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The political fragmentation in China after the collapse of the Tang Dynasty was brought to an end by Zhao Kuangyin, a warlord who founded the Song Dynasty in 960. Northeastern China remained under the control of the Khitan Liao Dynasty, which was overthrown by the Jurchens early in the 12th century. The Jurchen Jin Dynasty proceeded to conquer northern China and forced the Song court to evacuate to Hangzhou. During the 13th century, both empires fell to the Mongols, who established the Yuan Dynasty and ruled China until the 1350s.The Song DynastySeated Portrait of Emperor Taizu of Song. Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei, TaiwanThe collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907 led to a period of fragmentation, during which a series of five short-lived dynasties succeeded one another in northern China. Four of the five dynasties had their capital in Bianzhou, present-day Kaifeng in Henan Province, which had been an economic hub during the Late Tang period. In the meantime, southern China was divided into ten kingdoms but remained relatively peaceful and prosperous.The Later Zhou Dynasty (951-960) managed to expand its realm at the expense of the southern kingdoms but was overthrown in 960 by the 34-year-old general Zhao Kuangyin, the commander of the palace guard, who established the Song Dynasty and is known to history as Emperor Taizu of Song.After taking power, Taizu quickly moved to take control of the military apparatus by dismissing senior generals and appointing them to prestigious governorships far from the capital. From 963, the Song emperor began his campaigns of conquest, targeting the weaker southern kingdoms to strengthen his empires economic base. By the time of Taizus unexpected death in 976, all but one of the southern kingdoms had been vanquished. The task was completed in 979 by Taizus brother Zhao Kuangyi, who succeeded to the throne as Emperor Taizong of Song.One of Taizus most important legacies was the subordination of military authority to the civil bureaucracy. This ensured that the Song governments were never at risk from military coups, but it undermined the armys ability to fight the Khitans in the northeast and the Tangut empire of Xi Xia in the northwest.Cultural AchievementsGolden Pheasant and Cotton Rose, painting and poem by Emperor Huizong of Song, 11th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile the Song Dynasty was not known for its military prowess, the dynasty was celebrated by later generations for its cultural achievements. The Song Dynasty is known for c poetry, a literary form inspired by song lyrics which consisted of varying meters, as opposed to the traditional four-character form associated with Tang poetry. One of the best-known c poets was the great scholar Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), who was also an accomplished calligrapher and prose writer.The Song Dynasty was the heyday for Confucian scholar-officials, and the system of imperial examinations based on the Confucian classics was formalized. Prominent scholars included Sima Guang (1019-1086), who was responsible for the compilation of the Zizhi Tongjian, one of the most influential works of Chinese historiography, covering the period 403 BCE to 959 CE. Sima Guang was the leader of the conservative faction at court during the mid-11th century and opposed the policies of Wang Anshi, who was appointed chancellor by Emperor Shenzong in 1170. Wang sought to improve the countrys economic fortunes by reducing taxes on peasants and curbing the power of local elites.The famous poet and writer Su Shi (1037-1101), also known as Su Dongpo, was one of the scholar-officials caught up in the rivalry between the reformers and the conservatives. Su wrote poems satirizing the reformers at court and was exiled from Kaifeng for two long periods. In 1082, he wrote two Odes to the Red Cliffs after visiting the assumed location of the Battle of Red Cliffs. These rhapsodies reflect not only on the transience of human nature but also on the permanence and changes in the natural environment.Statue of Su Dongpo in Huangang, Hubei Province, China. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnother influential scholar-official from the 11th century was Su Song, a polymath who was distinguished in both the arts and sciences. He is best known for his contributions to astronomy and clock-making. Between 1086 and 1094, he designed and supervised the construction of a water-powered astronomical clock tower in Kaifeng. The ingenious device could track the movements of celestial objects and played an important part in calendrical calculations and astrological divination.Emperor Huizong of Song, who ruled during the first quarter of the 12th century, was a talented musician, painter, calligrapher, and poet in his own right. Huizong was known for the extravagance of his court, and his officials traveled around the empire confiscating fine artworks and rare plant specimens for the emperors enjoyment.Huizongs considerable talents did not extend to the business of ruling an empire, and he was blamed by later generations for neglecting the duties of government and for failing to resist the invasion of the Jurchen Jin. In 1126, he abdicated in favor of his son, Emperor Qinzong, and in January 1127, both emperors were captured by Jurchen forces who broke into Kaifeng, marking the end of the Northern Song Dynasty. The two emperors were taken to the Jin heartland in Manchuria and spent the rest of their lives in captivity. One of Huizongs sons relocated the capital to Hangzhou, establishing the Southern Song Dynasty.The Khitan Liao DynastyStatue of Yel Abaoji and Li Keyong, Huairen County, Shanxi, China. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor much of its history, the Northern Song co-existed with the Khitan Liao Dynasty in the northeast. The Khitans came to dominate the northern steppe during the 9th century CE, taking advantage of the collapse of the Uyghur empire in the east. With the collapse of Tang authority at the end of the century, Khitan warriors launched frequent raids to plunder Chinese lands.In the early 900s CE, the Khitan chieftain Abaoji led several raids into the Hedong region, ruled by the warlord Li Keyong. Although Li had the upper hand, he was engaged in a power struggle with Zhu Wen. In 905, he came to a peace settlement with the Khitans and swore an oath of brotherhood with Abaoji. Abaoji had a free hand to attack his enemies in northeastern China while also expanding the Khitan realm to the east in Manchuria and to the west in Mongolia.In 907, Abaoji was elected qaghan. In 916, he proclaimed himself emperor of the Liao Dynasty and broke with Khitan tradition by nominating his eldest son as heir apparent. Abaoji established a system of dual administration, with the northern part of the realm governed under traditional Khitan laws and customs and the southern part under Chinese customs.With northern China still in turmoil during the Five Dynasties period, Abaoji continued to lead raids into China. After Abaojis sudden death in 926 while planning a major invasion, he was succeeded by his younger son, who became Emperor Taizong.A depiction of Khitans eating from a tomb mural in Chifeng city, Inner Mongolia, China. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy 938, the Khitans seized control of a region along the Great Wall (including modern-day Beijing) known as the Sixteen Prefectures. Khitan armies briefly occupied the northern Chinese capital of Kaifeng in 947, but popular resistance compelled them to withdraw after sacking the city and capturing many imperial officials who were put to work in the new Chinese-style bureaucracy.During the second half of the 10th century CE, as the Song Dynasty gradually consolidated its control over China, the Khitan armies encountered greater resistance. An attempt by Taizong of Song to recover the Sixteen Prefectures in 979 ended in disaster, and the two dynasties remained in conflict for another quarter century. In 1004, the two parties came to a peace agreement whereby the Liao emperor acknowledged his Song counterpart as his elder brother. In exchange, the Song made payments to the Liao in the form of a contribution to military expenses.Although the Khitan empire included only a small portion of Chinese territory, their control of the northern and western routes into China gave the impression that the Liao was the stronger power. As a result, medieval Europeans such as Marco Polo would call northern China Cathay after the Khitans, and the name Kitai continues to refer to the whole of China in many Turkic and Slavic languages.The Jurchen Jin DynastyStatue of Jurchen Jin mounted warrior at the Heilongjiang Provincial Museum, Harbin, China, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2019. Source: Jimmy ChenIn 1113, the Liao Dynasty faced a rebellion from the Jurchens, who hailed from eastern Manchuria near the Korean border. The Jurchens had been vassals of the Liao and had begun to consolidate into a single tribal federation under the Wanyan clan during the mid-11th century. Although their chieftains received military appointments from the Liao, the Jurchens resented their heavy tribute obligations to the Liao court.The rebellion in 1113 was launched by Wanyan Aguda soon after his election as leader of the Jurchen federation. Despite being outnumbered, Agudas warriors won a series of victories, which encouraged greater numbers of Jurchens to join the rebellion. By 1115, Aguda controlled most of Manchuria and proclaimed himself emperor of the Jin Dynasty, after the Chinese word for gold.As the Jurchen rebellion continued to gather strength, Liao armies defected to the rebels en masse, and the prospect of the overthrow of the Liao regime became increasingly realistic. In the meantime, the Song court in Kaifeng had never given up on recovering the Sixteen Prefectures, and from 1117, Song envoys visited the Jin court to coordinate joint attacks against Liao.While Song armies made little progress in the north, the Jin forces continued to advance and overrun much of the Liao state by 1123. The same year, Jin and Song diplomats signed a formal treaty of alliance under which the Song agreed to make annual payments to Jin. Aguda died shortly thereafter and was succeeded by his brother Wuqimai, the Emperor Taizong. In 1125, the Liao emperor was captured by Jin forces, marking the end of the Liao Dynasty.The Jin-Song WarsStatue of Yue Fei, Wuhan, China. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite the alliance of 1123, Jin armies invaded Song in 1125 and occupied Kaifeng the following year.Jin forces evacuated the Song capital after Emperor Huizong agreed to abdicate in favor of his son Qinzong in exchange for peace. However, hostilities soon resumed, and in 1127, the Jurchens captured Kaifeng and took the two Song emperors captive. Huizongs ninth son, Zhao Gou, managed to escape and led what remained of the Song resistance. By 1133, Zhao Gou, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozong of Southern Song, established his new court at Linan, modern-day Hangzhou.After conquering a large portion of northern China, the Jin initially attempted to assert control by setting up short-lived puppet regimes under Han Chinese rulers. However, the revival of Song military fortunes under the leadership of the four generals Yue Fei, Han Shizhong, Zhang Jun, and Liu Guangshi prompted the Jin to take direct control in 1137.As both parties realized that neither could completely defeat the other, a peace agreement was signed in 1138, designating the Yellow River as the frontier between the two empires. This would allow the Song to reoccupy Kaifeng, but under the terms of the treaty, Gaozong styled himself as a subject of the Jin emperor.Depiction of Yue Feis victory at the Battle of Zhuxian County, Summer Palace, Beijing, China. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNot long after the signing of the peace, the war faction regained control of the Jin court, and in 1140, the Jurchens recaptured Kaifeng. Yue Fei launched a successful counterattack, which saw Song forces recapture Luoyang and reach the gates of Kaifeng, but they were denied reinforcements and forced to withdraw. The influential official Qin Hui favored peace with the Jin and orchestrated the recall of the victorious generals. After being demoted to a provincial post, Yue Fei was put on trial for trumped-up charges of treason and executed.The removal of the generals facilitated a peace agreement in 1142 with the frontier at the Huai River, leaving Kaifeng and Luoyang with the Jin. Nevertheless, the agreement paved the way for lucrative trade between the two empires, allowing the Southern Song economy to flourish despite heavy tribute payments to the Jin. The two empires remained at peace for much of the second half of the 12th century, though hostilities broke out on occasion as both sides aimed to conquer the other.The Rise of the MongolsGenghis Khan Equestrian Statue, Tsonjin Boldog, Mongolia. Source: Discover MongoliaAt the turn of the 13th century, the Jin Empire faced a major threat from the north in the form of the Mongols. The Mongols had recently been united by the chieftain Temujin, who adopted the title Genghis Khan, or universal ruler, in 1206. Although Genghis remained on horseback for most of his life, the expansion of his realm required the establishment of administrative institutions.While the Mongols are known for their prowess in horse archery, their extraordinary conquests in the early 13th century owe much to the systems of organization, communication, and logistics that allowed Genghis to coordinate his attacks across a theater covering hundreds of miles. The Mongols used psychological warfare to their advantage, mercilessly sacking cities that dared to put up a fight in order to encourage others to submit peacefully.Before launching his invasion of the Jin, Genghis first attacked Xi Xia, the Sinicized state ruled by the Tanguts since 1038. By 1210, he secured the submission of the Tangut ruler, which enabled the Mongols to attack the Jin empire from the west. In 1211, Mongol armies launched a devastating raid across the Chinese frontier before withdrawing north. In the wake of a second invasion in 1212-13, the Jin evacuated its capital, Zhongdu (present-day Beijing), in 1214 and moved to Kaifeng. In May 1215, Zhongdu surrendered to Genghis, while other Mongol armies took control of the Jin heartland of Manchuria.Equestrian Statue of Muqali outside the Mongolian Parliament Building, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAt this juncture, Genghiss attention was diverted to the west, and between 1219 and 1221, Mongol forces conquered the vast Khwarazmian Empire that stretched from Central Asia to Persia. The Mongol general Muqali remained behind in China and made steady progress against the Jin, but his death in 1223 and a Tangut rebellion halted the momentum of the Mongol armies.In 1226, Genghis returned to lead a punitive campaign against the rebellious Tangut but died the following year. He was succeeded as great khan by his third son Ogodei, who renewed the offensive against the Jin in 1230. The Mongols captured Kaifeng in early 1233, and the Jin appealed to the Song for assistance. Seeking to recover lost territories, the Song instead allied with the Mongols, and the Jin Dynasty was extinguished in 1234 when the last Jin emperor took his own life. Ogodei soon appointed the talented Khitan official Yel Chucai as his chancellor in northern China. Yel pursued reforms that reduced the tax burden for most of the population while increasing the empires tax base.The Conquest of SongPortrait of Kublai Khan by court artist Araniko in the Album of Yuan Emperor Portraits, c. 1294. Source: Wikimedia Commons (National Palace Museum, Taipei)By the time of Ogodeis death in 1240, the Mongol Empire stretched from central Europe in the west to Manchuria in the east. Despite the sophistication of Mongol communications, the vast empire was impossible to control from the center, and the continued expansion of the empire was largely down to the initiative of subordinate khans also descended from Genghis.The traditional Mongol system of electing khans at a quriltai, or assembly, encouraged power struggles between Mongol princes. In 1251, after a decade of upheaval, Mngke Khan became the fourth great khan of the Mongol Empire. Mngkes father Tolui was Genghiss fourth son and a formidable warrior who died in 1232 in his early 40s.In 1253, Mngke sent his brother Kublai to lead an army to conquer the Kingdom of Dali in the present-day Yunnan Province. By 1256, Kublai Khan had completed the conquest of Dali in conjunction with the general Uriyangqadai, whose father Subedei was one of Genghiss most successful generals. Uriyangqadai then invaded Vietnam and secured the submission of its king in 1257.The conquest of Dali coincided with Mongol attacks against the Song, but the death of Mngke in 1259 led to a protracted succession struggle between Kublai and his brother Ariq Boke, which ended in Kublais favor in 1264. In 1268, Mongol forces under Bayan of the Baarin laid siege to the fortress of Xiangyang on the Han River. The city was captured in 1273 by employing siege machines built by Muslim engineers. Bayan secured the submission of the young Song emperor in 1276, but it took until 1279 for the remaining Song loyalists to be defeated.The Yuan DynastyGrooms and Horses Scroll (Fragment) by Zhao Mengfu, 1296. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkThe civil war against Ariq Boke resulted in the destruction of the Mongol capital of Karakorum. In 1266, Kublai ordered the construction of a new capital to the north of the old Jin capital of Zhongdu, which came to be known as Khanbaliq in Mongolian and Dadu, or Great City, in Chinese.In 1271, Kublai claimed the Mandate of Heaven and established the Yuan Dynasty. He moved the capital to Khanbaliq, and while he retained the traditional shamanistic religion, he patronized Confucians and Buddhists in China. After the conquest of Song in 1279, the Yuan Dynasty became the first non-Chinese dynasty to rule over the whole of China.The most famous account of Kublais court and his lavish palaces in Khanbaliq and Shangdu (Xanadu) was left by the Venetian traveler Marco Polo. After arriving in China as a teenager in 1275, Marco Polo served at the Yuan court for 17 years and traveled extensively throughout the empire while carrying out various administrative and diplomatic duties in the name of the great khan.After Kublais death in 1294, his immediate successors attempted to build on his legacy and continued to promote mainstream Chinese culture. The 1320s onwards saw a succession of short-lived rulers who deposed one another in palace coups, weakening the state and encouraging regular rebellions. The outbreak of the Red Turban Rebellion in 1351 would eventually spell the demise of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368.

Silk Road Map. Source: TheCollector.comThey may be largely unknown in the modern world but in their time the Sogdians were exceptionally influential. The Sogdians were an Iranian-speaking people who originated from Central Asia (modern-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) and were at the center of the Silk Road trade. Their rich, vibrant culture which abounded in Sogdian towns along trade routes is largely forgotten today. However, their contribution to cultural exchanges and trade across Eurasia can be seen in many modern societies.Regions the Sogdians OccupiedIllustration of Sogdians offering tributary gifts to the Persian king Darius I, 5th century BCSogdiana was at one point taken over by Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. It then came under the rule of Alexander the Great in 328 BC. It would continue to be ruled by different leaders under different empires such as the Seleucid and the Kushan Empires. Regarding their settlement distribution, Sogdians lived in many places along the Silk Road, including in Imperial China where they were put in military and government positions within the Chinese Tang dynasty. In the government, they were mostly appointed into trade oversight positions. Sogdian vendors and messengers could also be found as far west as the Byzantine Empire.They played a key role as traders and go-betweens along the Silk Trade routes. Initially, they embraced a wide array of belief systems such as Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. Later, they began embracing Islam following the Muslim invasion of Transoxiana in the 8th century. The Sogdian shift to Islam was largely finalized by the end of the Samanid Empire in 999. With the change came the decline of the Sogdian language, as it was slowly replaced by New Persian.The Relationship Between the Sogdians and the ChineseMap of Sogdia. Source: Silk Road ResearchSogdian traders dominated the Silk Road at its height. Sogdian trade items that have been found throughout China and Central Asia have included gold and silver items crafted in Sogdiana. Some of them date back to the 7th century. While the Sogdians maintained a good relationship with the Chinese, they also had good ties with the Turks. However, both groups viewed them as their subordinates. Some of the outstanding skills that Sogdians were revered for besides trading included craftsmanship. The items blended unique oriental and western style elements. Silk weaving in particular became one of their leading trades. They utilized raw fiber being brought in from China. The unique pieces were used in institutions such as the Tang court in China.How the Sogdians Contributed to the Exchange of Cultures Along the Silk RoadSogdian wall painting found at the archaeological site of Varakhsha. Photograph via the State Hermitage MuseumThe expansion of Sogdian commerce and trade contributed greatly to the development of civilizations involved in the Silk Road trade. A blend of different economic systems, cultures, languages, and belief systems emerged on the routes on which the goods flowed, and many of the influences persist to our day. For example Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Nestorian Christianity all spread along these pathways. Different kinds of fruits and animals were exchanged along the Silk Road by the Sogdians, thus improving the crop variety in regions such as Europe. Peaches, for instance, are thought to have traveled west from China via these routes. Between the 6th and 8th centuries, they reached their peak and dominated most of Central Asian commerce.While the Silk Road is believed to have had significant influence on the Chinese and other cultures, Sogdian traders are also credited with contributions to the trade which boosted the economy and trade activities of the East Asian nation, particularly during the Tang Dynasty by acting as transporters and translators in some instances. Their extensive trade networks also helped to interconnect different regions and civilizations.The Decline of Sogdian DominanceLocal coinage of Samarkand, Sogdia, with the Hepthalite tamgha on the reverse.Many of the Silk Road routes were conquered by Umayyad Dynasty Arabs between 706 and 712, and the local Sogdian rulers were forced to become subservient to the Arabs. In fact, the Arabs imposed a tribute system on the conquered territories. The Arab takeover was prolonged by various uprisings in the Sogdian city-states. During the change in power, many Sogdian villages and cities were destroyed. Historical accounts suggest that some Sogdian leaders invited the Arabs with an aim to dominate rival city-states.The intrusion caused the Sogdians influence to wane and by about 750, there was widespread conversion of locals to Islam. The conversions were not always peaceful and were sometimes enforced through taxation on non-Muslims. It is hypothesized that their ineffective system of government was a contributing factor to the Sogdians vulnerability to the Arabs. Essentially, each city was a city-state with its own government. While the people were wealthy and enjoyed a highly developed economy, no centralized government existed beyond that of the city-state. The lack of unity meant that individual Sogdian cities were easily picked off by the more organized Arab forces.

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It's finally time to enjoy some frantic mech-based combat, if your PC can handle the Mecha Break system requirements, that is. This free-to-play game is stacked with customization options and solid combat mechanics, and its requirements suggest it's simple to run, even on older or budget gaming PCs.While you won't need the best graphics card to run Mecha Break, there's certainly a benefit to packing a bit more power in your gaming PC, as your frame rate will be far smoother at higher graphical settings. Initial community feedback suggests the game is still well-optimized for low-end GPUs, however, and we're excited to see how the game performs on the best gaming handhelds, too. Continue reading Mecha Break system requirementsMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best graphics card, Best gaming PC, Best SSD for gaming