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Gilbert du Motier, better known as Marquis de Lafayette, had the world at his feet. He was wealthy and had a deep family history in French nobility and military. He could have done just about anything with his life. Instead of resting on his laurels and enjoying the privileges his life had to offer, he was driven to live on the edge. From battlefields in a foreign country to inciting revolution to imprisonment to celebration, the Marquis inspired many and left a legacy of service and dedication to his beliefs that remain unmatched centuries later.Ambitious in His YouthChteau Chavaniac, photographed in 2011, it is currently a museum. Source: Troye Owens / Wikimedia CommonsBorn September 6, 1757, Lafayette was not born a Marquis, his paternal family title, but was baptized Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roche Gilbert du Motier. As a young man, he went by Gilbert.Gilbert was born at a castle called Chateau Chavaniac, the home of his family for hundreds of years before his birth. In south-central France, Chavaniac was a remote, hilly area mostly populated by peasant farmers. Among their poor neighbors, the Motier or Lafayette family was very wealthy. Both sides of Gilberts family were descended from long lines of French nobility, with a strong military heritage that went all the way back to the time of the Crusades.His father, who was Marquis de Lafayette at the time of Gilberts birth, was a colonel in an elite branch of the army, the French Grenadiers, who served the king of France. As a baby, Gilbert did not spend much time with his father, who was often traveling as a result of his military duties.When Gilbert was just two, his father was killed in the Battle of Minden, which was part of the Seven Years War. With the death of his father, Gilbert inherited his new title and became the Marquis de Lafayette.A print titled The Battle of Minden in Westphalia depicting the conflict in which the senior Lafayette perished. Source: Yale Center of British Art / Wikimedia CommonsEducated by a local priest, the young Marquis moved to Paris with his mother, referred to as Jolie or Julie, when he was ten. Their home was located at Luxembourg Palace, and Lafayette began his classical education. At first, he struggled, missing his friends. Hed never been exposed to nobility beyond his own family, and his rural accent made him stand out. However, his military ambitions, which hed held since childhood, drove him to success in both his schooling and military training. Unfortunately, in his personal life, the young man suffered more tragedy when he was only twelve years old. His mother died suddenly, followed by his grandfather only two weeks later.Lafayette found himself an orphan but also immensely wealthy, inheriting fortunes from both his maternal and paternal lineage at once. He joined the Royal Army just a year later, fulfilling his dream of serving his country. His commission was as a member of the Kings Musketeers, and he became skilled in drilling and horsemanship. In 1773, he wed Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles (Adrienne), the result of an arranged marriage made when the two were younger. Lafayette was sixteen, and his new wife was fourteen. However, they did seem to enjoy one anothers company and were great friends. Their first child, Henriette, was born a year after their wedding, and eventually, the couple would have four children together.A Man of IdealsLafayettes wife, Adrienne, painted sometime between 1785 and 1799. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs a young man, Lafayette became interested in principles such as liberty and equality and their relationship to human rights, values that he would espouse throughout his life. This resulted in an interest in the happenings in the British Colonies in North America. He thought Americans fighting for their rights was a noble cause, and followed the events of the early American Revolution closely. When American lawyer Silas Deane arrived in Paris, Lafayette approached him about a possible commission into the Continental Army. At age nineteen, Lafayette found himself commissioned as a major general in George Washingtons army on a boat crossing the Atlantic. He arrived in the future United States in direct defiance of the French king, who had decreed that French officers were not allowed to join the American cause to prevent potential problems with the British, regardless of his sympathies and secret financial support of the colonial cause.An engraving of Lafayettes wound at Brandywine by Charles Henry Jeans. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLafayette offered to serve without pay, endearing him to the Continental Congress. He served under General George Washington, the commander of the entire army. The two would become incredibly close during the war, with Washington serving as a mentor and father figure to the young Marquis. He showed courage under fire during his first battle at Brandywine on September 11, 1777. He was shot in the leg and was treated by Washingtons personal physician. The wound healed and bolstered Lafayettes reputation in America and back home in France.After several more battles, Lafayette settled down for the winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, where he served as one of Washingtons aides-de-camp, along with Alexander Hamilton and John Laurens. Though his prestige and rank afforded him the opportunity for comfortable accommodations, Lafayette chose to suffer the harsh winter alongside his men, spending his own money to provide his men with much-needed weaponry, clothing, and provisions. His generosity during this winter earned him the nickname The soldiers friend. He briefly left America to visit France in order to encourage the king to publicly support the American cause, returning with news that 6,000 French troops and six French Navy ships were on their way.James Armistead Lafayette depicted on the Lafayette Monument. Source: Capt. Jay Ruffins / Wikimedia CommonsLafayette also participated in espionage during the war. One of his enlisted troopers was a man named James Armistead, an enslaved man whose master supported the patriot cause and had granted him permission to serve in the army. Upon request from Lafayette, James posed as a runaway, becoming a servant for British General Cornwallis. James reported back to Lafayette and was responsible for obtaining a great deal of useful information that helped the American cause as the war reached its pinnacle. James would return to a life of slavery after the American Revolution. Upon learning of his former comrades status, Lafayette wrote a letter to Congress urging his friends manumission. James would finally be freed in 1787 and added Lafayette to his name as an homage to his supporter.Hero of Two WorldsThe Declaration of the Rights of Man depicted in oil paint. Source: Musee Carnavalet / Wikimedia CommonsAfter the American Revolution, Lafayette returned to France. In 1789, he wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, a document that inspired the French Constitution. It would also assist in the launch of the French Revolution, but in the meantime, Lafayette worked on a number of human rights-related causes. He was aghast that America did not end slavery at the conclusion of the Revolutionary War and created proposals for gradual manumission. He even tested his theory by purchasing a Caribbean plantation on which he employed 70 former slaves. He paid them wages for their work, prohibited physical punishment, provided education, and allowed for time off. He was of the firm belief that measures such as this would prepare former slaves for life outside the plantation and allow them to integrate into society.A painting depicting the storming of the Bastille in 1789. Source: Museum of the History of France / Wikimedia CommonsAppointed head of the National Guard, Lafayette tried to keep a moderate and neutral approach as France entered the revolution. He supported the ideas of the rebels but felt obligated to protect the king and other members of the nobility, people he was closely associated with throughout his life. In fact, his wife was close friends with Marie Antoinette.Deaths by guillotine began as the French Revolution escalated in 1792. Some revolutionaries saw Lafayette as a traitor and called for his arrest. He decided to leave France for his own safety. He planned to escape to America but traveled through Austrian territory to do so. As France and Austria were at war at the time, he was captured on his journey and imprisoned. During his imprisonment, his money and holdings were confiscated, his wife jailed, and his children put into hiding. He suffered many days in solitary confinement until he was released in 1797.Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Austria and, as a condition of peace, freed the prisoners from Olmutz, where Lafayette was held. Eventually, Lafayettes role in both revolutions led to his reputation as a hero of two worlds.A Triumphant Return to AmericaA bust of the Marquis by Pierre Joseph Chardigny. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art / Wikimedia CommonsIn 1824, Lafayette made a return to America, touring every state over the course of the next year at the invitation of President James Monroe. America was delighted to see one of the last surviving important generals of the Revolutionary War, and his visit was celebrated with banquets, balls, and meetings with dignitaries. He spent time with many past and future presidents on the trip, including Thomas Jefferson. He became the first foreign dignitary to address a joint session of Congress before he returned home in 1825. After his tour, reported to be one of the happiest times of his life, Lafayette returned to his home in La Grange, France with his family.Twilight YearsThe graves of Lafayette and Adrienne in Paris in 2013. Source: Delatude / Wikimedia CommonsFrance experienced another revolution, the July Revolution, in 1830, when Charles X was overthrown. Lafayette was offered a leadership role at this point but turned it down, remaining as head of the National Guard. Continuing to support causes that promoted democratic ideals, Lafayette lived the remainder of his life in relative peacefulness. He passed away at home on May 20, 1834, at the age of 76. His death came after several months of battling pneumonia. Soil from Bunker Hill in America was spread over his grave at the request of his son, who was named after George Washington. An American flag has flown over the grave since his death.

Discussions of warfare in ancient Greece and Rome usually revolve around open field battles with dense formations of infantry clashing, supported by cavalry and missile troops. But many ancient conflicts were resolved through sieges, with enemy armies attempting to breach a citys wall while starving those barricaded inside. Sieges required special tactics and weapons, and generals needed both patience and ingenuity to successfully break a siege.City Walls and DefensesThe Procession of the Trojan Horse into Troy, by Giovanni Tiepolo, 1760. Source: National Gallery, LondonSiege warfare was baked into the very culture of ancient Greece. The most famous story of the ancient Greek world, the Trojan War, tells the tale of a protracted siege between the Achaeans and the Trojans. Siege warfare in this era, presumably the late Bronze Age, seems to have revolved around skirmishes outside of the city walls, with little in the way of siegecraft. The fact that the war lasted for 10 years, with the Trojans continually receiving reinforcements, implies that completely blockading the city was probably not even considered.After the Bronze Age Collapse, the Greeks still relied heavily on stone walls for protection. Greece at the time was not a united political entity, but rather a collection of city-states that were almost constantly at war with one another. These defenses were simple constructions of stone that ringed a settlement. In later centuries, towers were added, increasing the vantage point of the defenders. Standalone towers and forts were also used to act as early warning systems. Walls were also used to mark territorial boundaries. The Phocians built a wall at Thermopylae to ward off Thessalonian raids, which were rebuilt by the Spartan King Leonidas in response to the Persian invasion. Walls were also built to protect lanes of travel, such as the famous Long Walls, which connected Athens to the port of Piraeus, a distance of about four miles.Remains of the stone wall of the fortress of Fyli, Greece. Source: National HeraldThe most common tactic to capture a city was to blockade the target, cutting it off from supply and starving the defenders out. This is a double-edged sword, however, as the besiegers would be forced to live off the land, and with limited logistics networks, they were just as likely to run out of supplies. Another strategy would be to lay waste to the surrounding area, provoking the defenders into leaving the safety of their fortifications and fight an open field battle, negating the need for a siege to begin with.Rams, Ramps, and FlamethrowersBronze Siege Ram, c. 5th Century BCE. Source: Archaeological Museum, OlympiaWhen the enemy was too stubborn to fight in the open field, and waiting to starve them out was not an option, there were other methods to capture a city. The battering ram was a long tree log, often with a bronze rams head at the end, which was designed to batter down the enemys walls or gateway. The first rams were simply held by a group of men and slammed into the fortification. Later versions were suspended from a wooden frame by chains, which allowed it to gain more momentum with each swing. A surviving ram head from the 5th century BCE has two rows of serrated teeth, which would imply that it was used to grip into the walls and tear out the stones rather than simply knock them over. This was made possible by the relatively thin walls of Greek cities.If going through a wall wasnt possible, another option was to go over it. Ladders could be used for this purpose, but there was another, more substantial method. A ramp could be constructed, made from stone and earth. It took a long time to construct an earthen ramp, but when it was completed, a besieger could simply walk over the walls. Another way to go over the top was the use of siege towers. These were wheeled, wooden structures that could be pushed against the wall, delivering the troops directly to their destination. The first known use of a siege tower by the Greeks was in 397 BCE by Dionysus I of Syracuse against Motya.Dionysius I of Syracuse, by Guillaume Rouille, 1553. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIf going over the walls wasnt an option, going under was another possibility. Undermining a wall meant digging a tunnel under the enemys wall, propping the earth above with wooden timbers. The space would be packed with straw or combustibles and set alight. The timbers would burn away, and the tunnel would collapse, bringing that section of the wall with it.In 424 BCE, the Boeotians besieged the Athenian-held city of Delium and utilized the worlds first flamethrower. It was a hollowed out iron bound pipe with a bellows at one end. At the other end, hanging from chains, was a cauldron filled with pitch, sulfur, and tar that was set alight. When pumped, the bellows would force air over the burning cauldron, spraying flame over the target. Though it was awkward to use, it did manage to frighten the Athenian defenders and set the wooden towers on fire. Shortly after, the Boeotians stormed into the city, winning a decisive victory. In spite of this successful use, there are no further accounts of flamethrowers being used during the rest of the Peloponnesian War.Siege ArtilleryHead of a statue of Alexander the Great, c. 338 BCE. Source: Acropolis Museum, AthensThe first piece of Greek siege artillery was invented in the early 4th century BCE in Syracuse, Sicily, during the reign of Dionysus I. The weapon was a precursor of the crossbow, where a powerful bow was mounted on a wooden shaft. Called the gastrophetes, or belly shooter, it allowed the user to press the end of the weapon against his stomach, drawing the string and holding it in place with a series of ratcheted notches. It would then be shot by activating a trigger mechanism. It had the power to reach defenders on city walls.The next big leap in siege technology was the use of torsion powered engines. Instead of using a bent bow, rigid arms would be fitted to a mechanical frame. Elastic ropes, usually made from animal sinew, would be wrapped around the arms, propelling them forward. The limiting factor of these torsion engines was the strength of the sinews providing the tension.Very broadly, these torsion engines came in two main types, bolt or arrow throwers and stone throwers. Bolt throwers were used as anti-personnel weapons, and could be considerably accurate and powerful, capable of hitting a soldier atop a wall from hundreds of yards away. Stone throwers could be used against thinner walls and buildings and were often used to lob stones over the top of the walls into the buildings behind, an early form of indirect artillery fire. These engines could also be used defensively, mounted on walls or towers to thwart an enemys attempt to storm the fortification.The culmination of Greek siegecraft came during the meteoric career of Alexander the Great. In 332 BCE, Alexander and his Macedonian army laid siege to the island city of Tyre. Since he lacked a sufficient navy, Alexander ordered his men to construct a causeway that stretched from the mainland to the island. Once in range, the city was bombarded by artillery and siege towers, which had catapults on them to clear the walls, were moved up. After a few setbacks, the rams were able to breach the walls, and the Macedonian army poured in, capturing the city after a lengthy siege.Roman Siege WarfareReconstruction of a Roman Ballistae. Source: Vindolanda Charitable TrustThe siege techniques created by the Greeks were readily adopted by the Romans, who made siegecraft into an art form. The Roman army was well versed in fortifications by its very nature. While on the march, Roman soldiers would dig a fortified encampment, complete with defensive ditch and wooden palisade every night. With this level of experience in building defensive positions, dealing with strongholds was the Romans specialty.The first way to capture a city or fortress would be to blockade the target and starve it out. Using their experience building a fortified camp every night, the Romans could build a wall around the city, completely cutting it off from supply or reinforcement. In some cases, such as at the siege of Alesia in 54 BCE, the Romans built a second wall around the first, protecting the besiegers from possible relief columns coming to the aid of the besieged. Like the Greeks, they ran the risk of running out of supplies before the enemy capitulated, but over time, the Romans had developed a sophisticated logistics system that kept the army running while dug in around an enemys stronghold.While they waited for the enemy to starve into submission, they would employ a number of siege engines in order to demoralize the enemy and soften the target up before any potential assault. They made great use of ballistae, which used two rigid arms propelled by torsion to launch bolts or stones. The smallest ballistae, also called a scorpion, could be lifted by a small group of men, while others would be massive. Single arm torsion engines were also employed. These were named onagers, or wild donkeys, due to their tremendous kick. Both of these engines were used for anti-personnel purposes, and could be effective against thinner walls or wooden palisades, but had difficulty against thicker stone walls of more sophisticated settlements.Reconstruction of the Roman earthworks at Alesia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThese siege engines were operated by a specialized class of soldiers. They received dedicated training to operate the ballistae and onagers and were considered part of the immunae, soldiers who had special skills and status that exempted them from digging ditches, latrine duty, and the other drudgery that was the lot of the common soldier.How the Romans Broke Into CitiesRoman Soldiers in Testudo Formation, depicted on Trajans Column, 113 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIf a city could not be starved into submission, and the defenders too stubborn to submit to the constant bombardment of bolts and stones, a more direct approach was in order. Like the Greeks before them, the Romans could use any number of methods to get into a stronghold. These included the use of ladders, siege towers, and battering rams. In order to reach the walls or gate, legionaries employed the famous testeudo formation, in which they would interlock their shields, forming a roof over their heads. This protected them from the arrows, stones, and other missiles dropped on them from above. Once at the wall, they would use the battering rams to smash open the gate, letting the army in. Rams would be covered in animal hides soaked in water to prevent it from being set on fire by the defenders. They would also undermine the walls by digging under, once again employing specialized engineers for the task. The Romans also made use of earthen ramps to climb over the walls, as was seen at the famous siege of Masada in 73 CE.Assaulting a city was done as a last resort, since even the highly trained and disciplined Romans were at a disadvantage attacking a fortified position. If a breach in the walls was made, it would be a natural choke point that the defenders could rally around. There was a risk of high casualties and taking a stronghold by force was not done lightly. It was so dangerous that one of the highest awards for valor in the Roman army was the Mural Crown, a decoration given to the first man to scale an enemys walls.Because of the risks associated with storming a fortification and the inevitable casualties that would result, the Romans could be brutal with a captured settlement. To avoid bloodshed, the Romans would generally allow a city the chance to peacefully surrender at any time during the buildup, but once a piece of siege equipment, such as a ram, touched the walls, no mercy would be shown. In vengeance for the bloodshed caused by their failure to surrender, the wrathful legionaries would slaughter anyone they found, civilian or military, and even animals. Anyone who survived would be sold into slavery. While done out of blood-lust and pent up frustration being unleashed, it also served as a warning to any who would challenge the might of Rome.

Of all the knightly orders born of the Crusades, none are as well known or as heavily mythologized as the Knights Templar. From Dan Brown conspiracy thriller novels like The Da Vinci Code to the best-selling Assassins Creed video game franchise, the Knights Templar have long been a mainstay of pop culture and historical fiction. Yet behind the fame and the famous red crosses lay a sprawling international organization, which was centuries ahead of its time in its logistical and financial innovations, particularly a system of deposit and credit that would lay the foundation for modern banking systems.The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ & the Knights TemplarSiege of Acre (1191) During the Third Crusade, from the Speculum Maius (Great Mirror), c. 13th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Knights Templar are perhaps the most well-known order of European knights in history, setting aside the fictional Knights of the Round Table. Indeed, their fame is such that when we envision the prototypical medieval knight, a heavily armored warrior with large red crosses emblazoned upon his chest and shield, we are in fact recalling the famous and instantly recognizable livery of the Knights Templar.Founded in the early 12th century following the successful capture of Jerusalem by European Christian armies in the First Crusade, the Knights Templar were originally an order of warrior-monks dedicated to the defense of Christian pilgrims in the Holy Land. Despite the relative safety for travelers in the lands surrounding Jerusalem itself, protected as it was by the Christian armies of the four Crusader States (Antioch, Edessa, Tripoli, and of course, Jerusalem) the long journey from Europe to the Holy Land was fraught with peril.The route which Christian pilgrims might take through North Africa was perilous due to the warring between the declining Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt and the Seljuk Turks, who had claimed lordship over much of the Middle East. The route through Eastern Europe and Central Asia was perilous due to Turkish forces encroaching upon the lands of the withering Byzantine Empire, the last stronghold of Christianity in the East. Outside these conflict zones lay scores of other perils, including marauding bandits and wild animals. The often harsh climate of the region made travel to the Holy Land a decidedly dangerous prospect.King Baldwin II ceding the location of the Temple of Salomon, by Guillaume de Tyr, c. 13th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThus, in the early years of the 12th century, two Frankish knights, Hugues de Payens and Godfrey de Saint-Omer, approached King Baldwin II of Jerusalem with an ambitious proposal. The knights put forth the idea of a new military order, bound to the strict tenets of a monastic religious community and sworn to oaths of personal poverty, but with the purpose of safeguarding Christian pilgrims en route to the Holy Land by strength of arms. King Baldwin and Patriarch Warmund, the head of Jerusalems Latin Christian church, approved of the proposal. Indeed, so fervently did King Baldwin support the idea that he granted the knights a palace converted from the al-Aqsa Mosque on the southern end of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, believed to be the site of the ancient Temple of Solomon.Thus, on Christmas Day of 1119, Hugues, Godfrey, and seven compatriot knights swore oaths of poverty, chastity, and obedience before the Patriarch of Jerusalem, and their order was officially christened the Poor Fellow Soldiers of Jesus Christ and the Temple of Solomon. They would come to be more widely known as the Knights of the Temple, or simply the Knights Templar.The New KnighthoodIllustration of a Knight Templar fighting. Source: iStockDespite lifelong oaths of personal poverty, the Knights Templar would grow to become one of the wealthiest and most influential organizations in medieval Europe. Almost immediately the order began to accumulate land, wealth, and important legal privileges. From the Spanish kingdom of Aragon to the realms of England, Scotland, and France, the monarchs and lords of western Europe lavished donations of land, castles, arms, horses, and coin upon the Templars, as well as granting generous tax privileges to the nascent order.In 1129, the order was granted an even greater privilege. That year, the Council of Troyes was convened in France, headed by the Papal Legate Matthew of Albano, a personal representative of Pope Honorius II. By the time the council concluded, the Templars had been granted official recognition by the Pope, securing the orders place in the Church and dramatically increasing their stature and popularity among the lords of western Europe. Further gifts of land and gold were lavished upon the order, swelling their coffers. Meanwhile, their heroic, chivalric image began to attract members of the European nobility to their ranks.Even greater papal sanction would follow 10 years later. In 1139, Pope Innocent II issued the Papal bull Omne Datum Optimum, establishing the Templars as an independent order within the Catholic Church. With this declaration, the Templars were made answerable only to the Pope himself, establishing them as one of the most powerful religious orders in Christendom. Moreover, the order was made exempt from all tithes and taxes, given the right to build their own churches and cemeteries, and allowed all but complete autonomy, even over religious matters, within their own lands and holdings.Oaths of Poverty, Networks of WealthDrawing of the seal of the Knights Templar depicting two knights riding a single horse symbolizing the orders oath of poverty. Source: Weidenfeld ArchiveBy the second half of the 12th century, the Knights Templar were practically a state unto themselves. Holding lands, castles, and fortresses from England to Jerusalem, the Grand Master of the Knights Templar oversaw a vast international enterprise with the authority to levy and collect its own taxes, hold markets, and collect profits from agricultural lands they controlled. The order even owned its own fleet of ships, which the Templars used to trade internationally in goods such as olive oil and wool, making the order a direct competitor to the powerful Italian merchant cities of Venice and Genoa.Their vast network of strongholds stretching from western Europe to the Holy Land meant that Christian pilgrims traveling from Europe could be assured of protection at major checkpoints along the route to Jerusalem. Moreover, the Templars network of fortresses and commitment to safeguarding pilgrims gave rise to perhaps the most unique and consequential innovation associated with the order: a system of secure deposit and internationally recognized credit that would lay the foundation for modern banking.Long distance pilgrimages were not only dangerous, but also expensive. In addition to food and supplies for the journey, pilgrims would need money for lodgings and provisions once they reached their destination. In an age where money was counted in hard coinage, carrying ones funds on ones person over vast distances was a dangerous prospect.Crac des chevaliers, a Crusader fortress in Syria constructed in the 12th century. Source: UNESCOThus, to aid in the safety and security of Christian pilgrims, the Templars established a system of deposit and credit which would see them become, in effect, Europes first international banking agency. Pilgrims could deposit their money or goods at any Templar stronghold and would in turn receive a letter of credit for the deposited amount. This letter of credit could be redeemed at any other Templar stronghold. Thus, a pilgrim could deposit their savings at a Templar house in France and withdraw it from a Templar house in Jerusalem.This system was not only revolutionary in medieval Europe, but also exceedingly secure. Overseeing a vast network of international property required meticulous record keeping, a logistical challenge at which the Templars excelled. At every Templar-owned property, daily records were kept of all transactions, withdrawals, purchases, and deposits, along with the names of the parties, the Templar cashier who oversaw the transaction, and the dates involved. Copies of these records were then transferred to a secure central archive, allowing the Templars to keep a vast, comprehensive record of every transaction made within their growing financial network.Restored fresco of Templars riding into battle, from the Templar chapel in Cressac-sur-Charente, France, c. 13th century. Source: The GuardianFrom personal deposit and credit, the Templars soon expanded into finance and loans. Crusading and warmaking were expensive undertakings, even for kings, and the Templars were only too ready to make funds available for war in the name of Christ. When the Templars made a large loan to King Louis VII of France to finance his ill-fated expedition in the Second Crusade, it was the beginning of what would become a longstanding relationship between the order and the monarchs of Europe. It would see the Templars not only making large loans to Christian monarchs but also brokering land sales and guaranteeing loans from other sources. King John of England, infamous as the wicked king of Robin Hood tales, borrowed heavily from the Templars during his turbulent reign.The Fall of the TemplarsJacques de Molay, the last Grand Master of the Knights Templar, c. 19th century. Source: Bibliothque Nationale de FranceThe Knights Templar had never been without controversy. From the beginning of their order, some throughout Christendom viewed them as problematic or even heretical. A pious religious order dedicated to military aims and violence seemed paradoxical to many, and the rapidly growing networks of wealth commanded by an order supposedly sworn to poverty raised suspicion, distrust, and outright hostility from others.As Christian efforts in the Holy Land continually suffered setbacks, defeats, and losses of land in the later years of the Crusades, many powerful European leaders began looking for scapegoats for the faltering campaigns. The Knights Templar, a vast international network holding great wealth, naturally became an easy target for blame.King Philip IV of France was one such antagonist. An innovative civil reformer, Philip sought to consolidate power in France under the throne, breaking the power of the feudal nobility and centralizing authority, a process that would lead to the breakdown of the medieval social order and the growth of the modern state. Philip saw the Knights Templar, with their independent power base, near total autonomy, and vast financial resources, as a roadblock to the growth of the centralized state he envisioned. He was also heavily indebted to the order.Philip IV the Fair, from Recueil des rois de France, by Jean Du Tillet, c. 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRelying on allegations of heresy and impropriety levied by former Templars who had been expelled from the order, Philip began an aggressive campaign to arrest the Templars in France and seize their property. With powerful Papal backing, the Knights Templar were not subject to the rule of kings, but if they were to be seen as heretics and sodomites (another allegation levied against the order), Philiip believed he could undermine their legal and spiritual standing.By Philips order, mass arrests of Templars and seizure of their property began. Over 15,000 Templars in France were arrested in a single day, and the Inquisition in France was tasked with confirming their heresy and impropriety. Through torture and intensive questioning even the Grand Master of the order, Jacques de Molay, was made to confess to charges of heresy and the denial of Jesus Christ. The forcefully extracted confessions of other high-ranking Templars soon followed.Philip IV orders the burning of the Templars by Giovanni Boccaccio in De casibus virorum illustrium, c. 15th century. Source: British LibraryWith damning confessions in hand, Philip was able to secure official condemnation of the order from Pope Clement V, all but dooming the Templars to extinction. In 1307, Clement issued the Papal bull Pastoralis praeeminentiae, ordering all Christian monarchs to arrest any Templars within their lands. This was followed by a second Papal bull, Ad providam, which stipulated that the Templars wealth and property would be transferred to the Knights Hospitallersanother prominent military order under the Churchs jurisdiction. Though Philip acceded to the Churchs decision to maintain control of the Templars wealth, seeing it as a fair price for the destruction of the order, he was successful in extracting large sums for the French crown during the transfer.On March 18, 1314, Jacques de Molay, the last Grand Master of the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Jesus Christ and the Temple of Solomon, was convicted of heresy by a Church council. That evening, he was burned at the stake.The Knights Templar had been the heroes of Christendom for nearly 200 years, serving as the living embodiment of the chivalric ideal. In that time, they had built an international organization unlike any that had come before, establishing financial networks, practices, and systems of wealth management and credit which would come to be adopted throughout Europe and, eventually, the world. Despite their abrupt and dramatic fall from grace, the innovations of this medieval order of warrior-monks paved the way for the growth of modern economic systems that would reshape the world in the centuries that followed.

Formed in 1363 by Sultan Murad I, the Janissary Corps was a group of elite fighters who, as the rulers property, owed complete loyalty and allegiance to the Sultan. This group would go on to influence politics until their dismemberment in 1839. For centuries, the Janissaries influenced court politics, the depositions and assassinations of Sultans and their families, and the formation of new religious orders.The Founding of the JanissariesMiniature of Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans, Sleymanname, ca. 1550. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Janissaries were founded in 1363 by the Ottoman Turks, a once-tribal principality that had, by the mid-14th century, conquered significant parts of Anatolia and the Balkans. They were formed after Sultan Murad I, the third Ottoman sultan, who tried to counterbalance the power of the Turkoman nobility with an infantry force that was loyal to the Sultan. The name of this new force, the Yeni eri or New Soldiers, was Latinized as Janissary.Male children and teenagers were taken from Christian Balkan families as a form of hara or tax on non-Muslim peoples. This systemabolished in 1648was called the devirme, or gathering and was resisted by many families. However, othersespecially those in povertyrealized their sons could attain powerful positions and wealth by being recruited as a Janissary.The Ottoman army, which had until the reign of Murad consisted mainly of Turkomans who had tribal alliances, was soon dominated by a force of individuals who were raised as loyal Muslim servants of the Sultan. The young boys were trained in the Enderun, the palace school, where they learned theology, politics, and the military arts.They were not restricted by Turkic tribal customs, steppe warfare weapons (like the bow and arrow), or allegiances to other Turkish beyliks (principalities). Instead, they were taught the most advanced military strategies of the Late Medieval and Early Modern periods and were one of the earliest armies in Europe and the Middle East to manufacture and use firearms.The Janissaries Role in Ottoman VictoriesMiniature of the Janissaries (white-capped) battling the Knights Hospitallers, painted by Matraki Nasuh in the Sleymanname, ca. 1550. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs kapikullari or door servants, the Janissaries constituted a separate class of imperial subjects; many were converts to Islam, and thus could not be considered slaves, yet they were not exactly free men. Janissary troops were given annual salaries for their service. Additionally, on special occasions such as a sultans accession to the throne or the circumcision of princes, they were bestowed with money, expensive fabrics, and clothes.These factors, along with the possibility for social and political advancement, incentivized a Janissary troop to demonstrate his skill and strength. Organized into smaller ortas (battalions), Janissary troops were assigned different ranks and duties. Whether as an archer, rifleman, infantryman, or aga, (supreme commander of the corps), exceptional men could rise to political and bureaucratic positions such as the grand vizierate.One of the most successful grand viziers in Ottoman history, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, was initially taken as a young boy and trained to be a Janissary. Rising the ranks, he held the position for 15 years and served three sultans, most notably Suleyman the Magnificent.This formidable force was one of the reasons behind Ottoman military successes in the Early Modern Period. They were the driving force in major Ottoman victories against European armies in Nicopolis (1396), Kosovo (1448), Constantinople (1453), and Mohacs (1526). Aside from their reputation for advanced training and equipment, the Janissaries struck fear into the hearts of their enemies with the Mehteran, the military band that played powerful tunes on drums and reed instruments during campaigns and battles.Power, Politics, and PatronagePortrait of Ksem, 17th century, Venetian School. Source: SothebysOttoman politics was deeply influenced by the Janissaries. Princes first and foremost attempted to secure the support of the Janissary Corps in their bid for the sultanate. While still a prince, Selim Ilater known as Yavuz, meaning ferocious or grimmanaged to secure the support of the Janissaries, which allowed him to overthrow his father, Sultan Bayezid II.The Janissaries could also be an unruly and dangerous force. Coffee shops in Istanbul were a place where discontent Janissaries could provoke rebellion. When these sites were banned by Sultan Osman II in 1622, he was killed by Janissary troops.On their accession to the throne, sultans would give the Janissaries a stipend, and in return, would receive their oath of allegiance. Powerful figures in the Ottoman government such as grand viziers, queens, and concubines would ally themselves with the Janissaries to achieve their political goals.Ksem Sultan, the powerful 17th-century regent, and Valide (Queen Mother) understood the importance of keeping this force content. During a financial crisis, she had palace gold and silver melted down to pay the Janissaries their wages. Throughout much of her reign, she managed to form close ties with the commanders of the Janissary corpssuch as Mustafa Agawho in turn wielded influence over his powerful troops.Changes Throughout the CenturiesA Janissary Aga and Blk (infantry), painted by Lambert Wyts ca. 1573. Source: Austrian National Library Online CollectionBy the mid-17th century, the Janissaries had become a thorn in the side of the Ottoman government. Their influence over palace politics, rebellions during economic hardships, and dictating of state policy had created instability in the capital. In the 1620s, Sultan Osman II, aged only 17, vowed to reform the army and possibly disband the Janissary corps. As a result, he was imprisoned, and later brutally murdered, his ears and nose reportedly being chopped off by the Janissaries.Some reforms had been able to touch this force that grew more antiquated with every decade. During the rule of Selim II (d.1574), Janissaries were allowed to get married. In previous centuries, they were expected to remain celibate as a measure of enforcing discipline and their devotion to the state and sultan. In 1638, the devirme system was also abandoned, meaning that ordinary Turks and Muslims could sign up to become Janissaries. This led to an influx of men going to Istanbul, desiring the political and economic benefits of being a soldier.These changes were palatable to the Janissaries who did not desire reform in their organization. Any further reform was met with resistance. The last of the reformist sultans, Selim III (d.1807), was a man who was relatively open to Westernization and wanted to slow the Ottoman decline. Selim created the Nizam-i Cedid, a new military force that was to institute European-inspired military organization and uniforms, among other things. This was essentially a death sentence for the Janissary corps, which revolted and dethroned the Sultan.Putting an End to the Janissary CorpsPortrait of Sultan Mahmud II, Painted by Henry Guillaume Schlesinger, ca. 1836. Source: Palace of Versailles CollectionDespite Selim IIIs dethronement, the modernization of the Ottoman Empire could not be stopped. In 1808, Mahmud II ascended to the throne. Possibly the most pro-Western and revolutionary sultan of all time, Mahmud was intent on creating a modern army in line with those of Britain and France. Losses of imperial territoriessuch as Greece in 1821and revolts across the Mediterranean and Balkans made the need clear to both the Sultan and civil society.Since the Janissary Corps was a deeply entrenched and century-old establishment, any changes to its structure caused criticism and censure. Yet the new Sultan was not looking to reform the Janissaries. Instead, he wanted to abolish the institution altogether. On June 15, 1826, this vision became a reality. Hearing of his plan to form a new army, the Janissaries revolted in the streets of Istanbul. Mahmud saw this as an opportunity to band together factions of society that were displeased with the Janissaries. In the ensuing chaos, thousands of Janissaries were slaughtered, and others were imprisoned.The Janissaries, a force almost as important as the Sultan himself, were officially destroyed. This incident was known as the Vaka-i Hayriyye or the auspicious incident. On July 7, 1826, Sultan Mahmud II issued an imperial edict forming the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye, a new army that was to replace the Janissaries. These soldiers were to be recruited from the Turkish populace, to have training in military colleges, and to be taught modern military science. Also, Europeans were commissioned to instruct these new colleges, allowing the army to be exposed to new and revolutionary ideals.An Enduring LegacyModern Mehter Procession. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTo this day, the Janissaries inspire much admiration and resentment. To many Balkan nations, they are a reminder of the ramifications of centuries of Turkish rule. Due to the devirme system by which Janissaries were initially recruited, many Christian families lost their sons. To others, they are a symbol of the complex Ottoman military and bureaucratic systems. Through the creation of a complex set of social networks and hierarchies, the Ottomans were able to develop one of the most ethnically diverse yet effective armies in history.The history of the Janissaries is also a great example of how a mighty empire may crumble from within. While the complex system of enslavement and loyalty to the Sultan had been effective in earlier centuries, a succession of weak, mentally ill, and child Sultans in the 17th and 18th centuries transformed the Janissaries into a politically ambitious group.In modern-day Trkiye, the most enduring legacy of the Janissaries is their military band, the Mehteran. It is common to see this military band, with their distinctive high brks (headwear), red kaftans, and musical instruments, during social and political festivities. Although the martial music that they play was mainly composed in the early 20th century, they use similar tones, keys, and lyrics to the mehter marches from earlier centuries.These performances can also be seen in international cultural parades, such as those held in Times Square, New York City. These mehter performances are interesting artistic and musical displays and a constant reminder of the deep-rooted militarism and sense of statehood that permeates Turkish historical pride.

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