The idea of chivalry has gone from the stereotypical image of a knight in shining armor rescuing a maiden who has been imprisoned in some evil mans castle in the Middle Ages (like in many fairytales), to the notion of a modern-day man holding a door open for a woman. But chivalry in the Middle Ages went far beyond the fairytale version. Read on to discover the true meaning of chivalry and why it was so well-respected and important in the medieval world.The Origins of ChivalryKonrad von Limpurg as a knight being armed by his lady, by Master of the Codex Manesse, c. 1350. Source: Heidelberg University Digital LibraryChivalry as a movementsometimes called the chivalric movementwas associated with the late 12th and early 13th centuries in Europe. To be more specific, it was developed and the idea was refined between 1170 and 1220. This period is sometimes referred to as the High Middle Ages, and combined with the notion of a knight in shining armor, this is naturally why we associate chivalry with these peak years of the European Middle Ages.How did chivalry develop? The origins can be traced much further back than the 12th century, instead going back to the Carolingian Empire (800-887 CE).The name comes from the bravery associated with cavalrymensoldiers who fought on horseback. The French term chevalerie translates into English as horse soldiery. This was due to the immense bravery, dedication to individual training, and service to others that they showed both on and off the battlefield. These soldiers became idolized and later remembered fondly, particularly in the Kingdom of France, by the late 12th century.However, over the years, the idea of chivalry became refined and was later used not just to reference mounted soldiers but also the ideas of honor, respect, and manners. These were naturally accompanied by the ideals of bravery, teamwork, and moral ethos, which took on a secondary element to the overall notion of chivalry.Literary Chivalric Examples From the Middle AgesAnachronistic portrait of Ramon Llull, by Francisco Ribalta, c. 1620. Source: Catalan National Art MuseumThere are several examples of chivalric behavior from the Middle Ages that really cemented the ideals of chivalry and also showed how the idea was refined from its original definition.The interesting thing about these three works is that none of the authors of these texts had any knowledge of the other two, yet, when the three are combined, it shows just how close their ideas of chivalry and chivalric behavior were.First, it is in the medieval poem (whose author is unknown) titled Ordene de Chevalerie, and it tells the story of the Crusader knight Hugh II of Tiberias, who was captured by the Infidel. He was then released upon agreeing to show Saladin the ritual of Christian knighthood. This poem was written around the year 1220, in the very early years of the development of chivalry.Portrait of Saladin, 1584. Source: The British MuseumThe second example is found in the Libre del Ordre de Cavayleria, which was written by the Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull (1232-1315). The main focus of this work is knighthood, and essentially what a good knight should do, think, and act like. This was written in either the 13th or the very early 14th century.Finally, the Livre de Chevalerie, by Geoffroi de Charny (130056), examines the primary qualities of knighthood, with a particular emphasis on the idea of prowess. Geoffroi de Charny was a French knight and a close friend of King Louis IX. He was a renowned knight and fought in the early years of the Hundred Years War, showing that the idea of chivalry was still being developed and refined as late as the mid-14th century.There are several key factors that bring these different texts together, despite them being written almost 200 years apart. Firstly, religion is a key idea. Christianity and chivalry went hand-in-hand in the Middle Ages. One could not be chivalrous if one were not a Christian, as fighting for the good cause (Christianity, Christendom, Christ, God, and so on) was deemed a noble thing to do.Nobility was a secondary themethe characters in these works had good moral compasses. Hugh II of Tiberias showed the Muslim leader Saladin the ideals of Christian knighthood, rather than stabbing his mortal enemy in the back.Militarism is the third element of the worksall of the works reference knighthood as their primary theme: how can anyone but a knight be chivalrous? All of these top examples would inspire future knights and make them want to become chivalrous and be remembered in tales and works centuries later.The Rise of Chivalry in the Middle AgesGod Speed, by Edmund Leighton, 1900. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBefore 1170, there had been some uncertain and loose ideas of chivalry floating aroundit was not that as soon as 1170 arrived, knights began to behave according to the unwritten code of chivalry.Instead, knights had previously obeyed what was known as the noble habitus, or a code of moral and noble conduct. This was an aim to become a sensible and wise man, and interestingly, it was just as expected of peasants as it was of knights. In turn, this meant that this idea was as relevant to men who had nothing to do with the military as it was to those who were in the military.Themes such as loyalty, hardiness, bravery, and generosity dominated the forefront of the noble habitus.The Crisis of CourtlinessHenry the Young King, c. 1250. Source: GetArchiveFrom the late 12th century onwards, the idea of chivalry came to be understood as a religious, moral, and social code of knightly conduct. Knights were hugely respected and were expected to carry these values with them everywhere. Not just on the battlefield, but in their domestic life too. Therefore, the idea of a knight in shining armor prevailed long after the events of the battlefield had unfolded, meaning that chivalry took on another theme: courtliness.An example of this so-called crisis of courtliness can be traced back to Henry the Young King, who was the eldest son and heir of King Henry II of England (r. 1154-89), before his death. Henrys heir then became his next eldest son, who went on to rule as King Richard I (ironically, one of the most revered chivalric monarchs in English history).Henry the Young King was known for his lavish lifestyle and spent most of his time attending tourneys and hosting great feasts, rather than being involved in domestic or foreign affairs. Some historians claim that Henry II funded this sort of lifestyle for his son, so that he would not meddle in political affairs and get in his way, while others simply think that Young Henry had the funds to do as he pleased, so he did exactly that.Being the Kings son, Young Henry was naturally a knight, but his lifestyle went against the whole notion of chivalryto paraphrase a modern idiom, he spent his money on wine, women, and song. This outraged those who were keen to establish the ideal of chivalry beyond the battlefield, so it was arguably the influence of Young Henrys lifestyle that transformed the notion of chivalry from a battlefield ideal to one that should be upheld in court, too.Christian ChivalryKnights on Crusade, c. 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs mentioned earlier, Christianity and chivalry went hand-in-hand, and one of the best examples of this was how crusader knights were revered.Knights who fought in the Crusades, and upheld their chivalric valuessuch as praying at certain chapels, donating alms to the poor, rescuing citizens from the Infidel, and most importantly, fighting for Christendom against Islamwere held in such high esteem that they were almost untouchable. And to the minds of those in medieval Europe, how could they be criticized when they were fighting in the name of God?However, it was not just fighting as a warrior of God that meant knights in the Middle Ages were chivalric heroes; it was also the Virgin Mary. Women had a place in chivalryknights were in effect protecting one of the most revered figures in medieval Christianity, the mother of Jesus Christ himself.The Downfall of Chivalry in the Late Middle AgesEdward III, by William Bruges, c. 1450. Source: British LibraryChivalry is so associated with the High Middle Ages because of the notion of knights in shining armor whisking away fair maidens from evil overlords, and that image of chivalry has stuck in our heads ever since. The romantic element of chivalry is not lost to some, but the militaristic element has been. But when exactly did it die out?To say that it died out is probably unfairit was arguably the development of warfare from the mid-14th century onwards that contributed to the decline of chivalry.One notable example comes from the Hundred Years War, and especially from the years of English dominance from the 1340s onwards, under King Edward III of England (r. 1327-77). Many armies were being bolstered by the use of mercenaries (paid soldiers) at this point, which went against the ideal of fighting nobly for ones country out of duty and commitment to the Crown.The Battle of Crecy, by Jean Froissart, 15th century. Source: BnFAnother element was that because the size of armies was increasing, it meant that more and more common people were being drafted into fighting forces, and they played arguably a more significant role than the knights did in certain battles, such as the peasant longbowmen who were so dominant in the field at the Battle of Crcy (1346) and the Battle of Poitiers (1356), and helped turn the war in favor of the English.This also showed that the traditional chivalric element of bravery on mounted horseback (as the French army attempted at both of those aforementioned battles) was a failure against the superior tactic of the English longbow. This meant that a huge element of chivalry had been defeated, and as such, this was likely one of the turning points when chivalry turned away from militarism and knights on horseback, and instead turned into the social and moral code that we tend to associate it with today.Chivalry in the Middle Ages: Final ThoughtsKnight, Death, and the Devil, by Albrecht Drer, 1513. Source: The Met, New YorkChivalry in the Middle Ages was not a complex idea, but was more a development in social, religious, and moral thinking from the late 12th century onwards. Without chivalric elements, it could even be suggested that codes of war and ideas like the Geneva Convention would never have come about. Respect and graciousness in defeat also come from chivalry, too.While the idea has transformed from the original notion of brave knights on horseback, to a respectful code at home as well as on the battlefield, and eventually to romantic literature and the idea of the knight in shining armor, chivalry is not dead to this day. Just as it never died in the Late Middle Ages, it is just that a notion that has changed.What was chivalric in the Middle Ages is not necessarily chivalric todaywe no longer fight wars on horseback or with swords, but we can still be respectful to other religions, other people, and fight in what we each believe is a good cause, while still holding respect for other views. That is chivalric, and chivalry is not dead.

In modern-day society, it is easy to see how Japan differs from Europe. Cultural ideals in Japan are just about as far away from European (or Western) culture as you can getbut how far back do these differences go? In this article, we will explore just how different these two cultures were, or whether they were different at all, by looking at religion, warfare, society, kingship, and more.Similarities: 1. The Feudal SystemInvestiture of a Knight, from the Order of the Knot, c. 1352. Source: Gallica Digital LibraryIn both medieval worlds, there was a key hierarchical system. In medieval Japan, the emperor was at the top, with various ranks of nobles beneath him, and eventually at the bottom of the social caste was the peasant, or the common man.In effect, it was not too dissimilar in medieval Europethere was the King or Queen at the top, followed by various ranks of nobles including marquesses, dukes, barons, viscounts, and knights, after which following were merchants, and then peasants at the bottom.These systems offered a social ranking that everyone was aware ofpeople knew that a peasants main job was to provide food, and get paid a pittance for it from their landlord. In turn, that lord would then sell the food to the ranks above, who would deal with distribution and taxation for the crown, and so on.In medieval Japan, the system was much the same. Peasants were the providers, and the higher ranks (such as samurai) benefited from their hard workan early form of labor exploitation.2. Warrior ClassesSamurai, c. 1700s. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKnights (in Europe) and Samurai (in Japan) were the two distinct warrior classes in both medieval realms. Despite several similarities, there were still some striking differences between the two.Perhaps the biggest difference between them was how they were paid for their services. In medieval Europe, knights could become very powerful by rising through the military ranks, because they tended to be paid in land. A knight could own several castles at any given point, or a certain amount of acres of land.This was how famous knights such as William Marshal, the Eagle of Brittany, and John of Gaunt all became so powerful, and this was especially important in times of turmoil against the king or the sitting monarch.On the other hand, in medieval Japan, samurai were typically paid a salary, rather than granted lands. While this incurred more of an expense for the emperor, this was much more beneficial in terms of the power that the samurai held, ensuring that the emperor always held more.The salary that samurai were typically paid was in rice, rather than in cash, so this also came at a lesser expense for the crown. In certain instances of bad harvests, there was occasionally a rice shortage, but this simply meant that the value of rice went up, so whatever rice the samurai already had a hold of meant that they had more purchasing power with it.3. Political DecentralizationPeasants Revolt, from Froissarts Chronicles, c. 1470. Source: BnFThere were also several similarities in terms of political decentralization. This went hand-in-hand with how the warrior classes were similar in nature.For example, while a king or emperor ruled the country as a whole, the idea that power was spread across the kingdoms was similar in both medieval Europe and medieval Japan.In Europe, for instance, lords and vassals would rule certain areas of land (known as fiefdoms or dukedoms) and be in control of elements such as agricultural production, military output, local taxation, and more.Similarly, in Japan, local areas were often controlled either by samurai or other local lords who reported to a more senior figure, such as the emperor.This meant that the emperor could focus more on things such as foreign policy or internal conflict, while the senior lords were responsible for keeping the peace in their kingdoms.However, decentralized power like this often led to internal conflicts in both medieval Europe and medieval Japan.Events such as the Peasants Revolt in 1381 in England ended up being such a popular movement that it involved King Richard II, who had to put it down. Similarly, the Jacquerie in 1358 in France was another popular revolt that ended up gaining national attention.These often-localized rebellions and uprisings often gained huge support outside of individual lords fiefdoms or territories, and could end up gaining national attention, particularly if the ruling lord had sympathies with the rebels.4. Agricultural EconomiesKinkaku-ji, built in 1397. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnother similarity that was shared between medieval Japan and medieval Europe was that both were built on agricultural economies.While the primary grains differedrice in Japan and wheat in Europethe concept of an agricultural economy remained the same.Peasants were responsible for growing the produce, of which they would keep very little, while the landholders would take their share, and the king or emperor an even larger share.The reason why agricultural economies fluctuated so much in the Middle Ages in both Japan and Europe was that grain prices could skyrocket or drop dramatically, given the harvest and the weather conditions. Another serious consequence of an agricultural economy was that extreme weather events, such as floods or droughts, could lead to mass starvation and famines.For example, the famine that England experienced from 1315-17 was so bad that the agricultural economy did not recover, and neither did harvest numbers and yields, until 1322: seven years after the first year of famine.In medieval Japan, the story was fairly similara bad harvest season for the rice crops meant that the whole country would suffer, from peasants dying of famine and other nutritional-based diseases, to samurai not getting paid, and popular uprisings due to the lack of food.Differences: 1. Military Leadershipishi Yoshio, a samurai, committing seppuku, c. 1703. Source: Waseda University LibraryWhile the different warrior classes discussed earlier represent two similarities that medieval Japan and medieval Europe had in common, their style of military leadership differed greatly.For example, in medieval Japan, the samurai were known for following the strict code of Bushido, which translates as the way of the warrior. They were known for their loyalty and courage and were highly respected in society.Bushido developed during the Kamakura Period (1192-1333), and to this day, it is still studied in military training in Japan. Honor was a huge part of bushido, and samurai were expected to show the highest level of honor even when facing death. It was better to die honorably than die begging for forgiveness in the eyes of medieval Japanese society.However, one striking difference is that one had to be born into a samurai family, and previous generations had to have been samurai for a medieval Japanese man to become a samurai. On the contrary, while most knights came from privileged backgrounds, the idea that anybody could rise to the rank of a knight in medieval Europe set the two apart.A German knight, 1305-15. Source: University of HeidelbergKnights were similar in the sense that they were expected to adhere to the code of chivalry, and this idea had begun to develop around 1170-1220, so on almost the exact same timescale that bushido had begun to develop in Kamakura-era Japan.Chivalry was similar to bushido, but the consequences were not as severe if knights did not adhere to itthey were merely expected to, and the majority of them wanted to. Chivalry had more religious undertones than bushido did, focused on fighting for Christianity, for God, for Christendom, for Christ, with a heavy emphasis on protecting the Virgin Mary as a knight of God, particularly while on a crusade.So while samurai and knights had their similarities, there were also stark differences between the way they operated when it came to bushido vs chivalry.2. Religious DifferencesThe Great Buddha of Asuka-dera, the oldest Buddhist statue in Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsReligion was a major factor in the societies of both medieval Japan and medieval Europe.In Japan during the Middle Ages, there were several different religions operating at one time. Buddhism had spread from the Indian subcontinent, across China, Korea, and into Japan by the mid-6th century CE, so it had been practiced in the country for almost the entirety of the Japanese Middle Ages.In addition, Confucianism, which had spread from China and reached Japan by around the 3rd to the 5th centuries CE, was another familiar religious sect in the country that many people adhered to.Thirdly, there was also Japans native belief system, which predates any historical records. This is called Shinto, and many people also adhered to this.In addition, Emperors in medieval Japan were viewed as god-like figures, and while most medieval kings in Europe held a hugely respectable status, it was not the king but the Pope who held most religious power in medieval Europe.Religion was also hugely important to daily life in medieval Europe, but it was much more structured across the continent. In the Middle Ages, the primary religion was Christianity, and specifically, Catholicism.Multiple services were held every week, and everyone from peasants to kings was expected to attend the majority of them. The Pope, who was based in the Papal States, was viewed as Gods representative on Earth, and thus held all of the power.There were other sects of other religions in medieval Europe at the timeJudaism was practiced by medieval Europes Jews, but was not without its troubles. The jews were expelled from numerous countries, including England in 1290 by King Edward I. Islam had also reached the Iberian peninsula by the 8th century CE, but was generally restricted to southern Spain for the majority of the Middle Ages.3. Social MobilityThe Caravan of Marco Polo, c. 1375. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite the fact that both societies were traditional feudal systems, there were actually some differences in social mobility.In medieval Japan, social mobility was much more rigid than in Europe. For example, while samurai were some of the most revered members of Japanese society, they did not own land. On the contrary, in Europe, knights were also highly respected, but they were often paid in lands for their services to the Crown, which produced a completely different power dynamic.In turn, this means that Japanese samurai were much less socially powerful than knights, and because most people in medieval Europe, through fortune and lots of luck, could work their way up the social hierarchy to become a knight, this gave medieval Europe the edge in terms of social mobility over medieval Japan.However, it was not just military social mobility that was possible in medieval Europe. Social mobility was possible through trades. In medieval Japan, peasants gave birth to the next generation of peasants, while lords and ladies gave birth to the next generation of lords and ladies, and so on.In medieval Europe, while this was the case most of the time, there was a much higher chance of climbing the social ladder. A peasant could give birth to a peasant child, but if that child showed certain military prowess, or was a skilled blacksmith, or even traded well at local markets, they could carve out a career for themselves in one of these industries. Merchants who ran mini-trading empires in medieval Europe, such as those operating from port cities like Genoa, often came from very poor backgrounds themselves, but worked their way up the social ladder.4. Technological AdvancesLanding of Christopher Columbus, by John Vanderlyn, 1846. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt might seem strange, given that Japan is one of the most technologically advanced countries in the modern world, but it was actually quite far behind Europe in terms of technological advancements during the Middle Ages.Part of this was due to Japans lack of contact with the majority of the outside world, whereas by the Late Middle Ages, Europeans were leading the way in contact with other continents: Columbus to the Americas, Vasco da Gama to India and Marco Polo to China, just to name a few explorers in the early Golden Age of European exploration.Europeans tended to focus on navigational technologies, which helped them to explore more of the world than ever before, whereas the Japanese tended to focus instead on internal development and military technologies.In saying this, it was in the mid-16th century that Japan had adopted gunpowder and European-style weapons from European visitors, whereas medieval Europeans tended to develop these technologies from scratch, instead of adopting them and suiting them to their own needs from other cultures.Overall, medieval Europe had a much quicker and larger technological boom than medieval Japan did, but Japans technological boom would come much later and arguably have a bigger impact at the time that it did come.Medieval Europe vs Medieval Japan: ConclusionsPeasants before a castle, from Les trs riches heures du duc de Berry Folio 9, by the Limbourg brothers, 15th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn conclusion, medieval Europe and medieval Japan shared many similarities, but it is important to acknowledge the differences between them. In the Early Middle Ages, neither society knew that the other existed, and both developed at their own pace.Factors such as religion, hierarchical structure, and technological advancements separated these two societies, and it is important to look at the context in which they developed.For example, while medieval Japan had natural disasters such as tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanoes and more to learn how to deal with, medieval Europe had factors such as the Black Death, trade-borne diseases and overpopulation to deal with at the same time, which is why both societies developed at different paces and had hugely different cultures.

In 581 CE, the general Yang Jian seized power from the Northern Zhou and established the Sui Dynasty. The Sui reunified China in 589, but the failure of costly expeditions in Korea led to the collapse of the dynasty in 618. The Tang Dynasty reaped the rewards of Sui investments in the empires infrastructure to usher in a golden age under emperors Taizong and Gaozong. A rebellion by the general An Lushan in the mid-8th century severely weakened central authority, though the dynasty survived until 907.The Sui Reunification of ChinaEmperor Wen of Sui from the Thirteen Emperors Scroll by Yan Liben (Tang Dynasty, 7th century CE). Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 580 CE, Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou was preparing to launch a campaign to conquer the Chen Dynasty in southern China. The commander of the expedition was Yang Jian, the Duke of Sui, a distinguished general from an aristocratic Han Chinese family in northwestern China.Although Yang Jian was his father-in-law, the emperor had been suspicious of the Yang family and threatened to depose his empress in favor of another consort. When the Emperor Xuan unexpectedly died, Yang Jian moved to assume the regency in the name of the seven-year-old Emperor Jing. He then defeated an uprising by the general Yuchi Jiong who sought to restore the imperial familys influence.In 581, Yang Jian founded the Sui Dynasty and is known to history as Emperor Wen of Sui. He built a new capital near Changan and introduced administrative reforms inspired by the Han Dynasty. He was guided by Legalist principles, imposed legal penalties on his own family members for violating the law, and promoted officials based on merit rather than birth.In 589 CE, the Sui generals Gao Jiong and Yang Su led a campaign against the weakened Chen Dynasty, capturing the Chen emperor and sacking the Chen capital of Jiankang (modern Nanjing). The Sui moved the southern capital to Yangzhou, where the emperors son Yang Guang, the Duke of Jin, successfully pacified southern China by showing favor to local Buddhist elites.Expenditures and ExpeditionsThe Grand Canal during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 604 CE, the Duke of Jin became the Emperor Yang upon his fathers death. While the Emperor Wen was responsible for construction of a canal connecting Changan to the Yellow River to facilitate the supply of grain to the capital, in 605, Emperor Yang expanded this system to the Yangtze River, creating a nationwide system of waterways known as the Grand Canal. A further branch was constructed in 608 towards the area of modern Beijing in order to supply armies in the northern frontier.Within months of taking the throne, Emperor Yang established a secondary eastern capital in Luoyang. The city had symbolic significance as the capital of the Eastern Zhou and Eastern Han dynasties, and was also in a strategic position for control of the eastern Yellow River basin. Emperor Yang came under heavy criticism for his lavish spending on his palaces at Luoyang and Changan, and the labor obligations involved in the construction of canals and palaces took a heavy toll on the people.Although the Emperor Yang had a successful military career in southern China and was in nominal command of the Sui forces that conquered Chen, he led three unsuccessful campaigns to subjugate the Korean kingdom of Koguryo between 612 and 614. The failed expeditions triggered a series of uprisings in northern China which the emperor struggled to deal with. In 616, he moved to Yangzhou and left his generals and officials in charge of the north, but was assassinated in 618.The Rise of the TangEmperor Taizong of Tang, Ming Dynasty Portrait (1368-1644). Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs the Sui Dynasty collapsed, several warlords competed for power in northern China. In 617, Changan was occupied by Li Yuan, Duke of Tang, who founded the Tang Dynasty as Emperor Gaozu in 618. Over the following decade, Gaozu and his sons defeated rival claimants to the throne to consolidate their power and reunite China.By the early 620s, a rivalry was brewing between Gaozus two elder sons, Crown Prince Li Jiancheng and second son Li Shimin. Both had distinguished themselves in the rebellion against the Sui and the subsequent pacification campaigns. While Gaozu made efforts to reconcile his sons, in 626, Shimin killed Jiancheng in a coup at the Xuanwu Gate in Changan and took control of the government.Within a few months, Li Shimin deposed his father Gaozu to become the Taizong Emperor, one of the most effective rulers in Chinese history. Although the Tang Dynasty enjoyed the benefits of infrastructure projects initiated by the Sui emperors, Taizong recognized that such projects placed heavy burdens on the peasantry and reduced labor obligations.Taizong reversed some of the centralization measures introduced by the Sui emperors and was fortunate to call on the advice of a group of talented officials, who effectively acted as deputies for him on the battlefield and in civil administration. Buddhism flourished during the Tang Dynasty, and between 629 and 645, the monk Xuanzang made a celebrated pilgrimage to India, bringing back a vast collection of Buddhist texts and relics.Tang ExpansionPortrait of Li Jing from the album Portraits of Famous Men, unknown Chinese artist, 19-20th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTaizongs greatest achievement in foreign and military policy was the conquest of the Eastern Turkic qaghanate. During the mid-6th century CE, the Gktrk qaghanate stretched from the northern Caucasus in the west to Manchuria in the east. By the turn of the 7th century, the Turkic empire was split between eastern and western qaghanates, both of which remained formidable powers.In the late 620s, a civil war broke out within the Eastern Turkic qaghanate. After allowing both sides to exhaust their power, in 629 Taizong set up a puppet ruler who paid tribute to Changan. In 630, Tang armies under the talented generals Li Jing and Li Shiji defeated the Eastern Turks in battle and captured the qaghan. Taizong was subsequently recognized by the Eastern Turks as the heavenly qaghan.Taizong then set his sights on the Western Turkic Qaghanate, and by the mid-640s, Tang forces had defeated most of the Turkic vassal states in the Tarim Basin. While Taizong died in 649, in 655, his son and successor Gaozong dispatched the general Su Dingfang to lead a new campaign against the Western Turks. By 657, Tang armies successfully conquered the Western Turkic empire and established protectorates to govern the occupied territories. As a result of these campaigns, the Tang Dynasty briefly took control of major Silk Road trading posts in modern-day Uzbekistan and Afghanistan.Empress WuMonument to Empress Wu Zetian, Wenshui County, Shanxi. Source: Mapio.netEmperor Gaozongs 34-year reign was dominated by his consort Wu Zhao, better known as Wu Zetian. As a teenager, Wu had been one of Taizongs concubines during the 640s, and Gaozong had been so captivated by her that he recalled her to the imperial harem after his fathers death. Her influence at court increased after she gave the emperor a son in 652, and she became empress consort by 655.Wu quickly moved to eliminate her rivals, and in 657, she designated Luoyang as a permanent second capital, bringing the court closer to her supporters in northeastern China. By 660, she was in effective control of the empire after Gaozong began suffering from an illness which affected his ability to govern.In 668, the veteran Tang general Li Shiji finally achieved the conquest of Koguryo, though Tang domination of the Korean peninsula lasted little more than a decade. The costly campaign increased popular discontent, and in 674, Empress Wu announced a reduction of taxes and an end to military campaigns to restore popular favor.Upon Gaozongs death in 683, Empress Wu ensured that her son succeeded to the throne as Emperor Zhongzong. The new emperor attempted to break free from his mothers influence, and in 684, Wu replaced him with a more compliant son, Emperor Ruizong. In 690, Wu Zetian took the unprecedented step of becoming an empress in her own right. Despite proclaiming a new Zhou Dynasty, she continued Tang policies and ruled with an iron fist until her health declined and she was overthrown in a coup shortly before her death in 705.Imperial OverstretchPortrait of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWu Zetians death was followed by a period of political intrigue during which emperors Zhongzong and Ruizong both returned to the throne. In 712-13, Ruizong abdicated the throne in favor of his son Xuanzong, who introduced reforms to restore political order and revive bureaucratic institutions which had been sidelined during the time of Empress Wu.Xuanzongs reign was celebrated as a golden age of Chinese poetry and culture. The emperor himself was an accomplished poet who patronized the arts, and the great poets Li Bai and Du Fu flourished during the period of peace and prosperity that accompanied the first half of Xuanzongs reign. The emperor was assisted by a group of talented ministers, but from 736, his chief minister Li Linfu accumulated power and began purging his rivals.The revival of Tang fortunes under Xuanzong enabled China to reassert itself against its regional rivals, particularly the Tibetan Empire to the southwest. While Empress Wu had pursued a defensive policy on the western frontier, Xuanzongs reign saw a significant increase in military expenditure and the deployment of large armies to the frontier under powerful military governors.During the 740s, the Tang armies campaigned successfully against the Tibetans and restored their position in Central Asia. In 751, a Tang army under the hitherto successful general Gao Xiaozhi was routed in the Battle of Talas by the newly established Abbasid Caliphate. Meanwhile, Tang forces also suffered a serious setback against the Nanzhao kingdom in present-day Yunnan province.The An Lushan RebellionMap of the An Lushan Rebellion. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy the mid-740s, the aging Xuanzong had been neglecting state duties and preferred to spend his time in the company of his consort, Yang Guifei, one of the most celebrated beauties in Chinese history. The emperor promoted members of the Yang family, and when Li Linfu was removed as chief minister in 752, he was succeeded by Consort Yangs cousin, Yang Guozhong.After taking office, the new chief minister sought to curb the power of An Lushan, a general of Turkic ancestry who had campaigned successfully in the north at the head of large armies. Despite Yang Guozhongs efforts, An initially retained the emperors confidence, but the general gradually distanced himself from the court.In late 755, An Lushan launched a rebellion from his base near present-day Beijing, and by 756, he had captured Luoyang and proclaimed the Yan Dynasty. Although the rebels were stopped at the Tong Pass by Loyalist forces, Yang compelled the general Geshu Han to counterattack and advance on Luoyang. Geshus army was duly routed, and the rebels marched on Changan unopposed.As the imperial court fled the capital for Sichuan, a mutiny by the palace guards compelled Xuanzong to order the execution of Yang Guozhong and Yang Guifei, and the emperor was soon forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Emperor Suzong. In 757, the Tang general Guo Ziyi recaptured Luoyang and Changan, while An Lushan was killed by his son. The rebel forces were not completely subdued until 763.Revival and CollapseMural depicting the Tang army from the Dunhuang Mogao Caves. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFollowing the An Lushan Rebellion, the Tang emperors struggled to restore central authority and provincial governors enjoyed considerable autonomy. The withdrawal of the armies from the northwestern frontier to deal with the rebellion led to the loss of influence in Central Asia.At the beginning of the 9th century CE, Emperor Xianzong (r. 805-820) made considerable progress in reasserting central authority among the provinces through a series of successful campaigns. However, the centralization process remained unfinished upon Xianzongs sudden death in 820, commonly attributed to the eunuch Chen Hongzhi.For most of the 9th century, the Tang court was ridden by factionalism, and the misrule of the late Tang period has traditionally been attributed to the growing influence of palace eunuchs. In spite of this, Tang armies retained the ability to conquer the Uyghur empire in Mongolia in 847.However, during the second half of the 9th century, the Tang Dynasty faced several major rebellions, the most consequential of which was the Huang Chao Rebellion in 875. Like An Lushan, Huang Chao managed to occupy Changan, but his incursion into southern China dealt a fatal blow to the Tang Dynastys fortunes.The rebellion was defeated in 884 by Tang armies led by Li Keyong and Zhu Wen, a former rebel who defected to the Tang. Li and Zhu quickly emerged as the two most powerful warlords in China. In 907, Zhu Wen deposed the Tang emperor and established the Later Liang Dynasty, inaugurating a period of instability known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

The Medieval Period, which roughly stretched from 500 to 1500 CE, was a turbulent time of near-constant conflict. In order to gain an edge on the battlefield, armorers and weapons makers developed an astonishing variety of weapons to deal out damage and armor to keep a warrior alive. While far from a comprehensive list, this is a collection of some of the most interesting weapons and armor found on a medieval battlefield.1. Helmets & Head ProtectionSpangenhelm, Byzantine or Germanic, c. 6th or 7th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe single most important body part is the head, and therefore the number one priority of a soldier was to acquire a helmet of some kind. In late antiquity and the early medieval period, one of the more common types of helmet has been dubbed the Spangenhelm. It was made from a number of metal plates held together by a framework of metal strips. This was much easier to produce than a helmet made from a single piece of metal. The spangenhelm had a roughly conical shape with no sharp edges. This meant that strikes would be more likely to glance off of the helmet rather than take the full force of the impact. This helmet type would advance further, becoming more conical in shape and have the addition of a nasal guard to protect the face while still giving the wearer unobstructed visibility. These more advanced conical helms were used well into the 11th century and beyond, with iconography depicting them used by the Normans during the conquest of England in 1066.For more complete protection, other options included the Great Helm, which was cylindrical in shape and completely covered the head. Visibility was provided by slits that were too narrow to stab or shoot through, as well as breathing holes to allow for some ventilation. The flat top of the helmet meant that the full force of the impact of a blow from above would be imparted on the helmet. But this type of helmet was primarily used by cavalry, so strikes from above were rare. By the late 13th or early 14th century, this evolved into the Sugarloaf Helm, which had a dome or conical top, which was more efficient at deflecting blows.Great Bascinet, presumably made in Italy, 1430s. Source: British MuseumAs technology advanced, helmets began to be equipped with visors, which meant that the user could choose between visibility and ventilation with a raised visor, or protection by lowering it. One of these helms was called the Basinet, which usually had a pointed visor that was hinged on the brow of the helmet.Other helmets used during the medieval period were the Sleek Sallet, the Greek-inspired Barbute, and the wide brimmed Kettle Helm, which would later inspire the Brodie Helmet that was used by the British military in the First and Second World Wars. There were also more specialized helmets such as the Frog Faced Helm, which was completely enclosed, with visibility possible only through a slit at the top of the helmet and was generally used for jousting. There are countless variants of each of these helmet types and many more types of head protection that were used during the Middle Ages.2. Medieval Armor & MailShirt of Mail made from Steel and Brass, Germany, c. 15th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtWith the head protected, the next priority was to protect the rest of the body. The most common and easiest to produce was a garment called a Gambeson. This was a padded cloth jacket that could vary in length from about the waist to past the knee. If thick enough, a Gambeson could protect the wearer from slashes and cuts, lessen the impact of blunt force trauma, and though it could be vulnerable to punctures, was still much more effective than it may seem. Even if a warrior had more advanced metal armor, a Gambeson, or something similar, such as an arming doublet, would be worn underneath to act as padding and to prevent the metal from pinching into flesh. It was worn throughout the Middle Ages by both upper and lower classes. Cloth caps could also be worn as standalone protection or under helmets to absorb the force of impacts.For more substantial armor, the most common was mail. Sometimes called chain mail by mistake, mail was made from interlocking metal rings that, when combined with the padded undercoat, provided a significant amount of protection. It was made into a garment called a Hauberk, which could range in size from roughly t-shirt dimensions to full arm length sleeves and a length that reached down past the knees. A mail hood called a Coif could be worn over the head under the helmet, providing even more head protection. As metallurgy advanced, a new type of armor was created called the Coat of Plates, since that is exactly what it is. It was made from individual steel plates riveted or sewn together with a fabric frame. This would evolve into the Brigandine, which was made from smaller plates of metal, and would be popular in the later portions of the Middle Ages and even into the early modern era.Brigandine armor made from steel with silver and gold, linen, Italian, c. 1550. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe peak of armor came with the development of full plate armor. Made from large sheets of steel, as time went on the armor became more advanced, featuring articulated joints that allowed full range of motion and was so encompassing that there were hardly any vulnerable openings. The steel would be hardened and all but impenetrable, even by powerful bows, crossbows, and even early firearms. While this may have made the wearer, usually a knight or nobleman, all but invulnerable, there were some downsides. The first of which was the expense. These were hand crafted by master artisans, and were often custom made for the wearer. Because of this, a full suit of high quality plate was monumentally expensive. The other issue was putting on and taking off the armor. The separate pieces had to be attached and strapped into place properly, which more often than not required the help of another person.Effigy of a Knight in Gothic Plate Armor, French, c. 1425-50. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtIn the late Middle Ages, regional variations of armor were developed. Two major centers of armor production were Milan and northern Italy, which created the sleek Milanese platewhich was often asymmetrical, offering more protection on the more vulnerable left side of the bodyand Germany, which created Gothic plate. This type can be identified by the prominent grooves that gave the armor additional strength without adding weight.3. Medieval ShieldsScene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing warriors with kite shields, c. 1070. Source: Bayeux MuseumArmor wasnt the only way for a warrior to defend himself. Many types of shields found their way onto medieval battlefields and could be used both offensively and defensively. They were primarily made out of wood and covered in canvas or leather, usually rawhide. It would also be rimmed with rawhide or metal. Many versions also had a boss, a domed piece of metal that protected the hand if it was gripped in the center. As armor became more advanced, shields became less and less common, but were still used even into the early modern era.Shields in the early Medieval period were usually round and gripped in the center, a design that gave way to the Kite Shield, an elongated teardrop shield that was initially used by cavalry. This became smaller over time, evolving into the Heater Shield, which was flat topped with a roughly triangular shape. Both Heater and Kite shields would be strapped to the arm rather than held by a center grip. At the end of the Middle Ages, the Pavise, a type of Tower Shield, was used primarily by crossbowmen and handgunners as a form of mobile cover when reloading their weapons. There were also Bucklers, small disks of metal about the size of a dinner plate that could be easily carried, but lacked significant protection due to their size.Infantrymans shield (Pavise) made from wood, leather, gesso (natural glue), silver foil, and polychromy, Czech Republic, c. 1450. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe primary role of a shield would be to block enemy attacks, absorbing the impact directly, or by using the rim to knock an attack to the side. Though defensive in nature, shields could also be used offensively, the rim or boss slammed into an opponent to knock them off balance, or thrust into the face to obscure vision, setting up a strike with the primary weapon.4. Spears and the Pole AxeIron Spearhead, Norse, c. 700-900 CE. Source: Royal ArmoriesBy far the most common type of weapon used in the Middle Ages were Polearms of some kind, which are any number of weapons attached to the end of a long wooden shaft. The most common type was the humble spear, which was about six to eight feet in length. Cheap and simple to produce, they were the primary weapon of both the lower classes, who could form packed ranks of infantry to repel the enemy, and mounted knights. As armor evolved, however, this simple weapon was not enough. Once knights were fully ensconced inside of full plate armor, a spear tip would simply bounce off. Something more substantial was needed.Venetian Poleaxe made from steel, brass, wood, gold, and textile, Italian, c. 1475. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe Poleaxe is a multi-purpose polearm used by knights that combines the best aspects of several different weapons in a single package. There are several different versions of the poleaxe, but one of the most common configurations is a spear, hammer, and an axe in a single weapon. Foremost, it is a spear, which has a longer range than a sword or mace and allows the user to thrust at vulnerable areas of an opponent. Some versions have a spike instead of a spearhead, which is thinner and able to get into the gaps in plate armor, but has a smaller wound channel. The hammer provides blunt force trauma, able to simply bash an armored opponent into submission. The long, two-handed shaft was able to generate a tremendous amount of force. The axe head can chop into unarmored enemies with ease, but would likely glance off of any substantial armor. It was still useful, however. The shape of the axe could be used to hook onto an opponents neck or shoulder and drag him to the ground, or pull a leg out from underneath him. The shaft could also be used like a quarterstaff, knocking the enemys weapon offline, used to sweep the legs, or pushing the opponent back with the butt of the weapon and setting up a more powerful stroke.Because of the extra weight at the end of the weapon, it was usually much shorter than a conventional spear, about the height of the wielder, or maybe a few inches longer. Poleaxes were usually used by the upper classes, so any disadvantage in reach would be offset by the higher level of armor worn by someone of the higher social order. They were usually used on foot in both the battlefield and in duels.5. The Arming SwordIron Sword, France, c. 13th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtIf there is one weapon that is emblematic of the Middle Ages, it would be the sword. At first, swords were expensive and a sign of wealth and status. This changed over the course of the Middle Ages and swords became more and more commonplace as time went on, something that was helped by a widespread used arms and armor market that made weaponry more accessible to the masses. Even at their most popular, however, they were rarely the primary weapon of a soldier, but used either as a backup on the battlefield or as a self defense weapon in a civilian context.The most common type of sword was the Arming Sword, which was derived from the Roman Spatha. It was a single-handed, double-edged, and straight-bladed weapon that had a cruciform hand guard. The blades came in all manner of shapes and sizes, which was the result of sword makers constantly experimenting with designs to improve performance. Although some arming swords were better suited for one task or another, they were multi-purpose weapons that could cut with the edge or stab with the tip, and even bludgeon with the pommel.Arming Swords were fairly lightweight, weighing between one and three pounds on average. They were secondary weapons, used as a backup if the primary weapon broke or was lost. Since the primary weapon was often a lance used from horseback, it would often shatter on impact or become stuck in the unfortunate victim. When this happened, the Arming Sword would be drawn and used either from horseback or on foot. It was rarely used alone and would almost always be paired with a heater shield. The Arming Sword would increase in length, and by the late Middle Ages would evolve into the hand and a half sword and the two-handed longsword.6. The WarhammerMedieval Warhammer, Italian, c. 15th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtWhile iconic, swords can have difficulty penetrating armor, and so more specialized weapons would be employed. One of the more popular anti-armor weapons was the Warhammer. Unlike popular perceptions, these were much smaller and lighter than often depicted in popular culture. Rather than the Mjolnir sized sledgehammers wielded by fantasy heroes, these were more compact, with the head of one-handed versions roughly the size of a modern claw hammer. The hammer head was given ridges or prongs to add friction so it wouldnt slide off of smooth armor. The Warhammer would often be made with a curved spike on the opposite end, which added an armor piercing capability to the weapon. The downside to this is the risk of the spike getting stuck in the target after impact. There are also two-handed versions of the weapon, though the line between a Warhammer, a Poleaxe, and other weapons is a bit of a gray area.Warhammers had the majority of their weight located towards the head of the weapon, which increases the force on impact. While it is much more nimble than many assume, the concentration of weight makes it harder to swing than a sword of the same weight. This means a one-handed warhammer was typically shorter than a sword, the user sacrificing reach for impact.7. Hand CannonsDepiction of an early Hand Cannon, Belli Fortis English Manuscript, c. 1400. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe medieval era saw the introduction of possibly the most significant development in military history: gunpowder. First invented in China in the 9th century, ironically while alchemists were looking for the elixir of eternal life, its military applications were soon apparent. Gunpowder reached Europe in the 13th century, and with it, warfare changed forever.Initially used as artillery, warriors wasted little time turning cannons into personal weapons. The Hand Cannon is exactly what it sounds like. It is a simple metal tube that was mounted on the end of a wooden shaft. There would be a touch hole at the base of the tube that was filled with gunpowder. When touched by a flame, the powder in the barrel would ignite, firing a stone bullet towards the target. This was an era before rifling, and the user tucked the wooden handle under his arm or braced it on the ground before firing, which made aiming difficult. As a result, these were inaccurate, and were more of a psychological weapon, the loud bang and puff of smoke unnerving to men and horses alike. They were also dangerous. Faulty forging processes or an excessive powder charge could cause the Hand Cannon to explode.

Avatars Pandora, Star Wars Hoth, and the various worlds of the Borderlands series all offer severely hostile planets, but few are as dangerous as Arrakis from the Dune franchise. If the two suns arent melting your flesh away, the impending threat of the ever-hungry Sandworms will give you a reason to shelter, and thats not counting the sand-covered environment youd find yourself in. If you want to take on the challenge, nows your chance to dive into Dune Awakenings take on the iconic sci-fi planet with its first big discount. Continue reading Dune Awakening gets a Sandworm-sized discount for its first saleMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best survival games, Best MMOs, Dune Awakening release date

Arkane founder and Dishonored co-director Raphal Colantonio says Xbox Game Pass is an unsustainable model thats been damaging the videogame industry for years, and that it cant continue to exist alongside other similar subscriptions. Colantonio adds that Game Pass should be an avenue for access to the back catalogue, because otherwise it just hurts videogames at large. Continue reading Dishonored director calls Game Pass an "unsustainable model" for the industryMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Dishonored System Requirements

Considering the vast array of sweets you can find across various retailers, a gas station cake would probably have to be pretty special to stand out.

30%

Hello mes chers amis ! Nous voici runis aujourdhui, pour la news mensuelle concernant les jeux offerts aux abonns du PlayStation Plus, au mois de Juillet 2025. Les jeux suivants seront disponibles du 01 Juillet au 04 Aot 2025....

A trove of legal documents uncovered by an independent journalist revealed that there was little question a massive act of collusion happened among NFL owners to reduce player salaries even