographical narratives, parts of them have come into question.John Smith and Pocahontas from A History of the United States, 1854. Source: Internet Book Archive via Wikimedia CommonsFor example, in 1624, Smith wrote the story of his alleged rescue by Pocahontas. However, this was the first time the story was seen in print, despite Smiths writings about his time with Powhatan published in 1608 and 1612. Pocahontas was only about 11 at the time of Smiths incarceration, making it unlikely that she was present at legal proceedings or would exert that type of influence over her father. The doubt around this story becomes even more salient when examining Smiths written work as a whole: he described being saved from execution by beautiful women in various locations around the globe at least five times in his writings.Title page of Smiths maps of Virginia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsStill, archaeology in Jamestown and other historical references have confirmed many of the details that Smith wrote about in his books, including descriptions of Native settlements, geographical details, and accounts of certain discoveries. So, why did Smith appear to lie about some of his adventures? Some historians argue that he was like many other European explorers of his era, set on promoting himself and his legacy by exaggerating his adventures. It can never be said for certain how accurate Smiths retellings are as a whole, though definite truths and definite falsehoods can both be defined.A Disputed LegacyAdventures of Captain John Smith in Virginia, 1624. Source: Barry Lawrence Ruderman via Wikimedia CommonsA hero to some, and a scoundrel to others, John Smith leaves a conflicting legacy to the history of America and the world. While his exploits have amazed the public through centuries, it is believed that many err on the side of fiction, a man perhaps trying to add to his own legend as a hero of exploration. Efforts to examine history from different perspectives, including that of Americas Indigenous peoples, lend further challenges to celebrating Smiths legacy. At the same time, Smith left impeccable details that have contributed to a better understanding of early colonial life in America. John Smith is an excellent reminder of the challenges of deciphering and understanding history centuries after the fact.