The celebrated English scientist Sir Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643, in a small village in England named Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth. Newton later on became one of the most celebrated English scientists. He was also one of the key figures in the Scientific Revolution. Born in the village of Woolsthorpe, Newton was the only child of a local farmer, also named Isaac Newton, who had passed away three months earlier, and of Hannah Ayscough. Just about a year earlier, at Arcetri near Florence, the renowned physicist, Galileo Galilei, had passed away. Newton would later build on his concept of the mathematical study of motion and develop it to its greatest potential.Which School Did Sir Isaac Newton Attend?Enhanced engraving of Sir Isaac Newton, 1856At school, Isaac Newton developed a strong grasp of the Latin language. However, he, like other learners, likely learned only the basics of arithmetic. He went on to join Trinity College, Cambridge in June 1661. As he joined the university, the intellectual movement now called the Scientific Revolution was already in full swing and many of the foundational works of modern science had been published. Astronomers such as Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler, for example, had expanded on the heliocentric model of the universe. Additionally, scientists such as Galileo had laid the groundwork for a new understanding of mechanics based on the idea of inertia. Guided by thinkers like Ren Descartes, philosophers had started to develop a fresh view of nature as a complex inert machine.What Was Sir Isaac Newtons First Invention?Newton statue on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural HistoryIn 1665, Cambridge University temporarily shut down due to an outbreak of the bubonic plague, forcing Newton to return home to Lincolnshire for two years. It was during this time that he came up with his now famous apple-falling analogy, which sparked a breakthrough. While he seemed to thrive in solitary study, Newton eventually went back to Cambridge in 1667. There, he worked as a mathematics professor and held other important roles until 1696.That said, Isaac Newtons 1687 theory of gravity was accepted as scientific fact for over two hundred years until Albert Einstein introduced his General Theory of Relativity. In his theory, Newton described gravity as a force that acts instantly across any distance, creating an attraction between any two objects in the universe. Even today, this is the most widely understood explanation of gravity.Newton also came up with the mathematical formula that enabled mathematicians to calculate the gravitational pull between two objects.What Are Newtons Laws of Motion?Front cover for Isaac Newtons Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (or Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) in 1687In 1687, Isaac Newton outlined three main laws of motion in his book Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy).The first of Newtons Laws of motion states that a moving object will keep moving unless an outside force interferes with it. Also, if the object is still, it will stay still unless a force changes that. This rule is also called the law of inertia.The second of Newtons Laws of motion indicates that when a force is exerted on an object, it will cause the object to speed up. The acceleration will be directly proportional to the force acting on the object. The rule also says the greater the mass of the object, the more the force required to cause it to accelerate.The third of Newtons Laws of motion states that every force exerted causes an equal and opposite force that is of the same magnitude. This means if you press on an object, there will be an opposing force of the same magnitude.When Did Isaac Newton Develop the First Practical Reflecting Telescope?A replica of a second reflecting telescope Newton presented to the Royal Society in 1672In the 18th century, astronomers typically used long refracting telescopes that featured a carefully formed glass lens. However, in 1668, Isaac Newton created the first practical reflecting telescope. Instead of a lens, it used a single curved main mirror together with a second diagonal mirror to reflect light back to the eyepiece. Over the next couple of centuries, bigger telescopes that derived from Newtons design proved to be especially helpful for viewing very faint celestial bodies such as nebulae. Utilizing his concept as well as bigger instruments led to fundamental shifts in the understanding of the universe.What Is Isaac Newtons Particle Theory of Light?Enhanced Illustration documenting Isaac Newtons studies on refracted light through the use of a prism.Among the most prominent supporters of the particle theory of light was Isaac Newton. Newtons detailed studies into the characteristics of light in the 1660s resulted in his discovery that white light was made up of a mix of colors. He struggled with an explanation to dissect the essence of light, eventually stating in Opticks (1704) that light is composed of a stream of particles. He also suggested that different shades of light had marginally different masses that travelled at varying speeds in transparent materials and thus had varied angles of refraction. Today, it is generally accepted that light has wave-particle duality.

The celebration of Cinco de Mayo is unique: a civic holiday from one country that emigrated and found a homeand a more enthusiastic crowdin another nation. Its not an official holiday in the United States, but it almost feels like one. How is it possible that Cinco de Mayo, a date on the Mexican patriotic calendar, became a fiesta in the United States? And why do so few people celebrate the day in Mexico?Feliz Cinco de Mayo, amigos!Dancers perform at the Cinco de Mayo reception in the Rose Garden of the White House, May 5, 2010, photo by Chuck Kennedy. Source: National ArchivesFor years, Cinco de Mayo (May 5th) has been celebrated in the United States as a patriotic, colorful, and joyful day that commemorates the military glories of the neighboring country. For two days, the spirit and culture of Spanish-speaking, mostly Catholic, and predominantly Hispanic Mexico make their presence felt, especially in California and large cities like New York and Chicago. The gastronomy, music, and arts of Mexico are showcased everywhere. Many Americans, despite criticism over cultural appropriation, even dress up in sombreros, sarapes, and stereotypical mustaches, gladly embracing Mexican identity for an afternoon.Could it get any stranger? How about the president of the United Statesa nation that has invaded Mexico more than oncehosting a reception in the White House gardens, where he greets guests in Spanish, loads up on guacamole and Tres Leches cake, and celebrates the achievements of Mexican-Americans (who make up about 12% of the countrys population)?Resisting French AggressionGuerre du Mexique, Sige et prise de Publa, unknown illustrator, 1870. Source: Starforts.comThe story of Cinco de Mayo begins on yet another continent, in France of the Second Empire. In 1861, Napoleon III decided it was in his countrys interest to support the establishment of a monarchy in Mexico. The pretext for the invasion was a debt moratorium decreed by President Benito Jurez due to an acute shortage of funds: the national coffers were empty.On May 5, 1862, near the city of Puebla located a few miles from the Mexican capital, the powerful French armypreviously victorious in Crimea and Sevastopolfaced off against a poorly equipped and underfed Mexican force, mostly made up of forcibly recruited peasants. We are so superior to the Mexicans in race, organization, discipline, morality, and elevation of feeling that I beg your Excellency to inform the emperor that I am already master of Mexico, wrote French General Lorencez to Napoleon III.The Improbable Feat of Ignacio ZaragozaMaximilian I, Emperor of Mexico, by Albert Graefle, 1865. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor the French, Puebla seemed a mere formality, a battle they did not even need to fight. But they did. The two very uneven armies clashed on the outskirts of town. And disaster struck the French troops. That morning, the French soldiers had been confidently brewing coffee in front of the Mexican army. By night, in heavy rain, the red pants, les pantalons rouge, as the French army was known, were fleeing, some on horseback, back to the east, not knowing what hit them. The man responsible for the Mexican victory was a 33-year-old general born in Texaswhen it was still part of Mexiconamed Ignacio Zaragoza.Charlotte, Empress of Mexico, by Albert Graefle, 1865. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe following year, the French returned with six times as many troops, occupied Mexico for five years, and installed a puppet king, Emperor Maximilian I, and his tragic wife, Charlotte of Belgium. But eventually, the Mexican Republic prevailed. President Jurez decreed that the patriotic feat of Zaragoza would be commemorated every May 5th for the glory of Mexico.The Origins of Cinco de Mayo: American?Mexican-Americans in Los Angeles, early 20th Century, unknown photographer, ca. 1940. Source: The New York TimesToday, almost nothing happens in Mexico on Cinco de Mayo. All Mexicans go to work or school, and with the exception of the city of Puebla, the day goes largely unnoticed. But across the border in the US, the day can take on carnival proportions. In the 1990s, for example, the Cinco de Mayo parade in Los Angeles drew crowds of up to half a million people.Returning, for a moment, to 1862Texan Ignacio Zaragoza (born near modern-day San Antonio) is standing over the defeated French army, telegraphing President Jurez that the national arms have been covered in glory. Zaragoza was Mexicanits important to note that the southern United States was once Mexican territory, and many Mexicans lived in what is today California. When the territory came under US control in 1848, these Californios retained loyalty to Mexico, commemorating important dates.When news of the victory in Puebla reached Mexican Americans in Los Angeles and other cities, they went from despair to joy, organizing contributions to support the Mexican cause. A newspaper, La Voz de Mjico, urged: Would it not be fitting that, here in California, some show of appreciation be made, which those valiant men merit who have spilled their blood in defense of the homeland? Among these Californios, the idea was born to celebrate and remember the men of Cinco de Mayo each year.Over the years, they organized vibrant Cinco de Mayo celebrations, including food cooperatives, parades, dances, and musical performances. They also collected donations to support Jurez in his war against the French.The Confederacy FactorBoundary Between the United States and the Confederacy, The Making of America, National Geographic Books, 2002. Source: National GeographicThese early Cinco de Mayo celebrations found support not only among Mexican-Americans but also among Americans themselves, especially because Jurez and Lincoln were allies, and the French had expressed their intent to help the Confederacy. Michel Chevalier, one of the strongest advocates of French intervention and a close advisor to Napoleon III, wrote:France must oppose the absorption of Southern America by Northern America. She must equally oppose the diminution of the Latin races on the other side of the ocean; in fine, she desires to guarantee the integrity and security of her West India colonies. The interest which guides the sympathies of France toward the side of the seceding States, has conducted her flag to the walls of Mexico. The recognition of the Southern States will be the consequence of our intervention; or rather our intervention has prepared, facilitated and rendered possible the diplomatic act which will consecrate final separation-secession in the United States.Thus, both the Union and Mexico saw France as a common enemy, and May 5th came to symbolize a shared struggle for unity and freedom. Cinco de Mayo became a historical event that linked Mexico and post-Civil War America.La Fiesta is RevivedWith a TwistCsar Chvez (center), leader of the Chicano movement, by John Malmin, 1975. Source: UCLA Library Digital CollectionsDuring the rest of the 19th century, Mexican clubs in California continued to celebrate Cinco de Mayo, with some interesting additions: the American flag and portraits of George Washington. Civil and Mexican War veterans donned their uniforms and gave speeches side by side, as though from twin movements.In the 1960s, the Chicano movementpart of the broader civil rights struggle in the US, but specifically focused on Mexican-Americansgave new impetus to the holiday. Leaders like Csar Chvez and Dolores Huerta used Cinco de Mayo as a symbol of Mexican resistance, re-emphasizing its cultural aspects to promote Chicano identity and pride, while the growing flow of Mexican migrants to the US strengthened and gave a social base to the festival. This focus on Mexican heritage and Cinco de Mayo led many Americans to wrongly believe the day marked Mexicos Independence Day, actually celebrated in September.The Commercialization of Cinco de MayoCinco de Mayo parade, New Mexico, unknown, photographer, 1914. Source: Library of CongressUltimately, it wasnt activists but corporations that gave Cinco de Mayo its modern identity. By the late 1980s, large companies recognized the days marketing potential, first targeting Latino consumers by sponsoring musical performances and cultural events, and later appealing to the general population. Mexican beer companies, looking to expand their share of the US market, seized on the opportunity. They made Cinco de Mayo one of the biggest drinking holidays in Americaeven if most people misunderstood its origins. When asked what Cinco de Mayo commemorates, many incorrectly guessed Mexicos Independence Day or the end of French rule in Mexico.In a way, this commercialization represented a small cultural victory for Mexico over its powerful northern neighbor, and yet, as we have seen, it is also a genuine American holiday.Meanwhile, Back in MexicoStatue of Ignacio Zaragoza Seguin in San Agustin Plaza in Laredo, Texas, by Carol Highsmith, 2015. Source: Library of CongressSouth of the Rio Grande, the natural border that separates Mexico from the US, Cinco de Mayo has largely been forgotten. While modern calendars still note Anniversary of the Battle of Puebla, and the city of Puebla hosts a speech, the rest of the country goes about its business as usual. Most Mexicans today know little about the Battle of Puebla.There is a reason for this forgetfulness: Cinco de Mayo was one of the favorite holidays of Mexican dictator Porfirio Daz (1884-1911), a brave military officer who participated in the battle, earned glory, and later, as president of Mexico, overstayed his welcome for more than thirty years. The revolution that overthrew him found it more relevant to celebrate new heroes and dateslike Francisco Madero and the 1917 Constitutionrather than holidays linked to the dictatorship.Cinco de Mayo, a holiday born in Mexico to celebrate resistance against foreign invaders, ironically found its most enthusiastic following in a foreign land.

Due to a unique set of circumstances at the beginning of the 16th century, a teenage monarch inherited much of Europe, including Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and parts of Italy. Throughout his reign, Emperor Charles V fought to keep his empire together against his French, Ottoman, and Protestant foes. Although he was largely successful in doing so, at the end of his life, he was forced to divide his vast empire between two branches of his family.A Great InheritanceEmperor Maximilian I by Albrecht Durer, 1519. Source: Kunsthistoriches Museum, ViennaWhen the future Charles V was born in Ghent on February 24, 1500, few expected that he would become the most powerful man in Europe less than two decades later. However, a unique set of circumstances made the young Charles of Ghent master of a vast empire that included territory on five continents.Charles owed his destiny to his grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. A member of the House of Habsburg, Maximilian had married Mary of Burgundy in 1477 as a young prince. Although the Burgundians lost control of their ancestral lands in eastern France, Burgundy controlled much of the Netherlands. Marys early death in 1482 saw Maximilian take over the Burgundian Netherlands as regent for their young son, Duke Philip IV of Burgundy.After an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate a marriage alliance with France, Maximilian turned to Spain, which had recently been united by the marriage of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile. In 1496, Philip married Infanta Juana, Ferdinand and Isabellas eldest daughter. The couple would have seven children over the next decade.While Philip and Juana began their married life in the Netherlands, they decided to move to Spain following the death of Queen Isabel in 1504. Philip fell ill on the journey and died in September 1506 at the age of 28. When Juana displayed signs of mental instability and refused to accept her husbands death, she was declared unfit to rule and kept in confinement. In the meantime, Charles of Ghent became Charles II of Burgundy, though his aunt Magaret of Austria ruled as regent and was responsible for his upbringing.King of SpainKing Ferdinand of Aragon, c. 1470-1520. Source: The Royal Collections TrustThe future Charles V and his elder sister Eleanor spent most of their childhood at Margarets court at Malines near Brussels. Their younger siblings, who had accompanied their parents to Spain, were brought up at the Spanish court under the supervision of King Ferdinand of Aragon, who anticipated that he would leave his crown to his grandson and namesake, Prince Ferdinand.However, Emperor Maximilian intended for Charles to become king in Spain and Ferdinand to take over the Habsburg hereditary lands in Austria. A marriage treaty signed with the King of Hungary in 1515 envisaged the marriage of Ferdinand and Princess Anne of Hungary, placing Ferdinand within reach of the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia.Charles came of age in 1515 and assumed the reins of power in the Netherlands. The following January, his maternal grandfather Ferdinand of Aragon died and named him his successor. Charles succession did not go uncontested, and prior to his arrival in Spain in November 1517, the elderly Cardinal Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros served as regent and suppressed uprisings against Charles succession. In the meantime, Charles younger brother Ferdinand went to Margarets court in the Netherlands.Emperor Charles V by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz, 1605. Source: Museo del Prado, MadridAlthough Charles was king of both Aragon and Castile, the two Spanish kingdoms maintained separate political institutions. The Crown of Aragon controlled territories in the eastern Mediterranean, including the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, while the Crown of Castile was responsible for the expanding Spanish empire in the Americas after Columbus expeditions.Charles Spanish subjects resented the fact that he spoke no Spanish and was dependent on his Burgundian advisors. In 1520, he had to fight off a major popular uprising known as the Revolt of the Comuneros, who released Queen Juana from her captivity to install her as sole ruler. The queen did not wish to depose her son, and Charles was able to suppress the rebels by 1521. Over time, Charles centralized control over Castile, and the kingdom became an important source of wealth and manpower to support his European ambitions.Holy Roman EmperorEmperor Charles V with his dog by Jacob Seisenegger, 1532. Source: Kunsthistoriches Museum, ViennaOn January 12, 1519, Charles grandfather Emperor Maximilian died. Although the imperial crown had now been held by the Habsburgs for a couple of generations, becoming emperor meant securing the unanimous support of the seven electors of the Imperial Electoral College. The electoral race in 1519 was particularly competitive: Charles rivals included King Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England, and his own younger brother Ferdinand.While Charles persuaded his aunt Margaret to withdraw Ferdinands candidacy, the electoral campaign was an expensive business, and Charles secured the backing of the wealthy Fugger banking family from Augsburg to make donations to the electors. Despite having never visited Austria, his status as an Austrian archduke and his ability to speak German were central pillars of his campaign. Although King Francis also provided significant monetary gifts to the electors, on June 28, 1519, Charles was elected king of the Romans, though he would not become emperor until he could be crowned by the pope in Rome.Although the Holy Roman Empire had no capital and its emperors were frequently itinerant, Charles position as the ruler of the Habsburg hereditary lands in Austria, the Burgundian Netherlands, and his kingdom of Spain pulled him in different directions. Charles was compelled to delegate his authority by leaving Margaret in charge of the Netherlands and transferred his brother Ferdinand to Vienna to rule Austria in 1522. Before returning to Spain, Charles strengthened his ties with England with a betrothal to Princess Mary, the daughter of King Henry VIII and his aunt Catherine of Aragon.Italian WarsTapestry depicting the capture of Francis I at the Battle of Pavia, Bernard van Orley, 1528-1531. Source: National Museum of Capodimonte, Naples, Wikimedia CommonsUnder the influence of his Italian chancellor, Mercurino Gattinara, Charles saw himself as the ruler of a universal Christian Roman Empire. Gattinara encouraged Charles to take control of Italy, where imperial and French armies vied for control with the pope and independent princely states. Gattinara saw Italy as a springboard for a renewed crusade against the Ottoman Empire, which had been expanding into southeastern Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries.The ambitious young emperor was keen to gain prestige by demonstrating his prowess on the battlefield. Charles main rival in Europe was King Francis I, having inherited dynastic disputes with France over Burgundy, Navarre in the Pyrnes, and Milan in northern Italy. Henry VIII of England sought to balance the interests of the two sides but often sided with Charles.The Italian peninsula had been engulfed by war since King Charles VIII of France invaded Naples in 1496. Amid a conflict characterized by complex shifting alliances between the interest parties, as king of Spain, Charles was party to a pan-European treaty in 1518 that envisaged an attack on the Ottomans by a united European force. The crusade fell apart with the death of Emperor Maximilian, and by 1521, Charles formed an alliance with the pope to drive French forces out of Milan.Although Francis managed to retake Milan in 1524, an imperial army under Charles de Lannoy defeated Francis and took him prisoner at the Battle of Pavia on February 24, 1525, the emperors 25th birthday. Charles imposed punitive conditions on Francis, but after being released in 1526, the latter made no effort to fulfill his obligations.Maintaining European HegemonyKing Francis I of France by Jean Clouet, 1525-1550. Source: Louvre Museum, ParisAfter returning to France, Francis continued to be Charles Vs main rival for European hegemony. He was helped by King Henry VIII, who was infuriated by Charles decision to repudiate his betrothal to Princess Mary in favor of marriage to his cousin Isabel of Portugal, who gave him a son named Philip in May 1527. This was a factor that contributed to Henrys divorce from Catherine of Aragon and his marriage to Anne Boleyn in the quest for a male heir.In May 1526, France, England, and Venice joined Pope Clement VII in the League of Cognac, designed to expel imperial forces from Italy. While Charles sought to put diplomatic pressure on the pope, mutinous imperial soldiers sacked Rome on May 6, 1527 and took the pope as prisoner. Although French forces marched down the Italian peninsula and laid siege to Naples, Charles received naval and financial support from Genoa, and imperial troops defeated the French army at Landriano on June 21, 1529.The imperial victory at Landriano created the conditions for the Peace of Cambrai of October 1529, in which Francis withdrew from Italy and acknowledged Charles as ruler of the southern Netherlands in his own right but retained Burgundy. Relations between Francis and Charles were strengthened by Francis marriage to Charles widowed sister, Eleanor. The peace agreement gave the European powers an opportunity to face the growing Ottoman threat. More importantly for Charles, it allowed him to be formally crowned emperor by the Pope at Bologna on February 24, 1530, his 30th birthday.The Ottoman ThreatSultan Suleiman I (the Magnificent) by TitianWhile Charles and Francis were fighting over Italy, the Ottomans under Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent captured Belgrade in 1521 and breached the defenses of the island bastion of Rhodes from the Knights of St John the following year. In August 1526, King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia was killed, and his army was defeated by the Ottomans at Mohcs. While Louis death saw Charles brother Ferdinand become king of Hungary and Bohemia, the Ottomans had conquered most of Hungary and were advancing towards Vienna.In 1529, as the Ottoman army laid siege to Vienna, Charles received desperate calls from Ferdinand to come to his aid. The emperor was in no hurry to act and instead focused on restoring order in Italy, while the Ottomans withdrew from Vienna of their own accord. Charles signaled that the defense of the eastern frontier was Ferdinands responsibility, and in 1531, Charles gave his brother greater powers over imperial affairs after securing Ferdinands election as king of the Romans.1530 marked the death of Gattinara and the end of Charles ambitions of being a universal ruler. His preference to remain on the defensive led to criticism that he was not an effective champion of Christendom. He was more active in confronting Ottoman-backed corsairs in the Mediterranean, who threatened trade routes between Spain and Italy.Charles sought to undermine Ottoman ambitions in North Africa, and in July 1535, Charles led a campaign to conquer Tunis. However, an attempt to seize Algiers in October 1541 proved disastrous, as over 150 ships were lost in poor weather. Charles war effort was further undermined by tacit French support for the Ottoman fleet.The Protestant ReformationEmperor Charles V at Mhlberg by Titian, 1548. Source: Museo del Prado, MadridThroughout his reign as emperor, Charles struggled to deal with the Protestant Reformation. Although he sympathized with some of Martin Luthers criticisms of corruption in the Catholic Church, Charles asserted his position as a defender of the Roman Catholic faith in the Diet of Worms in 1521. Since many German princes accepted Luthers teachings, the Reformation undermined Charles authority in Germany.In 1530, the Lutheran princes formed the Schmalkaldic League to defend their collective interests. As he prioritized his rivalry with France and the Ottomans, Charles initially sought to be a peacemaker between the Catholics and Lutherans in order to encourage the latter to return to a reformed Catholic Church. While Henry VIII separated from Rome to marry Anne Boleyn in 1533, Charles recognized that Henrys decision was motivated by politics rather than religion.In 1543, Charles abandoned his policy of accommodation and moved aggressively against the Lutherans. Leaving his son Philip as regent in Spain, he went to the Netherlands and raised an army to defeat the Lutheran Duke William of Cleves (brother of Henry VIIIs divorced fourth wife Anne of Cleves). On April 24, 1547, Charles defeated Elector John Frederick of Saxony in battle at Mhlberg and installed his pro-imperial cousin Maurice of Saxony as elector.Following his success on the battlefield, Charles sought to impose a punitive religious and political settlement on the Lutheran princes. This approach alienated both Catholics and Lutherans in Germany. In 1552, Maurice of Saxony defected from Charles and led a renewed military effort that forced the emperor to make political concessions.Dividing the EmpireMap of Habsburg lands at the time of Charles Vs abdication in 1556, 1912. Source: Cambridge Modern History Atlas, 1912 / Wikimedia CommonsOver the course of almost four decades, Emperor Charles V had proven that he was the most powerful ruler in Christian Europe, and he had been largely successful in keeping his vast empire together. However, his setbacks against the Ottomans and his failure to suppress Lutheranism caused him to sink into a deep depression.During his reign, Charles recognized that his early dreams of a universal empire were unrealistic, and his prolonged absences led to the emergence of national bureaucratic institutions in Spain, the Netherlands, and the imperial territories. The effective division of the empire in 1530 between Charles and Ferdinand was formalized in 1555. In February, Ferdinand presided over the imperial diet at Augsburg to reach a peace settlement with the Lutherans recognizing the religious freedom of imperial princes, placing Lutheranism on an equal footing to Catholicism.In April 1555, the death of his mother, Queen Juana, compounded Charles grief. In October 1555, he relinquished his powers in the Netherlands to his son Philip. In January 1556, Philip succeeded to the Spanish crown after Charles abdication. In September 1556, Charles abdicated from the imperial throne and transferred his power to Ferdinand, who was proclaimed emperor in March 1558. While the two branches regularly intermarried, this established separate branches of Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.After returning to Spain, Charles retired to the monastery of Yuste in Estremadura and died on September 21, 1558. Within a decade, Philips Dutch subjects launched a protracted but ultimately successful rebellion against Spanish rule. In a curious irony, a defining legacy of Charles V, the most powerful emperor in Europe between Charlemagne and Napoleon, was to facilitate the emergence of independent nation-states.

While much of the focus of World War I centers on the Western and Eastern Fronts where Germany is seen as having played the biggest role of the Central Powers, to the southeast, the Ottoman Empire, controlling half of the Middle East, played a vital role in combating the Entente. For almost the entire duration of the war, the Ottomans fought on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary.Joining the FightMap of the Ottoman Empire in 1914. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn late July 1914, European countries maneuvered into political positions, signaling the beginning of what would become known as the Great War. On one side was the Entente, a powerful alliance originally consisting of France, Great Britain, and Russia. Opposing them were the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire.The Ottomans did not play any part in the developments that led to war and instead operated under the faade of neutrality, negotiating with both sides. At the time, the Ottoman Empire was lagging far behind the European powers in terms of industrialization, and aware of this, the Ottomans sought modernization with the help of Germany. The prospect of being dragged into a major war was not much of an issue, as most believed the conflict would be over by Christmas. On August 2, 1914, the Ottomans entered into an alliance with Germany, offering the Germans two dreadnoughts that the British were building for the Turks. The day before the alliance was signed, however, the British seized the ships, and the Germans never got their payment.Later that month, two German ships were halted in the Dardanelles, under threat of being fired upon by the British navy. Technically, the Ottoman Empire was still neutral, and the Germans and the Ottomans decided to work their way around the problem by pretending to switch ownership of the vessels. Thus, two German ships, replete with their German crews, came under the control of the Turks.The main battery of the SMS Goeben, a German battlecruiser transferred to Turkish control in 1914. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Ottomans didnt immediately declare war. Many in government were reticent about entering the conflict. In concert with German Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, Ottoman War Minister Enver Pasha sought to pull his country into the war by getting the Entente to declare war on the Ottoman Empire.The Ottoman entry into the conflict came on October 29 as a result of the Black Sea Raid, an attack conceived by Enver Pasha, Wilhelm Souchon, and various members of the German foreign ministry.The German ships, flying Ottoman flags and with crew dressed as Ottomans, sailed into the Black Sea under the pretext of conducting maneuvers. The initial plan was to provoke Russia into attacking first. Instead, Souchon attacked Russian ports, and despite Ottoman leadership attributing the blame squarely on Souchon, Russia declared war on the Ottomans on November 2. Three days later, Britain and France joined their Russian ally in declaring war.Enver and Souchon had managed to draw the Ottoman Empire into the First World War.The Ottomans Go to WarIsmail Enver Pasha, colorized by Cassowary Colorizations. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn November 11, Sultan Mehmed V, who only held nominal power in the empire, declared jihad against the Entente. The inadequate rail networks hampered mobilization and logistical efforts. Nevertheless, the Ottomans decided to launch a winter offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha traveled to the front to personally oversee the campaign, assuming command of the 3rd Army. He was a well-respected leader and an able officer, but he had little experience leading forces in conventional warfare.The weather conditions, lack of artillery, and poor logistical support conspired to thwart the Ottoman plans, and after just two weeks, the offensive ground to a halt. The Russians seized the opportunity, launching a counteroffensive and making gains into Ottoman territory, capturing several cities in the process. Of note was the routing of the Ottomans at the Battle of Sarikamish in January 1915. According to Turkish and German sources, the Ottomans lost 60,000 to 78,000 killed, wounded, frostbitten, or captured. This figure was conceivably three times higher than the losses suffered by the Russians. The defeat was a scandal and was blamed on Armenian traitors, a predictable move that was part of a larger effort to isolate and eliminate Armenians from Ottoman society.Armenians, wary of being targeted, took up arms, adding fuel to the propaganda against them as being disloyal. In the face of Ottoman hatred, many Armenians joined the Russians, provoking further Ottoman reprisals against the Armenian population.To the south, the Ottoman Empire was under threat from British forces in Egypt, and to the west, an Indian Expeditionary Force (as part of the British Empire) occupied Basra, protecting its oilfields and threatening the Ottomans from Iraq.British and Indian troops in Mesopotamia. Source: theobservationpost.comThe beginning of 1915 augured more disasters for the Turkish forces. To meet the threat on their southwestern flank, the Ottomans planned to invade Egypt. This began with a raid on the Suez Canal, a move the British expected and for which they had prepared sufficient defense.With the Ottomans having little in the way of logistical abilities and having to cross the Sinai desert to reach their target, the raid was a disaster, and the Ottomans were forced to rethink their strategy. They lost 1,500 killed, wounded, and captured, while the British lost just 32 killed and around 300 wounded. Despite the failure, the Ottomans did succeed in forcing the British to keep significant numbers of troops in Egypt, thus diverting offensive and defensive power away from other theaters of conflict. Nevertheless, to the east, the British were pushing towards Baghdad from Basra.To add to the worsening situation, conscription resulted in farms and fields being left untended. Crops withered, and the empire faced starvation.From this point, the situation looked dire for the Ottomans, and its no surprise that the British felt confident they would be able to force their enemy out of the war. This confidence, however, was misplaced, and a series of mistakes by the British would turn the tide.Reversal of FortuneTurkish soldiers at Gallipoli. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWith the series of disasters befalling the Ottomans, and pressed on multiple fronts, the British decided that they had a real chance to go straight for Constantinople and force the Ottomans to surrender.The Entente had plans to take the city of skenderun (now Alexandretta in Turkey) in order to cut Constantinople off from Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. In so doing, the Ottoman Empire would have been split in two. However, disagreements between the French and the British led to the plan being shelved.In a bid to open the Dardanelles, the Entente decided to attack Ottoman positions defending the strait. A fleet was gathered and sailed into the strait to suppress the Turkish defenses. Sea mines, however, played a devastating role, and the Entente fleet was forced to retreat with heavy casualties.It was clear that the only way to neutralize Ottoman defenses and open the Dardanelles was via a land operation. To achieve this, the Gallipoli Peninsula would have to be taken. British, French, New Zealand, Australian, and Indian troops were chosen for the landings.Diorama of Australian soldiers in the Gallipoli Gallery at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Source: Bidgee / Wikimedia CommonsHopes for a quick victory were dashed by stubborn coastal defense, and when Entente troops did manage to gain a foothold on the peninsula, the fighting devolved into stagnant trench warfare.Throughout 1915, almost a year of fighting failed to produce any sign of victory for the Entente, and the Gallipoli campaign ended in a complete defeat. Both sides had suffered hundreds of thousands of casualties, but the Ottomans were able to claim victory, significantly boosting national morale.For the Entente, the silver lining was that the Gallipoli campaign had forced the Ottomans to divert troops from the front against the Russians, and as a result, the Russians were able to make small gains in the Caucasus. Today, the Gallipoli disaster is well remembered and commemorated by Australian and New Zealand (ANZAC) forces, which suffered terrible losses as a result of the ill-conceived plan.At the end of 1915 and through April 1916, the British advance from Basra was also defeated. Besieged at Kut, the British garrison was forced to surrender.The Entente Gains the Upper HandArab fighters. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy mid-1916, tensions had reached boiling point in various areas within the Ottoman Empire. On June 10, 1916, the Great Arab Revolt began, as Arabs in the Hejaz province on the western coast of the Arabian Peninsula took up arms against their Ottoman oppressors, and fought for independence.These efforts gained widespread British support and created the legend of T.E. Lawrence, better known as Lawrence of Arabia, a British officer who organized the Arabs and helped lead them to victory.Portrait of T.E. Lawrence, artist unattributed. Source: The Seven Pillars of Wisdom by T.E. Lawrence. Photo supplied by Greg BeyerThe year 1917 would herald significant challenges for the Entente as revolution in Russia forced the Russians to withdraw from the war in March. Their campaign against the Ottomans had been going well in the Caucasus, and with the withdrawal, significant pressure was taken off the Ottomans in the north.Ottoman soldiers in World War I. Source: Library of CongressWith the pressure of the Arab Revolt and the renewed British offensive in Mesopotamia, the Ottoman Empire was in a desperate situation. The British took Baghdad in March 1917, and to the west, the British efforts in Palestine were gaining momentum. After several failed offensives, the British finally broke through the Ottoman defenses. Beersheba and Gaza fell after the British renewed their offensive on October 31, 1917. In December 1917, the British took control of Jerusalem.The War EndsThe territorial losses of the Ottoman Empire over the last century of its existence. Source: Encyclopaedia BritannicaBy 1918, the Central Powers were sliding towards complete defeat. In the Ottoman sphere of influence, the Russians had pulled out, allowing the Turks to regain territory in the north. Conflict, however, continued as the vacuum left by the Russians was filled by Armenian volunteer units and irregular units that had been part of the Russian army. The Central Caspian Dictatorship and several other polities that existed in the wake of the collapse of the Russian Empire, supported by a British and Commonwealth force known as the Dunsterforce, continued to apply pressure in the north.The British were also fighting to the south. While the Mesopotamian campaign had largely become static due to Britain consolidating its gains and choosing to take a defensive posture, in Palestine, the war continued, and the British slowly pushed northwards.In September, the Entente launched an offensive in Southeast Europe and, seeing considerable success, forced Bulgaria, a member of the Central Powers, to capitulate. Without the support of its ally, the Ottomans were suddenly faced with the threat of an overland advance on Constantinople.It was also clear that Germanys situation in Europe had become unwinnable. On October 30, the Ottomans surrendered, signing the Armistice of Mudros.Throughout the war, the Ottomans had fought in four major campaigns and had been victorious in only one of them. While Gallipoli had been a major setback for the Entente and a huge victory for the Ottomans, the Ottomans had suffered defeats in Palestine, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus, and their forces had been pushed back to Anatolia.GenocideArmenian victims of genocide. Photograph published in 1918. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring and after the First World War, the Ottoman Empire and its successor state, the Republic of Turkey, carried out systematic mass murder of ethnic minorities within its borders. These minorities largely represented Christianity within the Ottoman Empire and Turkey and thus contradicted the idea of a homogeneous state. Chief among the victims were the Armenians, of whom 1.5 million were exterminated. Greeks and Assyrians were also targeted by this same policy.This genocide was carried out through massacres and forced marches through the desert, with the victims being deprived of food and water. Others died from atrocious conditions and forced labor. Rape and robbery were commonplace.It is widely acknowledged that the horrific results of the Ottoman efforts constitute one of the first modern genocides in world history, as it was a systematic effort to wipe out certain ethnic groups.As a result of the extermination, Armenians and other targeted groups fled the country en masse, which resulted in a wide Armenian diaspora around the world.To this day, Turkey still denies that what happened was a genocide. The official reason for the genocide at the time was that the Armenians were supposedly in league with the Russians, and the Turks feared they would serve as a potential fifth column.The CostTurkish war graves. Source: tracesofwar.comBy the end of the war, the cost of human lives had been enormous for virtually everybody involved. It is estimated that the Ottomans lost 1.4 million soldiers killed and wounded, while the Entente lost the same number fighting them. Throughout the war, the Ottomans mobilized 3 million men. By the time of the armistice, only 323,000 soldiers were still in service, marking a drastic reduction of what the Ottoman Empire could field.From a financial perspective, the empire was bankrupt. The war was a death knell for the Ottoman Empire, which was carved up and run as occupied territories under the control of various Allied powers. Many other polities were created out of the remains of the once powerful empire that had existed for six centuries.Turkish nationalists, however, would fight against the harsh outcomes of the war and manage to establish the independent Republic of Turkey. In 1922, Mustafa Kemal Atatrk abolished the sultanate and put an official end to the Ottoman Empire.

Uniforms are used for identification as well as to provide a sense of unity during any conflict, and the American Civil War (1861-1865) was no exception. At their most basic level, Civil War uniforms distinguished Union troops from Confederate troops: Union troops wore blue while the Confederate troops wore gray. However, a number of distinct uniform variations were present on both sides, further differentiating soldiers by division and rank.Civil War Uniforms: Beyond Blue and GrayPlate 172, containing illustrations of uniforms worn by Union and Confederate soldiers during the American Civil War, 1895. Source: Library of CongressTaking a deep dive into the types of uniforms worn during the Civil War reveals outfits in a variety of styles and materials. A number of factors affected troop uniforms, such as resource availability, weather conditions, and cost. Most notably, uniforms differed between soldiers and officers on both sides, as well as between some divisionscavalry and infantry, for example. And one key group of fighters initially didnt have standard uniforms at all.Civil War Militias: Volunteer SoldiersTwo unidentified soldiers in Union uniforms and Ohio Volunteer belt buckles with bayoneted muskets, c. 1861-1865. Source: Library of CongressTo discuss solely Union and Confederate Army uniforms would leave out a major portion of soldiers in the war: volunteers who came from local militia. Many militiamen volunteered for the cause early on in the war in battles like the First Battle of Bull Run and came with their own uniforms, not those issued by either side of the Civil War.Volunteers were such a large portion of the Union Army that they were eventually provided a uniform of their own to distinguish them from the regular soldiers. The official volunteer uniform of the Union Army became a dark blue jacket and light blue trousers with no colored stripe.The Unions Standard Issue UniformUnidentified young soldier in Union uniform with bayoneted musket, knapsack, and knife, c. 1861-1865. Source: Library of CongressWhen a soldier enlisted in the Union Army, he was issued a standard uniform for the duration of his service consisting of a cap, dark blue coat, blue wool trousers, and leather boots. Soldiers also carried a knapsack that slung around their backs to carry tents, sheets, a coat, and personal belongings. Families back home could get a peek at their service members uniforms through portrait photography that Alexander Gardner made popular.Most Union uniformsregardless of ranking or unitwere made of wool. Today, wool is considered essential for winter because it holds in warmth, something that the Union troops also valued in the cold winter months. What many do not realize is that wool regulates body temperature and wicks away moisture, making it appropriate for various kinds of weather, not just the freezing winter months. Of course, men would be sweating in nearly any type of fabric in the blazing sun of the summer months.While this was the standard issue uniform, slight variations based on the unit the soldier served in were also found. The differences were not drastic but enough to differentiate men and, in the case of some units, support their unique roles on the battlefield.Union Cavalry: Practical Considerations for Horseback RidingUnidentified soldier in Union cavalry uniform with cavalry saber, with Cavalry Company D Hardee hat, c. 1861-1865. Source: Library of CongressThe uniform with the most notable difference was that worn by cavalry soldiers, which had a shorter, waist length coat, in contrast with the longer jackets of other units. A short coat allowed for a range of movement on horseback, which other units did not have to contend with. In depictions of the cavalry, many of the soldiers also wielded swords instead of guns, so the shorter, lighter coat was helpful.Cavalry soldiers were also issued what was referred to as a great coat to use in the winter, since their standard-issue jacket was shorter than the coats other soldiers received. The great coat appeared uniform across all cavalry soldiers. The coat was a lighter blue than the traditional uniform and double-breasted. A rain cape fell over the shoulders and rested at about the top of the jackets cuffs. Again, the design of the coat lent itself to the movements needed to fight on horseback.Pants and belts were relatively standard among all units, with minor differences. The stripe on the side of the cavalrys pants was yellow. Their belt also doubled as a sword belt to hold their sword at their side.Union Infantry: Take What You GetSeated from left to right: Captain George L. Remington, Lieutenant Colonel William H. Drew, and Captain Algar Monroe Wheeler. Standing left to right: Captain William C. Alberger, Captain Jeremiah P. Washburn, and Captain Allen M. Adams, c. 1861. Source: Library of CongressThough most pictures and drawings of Civil War soldiers show well-fitting garments, infantry soldiers often had uniforms that were too large or too small. Garments were so ill-fitting that it became a joke among soldiers.The standard issue coat for infantry soldiers was longer than that of the cavalry at just about knee length. Infantrymen were also provided an overcoat, though it was not as dramatic as the cavalrys great coat. It was single-breasted and did not have a cape.The pants for the Infantry, also in light blue, had a dark blue stripe down the side. Members of the infantry also had a standard issue black belt worn at the waist rather than around the hips.Union Army: ArtilleryUnidentified young soldier in Union artillery uniform with artillery saber and revolver, c. 1861-1865. Source: Library of CongressRed was the name of the game for the men in the artillery unit during the Civil War. Members of the artillery units had coats that were similar in length to that of the infantry. Artillery uniforms were adorned with red piping to differentiate them from infantrymen. The stripe on their light blue trousers was the same red as on their uniforms.Artillerymen, like the cavalry, were issued riding boots that went up to their calves. While boots served the cavalry well on horseback, they were also helpful for the artillerymen who drove artillery limbers, or carts. Though artillerymen were not fighting on horseback during battles, they did need to use horses to move large pieces of artillery.Confederate Army: Standard Issue UniformPortrait of a Confederate soldier, c. 1861. Source: Library of CongressCompared with their Union Army counterparts, soldiers in the Confederate Army had fewer dress options. In fact, Confederate troops had one standard issue uniform consisting of a hat, gray wool jacket, gray or blue trousers, haversack and ankle boots known as brogans.The South began with less money for uniforms than the North and, as the War progressed, had even less money to put toward outfitting its soldiers. Uniforms were gray in the beginning of the war in 1861gray that often faded to a brownish colorbut by the end of the War in 1865, uniforms were any number of colors.One major difference between Confederate Army uniforms is the fabric of choice: cotton. Unlike the North that relied on wool, the South had access to more cotton because of its agricultural economy. In fact, the South produced so much cotton that it hoped Britain would support their war effort in order to continue its dependence on the Souths cotton production. This, for one, made uniforms cheaper to produce but also kept the troops cooler. There was no need for wool uniforms in the Southern heat.Confederate Officers: Showcasing StatusConfederate General Jubal Early, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing front, c. 1860-1870. Source: Library of CongressWhile the Union Army uniforms had differences between units, Confederate uniforms were instead differentiated by rank. In general, officer uniforms were more ornate and tailored than an enlisted soldiers uniform.Confederate officers had dark blue uniform jackets that were ornate and tailored. Officersthose like Robert E. Lee and Thomas Stonewall Jacksonpurchased their own uniforms (and were required to until early 1864), so they had the opportunity to put more design effort into their attire. Many jackets worn by officers were longer than waist length and featured buttons, belts, tassels, high collars, and embroidery. Thanks to tailoring, officers uniform jackets were well-fitted, in contrast with standard issue uniforms that soldiers wore.Standing Out: Badges, Buttons, and InsigniaUnidentified soldier in Union uniform with engineer regiment insignia on collar and New York belt plate, c. 1860-1865. Source: Library of CongressBoth Union and Confederate troops used additional emblems to distinguish themselves, like badges, shoulder straps, collars, insignias, and even buttons. The Union Army, for instance, used shoulder straps on the uniform to distinguish ranks like Major, General, and Captain. The Confederate Army, on the other hand, used collars and sleeve badges to indicate rank. Both the Confederate and Union Armies used something as small as buttons to distinguish the unit; Union buttons were more elaborate than the simple Confederate buttons, which often simply used a letter to represent the unit.Both sides of the Civil War used chevrons on the sleeve to denote lower ranks. There are some designs that overlap between both the Confederate and Union Armies, but they do not have a one-to-one meaning.Unique to the Confederate Army was the use of different color hats for generals, colonels of the cavalry, captains of the infantry, and lieutenants of the artillery. Hats were more or less standard amongst the Union troops, regardless of rank or unit, but the Confederacy utilized navy, blue, yellow, and red hats for its highest-ranking officials.

The Worcester Art Museum (WAM) in Massachusetts has acquired The Entombment, the central panel of a triptych by 16th century Dutch painter Maarten van Heemskerck, reuniting it with its two side panels for the first time in 250 years. The two wings are on long-term loan to the WAM by its private owners, the Selldorff family.The oil-on-panel central painting is three feet high and dates to around 1540. Only recently rediscovered and attributed to van Heemskerck, the work was offered for sale this March by Turin gallery Caretto & Occhinegro at the Tefaf Maastricht international art fair for 500,000 ($567,000). The gallery owners were committed to arranging the sale to a museum, and the WAM in particular once it was identified as the central panel of the dismembered triptych.Marten van Heemskerck (1498-1574) was the leading painter of Haarlem from the middle of the 16th century until his death. He spent four years in Italy from 1532 to 1536, making a study of its ancient art and architecture. He was strongly influenced by the great masters of 16th century Italy, including Michelangelo, Giovanni Bellini and Andrea Mantegna. Upon his return to the Netherlands, he was the first to introduce Italianate Renaissance style.The combination of Italian Renaissance and traditional Flemish styles so well illustrated inThe Entombmentwas Marten van Heemskercks specialty. The central panel depicts Christs body lowered into a marble sarcophagus surrounded by figures including the Virgin Mary, Nicodemus, Joseph of Arimathea, and Mary Magdalene. Visible in the misty the distance past the rounded cavern entrance of the tomb is the hill of Calvary with Jesus empty cross in the middle and the two thieves still on their crosses on each side.The two wing panels, originally part of the triptych, feature portraits of the family that commissioned the work. Their rocky grotto backgrounds and landscape elements align with the central panel, confirming their original connection. The central painting was likely displayed in the artists studio, where prospective buyers could purchase it and commission custom wings that would then be attached to the central panel. Now on long-term loan at WAM, the Selldorff familys panels were once part of the collection of Tom Selldorffs grandfather, Richard Neumann, an Austrian Jewish collector whose artworks were looted by the Nazis. The panels were not returned to Neumanns heirs until 2011.The triptych will be reunited and put on display in the museums European gallery this summer.

A rescue excavation in Kaiseraugst, northern Switzerland, has uncovered a wide Roman road lined with porticoes, infant burials, and small artifacts from the period include a rare bronze panther statuette.The site is located in what in Roman times was the lower town of Augusta Raurica. Because of its proximity to a known ancient burial ground, between May 2024 and March 2025 the Aargau Cantonal Archaeology Department excavated two undeveloped plots slated for construction of new apartment buildings. Previous geophysical surveys of the plots mapped out an excavation plan allowing the team to dig more precisely.The team unearthed a Roman road 13 feet wide with columned porticoes and buildings on each side. They were able to excavate the cellars of two of the buildings flanking the road. The floorplan and layout of the buildings indicate they were all strip houses, very narrow houses facing the roadway that allowed people easier access to the road. The building type was the predominant design in the northwestern provinces of the Roman Empire.In the back courtyards of the strip houses, archaeologists found stone shafts, probably latrines or storage shafts, and a number of infant burials. This was common in the Roman world, as child mortality was high and dead infants were often buried at home instead of in a cemetery.Development of this quarter began at the end of the 1st century AD and ended during the 3rd century AD. The areas use in late antiquity is documented primarily by numerous late Roman coins and individual finds. Among the numerous finds were several special objects: a small bronze panther statuette, a tuff votive holder, and a mosaic glass spindle whorl. Such finds are rare.The excavation at Schrmatt was completed on schedule. The entire documentation was conducted entirely digitally it was the first fully digitally documented excavation by the Aargau Cantonal Archaeology Department. All findings were digitally recorded in the field, and all data were entered directly into the database. This innovative method enabled extremely precise and efficient documentation, setting new standards for future projects, even across cantons.

The tomb of an elite woman from the Caral civilization complete with all of funerary offerings has been discovered at the archaeological site of spero. The womans body is exceptionally well-preserved, complete with skin, hair and nails, a rarity in this coastal dessert city less than a half mile from the Pacific Ocean.Other organic materials in the burial also survived in an extraordinary state of preservation. The body was wrapped in layers of cotton fabric, reed mats, netting and plant fibers, all of which survived, as did the headdress made of plant fibers with bundles of twisted threads placed on top of her body. Funerary offerings found in the grave include a toucans beak decorated with green and brown beads, a snail shell from the Amazon jungle, a fishing net, weaving tools, reed baskets, 30 sweet potatoes, an embroidered wool textile and an opulent panel embroidered with macaw feathers that is one of the oldest examples of feather art in the Andes.Between 20 and 35 years old when she died, the richness of her grave furnishings and adornments indicate the deceased was a person of high social standing, perhaps holding a position of political or religious power. There are no written records for this pre-ceramic civilization, so the survival of so many perishable goods is giving archaeologists a new opportunity to study Caral culture, craftsmanship, commerce and how social status was reflected in their goods.spero was the main fishery for the ancient city of Caral, capital of the Caral-Supe civilization, the oldest known civilization in the Americas which flourished in north-central coastal Peru between 3000 and 1800 B.C. Even though it was known as an archaeological site since the early 20th century, but it was sorely neglected, even being used as a municipal dump for three decades before official excavations finally began in 2005.Thus far, 22 architectural structures have been unearthed at the site in 20 years of excavations. The newly-discovered grave was found in the Huaca de los dolos, a large mudbrick temple, where another exceptional grave, the Lady of the Four Tupus, was discovered just 10 feet away in 2016.

A group of Iron Age graves unearthed in the commune of Bobigny, a suburb northeast of Paris, adds more than two dozen more burials to the largest La Tne period necropolis in Europe. Archaeologists from Frances National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research (INRAP) discovered 26 burials containing 27 individuals, and there were likely more that have been destroyed by agricultural work and development.The main necropolis was first discovered in 2002 when construction of a new building on the grounds of a hospital uncovered ten graves. Subsequent excavations unearthed 515 burials dating to the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. over an area of about 1,500 square meters (16,145 square feet, or 1/3 of an acre). This was an unprecedented find, the largest, most important La Tne culture necropolis in Europe.Secondary funerary groupings associated with the settlement and its necropolis have been found before, but they were scattered burials with no more than 10 individuals. The Bobigny find is significantly larger and more organized, with a variety of burial types and grave goods. The deceased were mostly adults, but there were also children under the age of four, two between the ages of five and nine, and two infants.The deceased were mostly lying on their backs, but some were buried on their right side. About a third had their heads deliberately raised. Wooden casings and several shrouds were identified. There was one case of a double burial of children. The artifacts discovered were mostly iron brooches, sometimes made of copper alloy, which were used to secure shrouds or clothing. They were placed at the level of the thorax or wrist of some subjects.Ornaments, such as an iron torque, iron, copper alloy, and lignite bracelets, and an iron ring, were also found in functional positions on some of the deceased, including young children. One adult and one child were buried with vases.Finally, a mans grave contained a warriors panoply: a shield umbo, a sword and its suspension chain, and a spearhead. Textile remains were revealed in contact with the metal objects, with around thirty fabrics identified, mainly wool twills.

The University of Leeds has digitized a 16th century manuscript that is the earliest known English book about cheese. In fact, it is probably the earliest English-language treatise on a single foodstuff of any kind. The high-resolution scans of the volume and a much more readable pdf transcript are now available to on the universitys website for modern readers to enjoy.The pamflyt compiled of Cheese, contayninge the differences, nature, qualities, and goodnes, of the same was written in the 1580s but it was privately owned for centuries and completely unknown and unpublished when it emerged in a May 2023 auction. It sold for 45,000 ($60,000), acquired by the University of Leeds thanks to a grant from the non-profit Friends of the Nations Libraries. The pamflyt then joined the universitys librarys extensive Cookery Collection of manuscripts and printed books about food.The book was hand-written on 112 vellum pages with a gilt-stamped lion rampant on the center of the front and back covers. The lion is likely a heraldic reference to the Fisher family, as the front flyleaf contains a note signed by Cle[ment] Fyssher, a member of parliament from Great Packington, Warwickshire, asking a friend that the book be returned to him after perusal. The name of Walter Bailei, regius professor of medicine at Oxford and one of Queen Elizabeth Is physicians, appears on the last page. The third name that appears in the book is Ed]ward Willughbi at the head of the flyleaf inscription. The Willoughbys were a family of parliamentarians from Bore Place, Kent.Whether they or anyone else authored the book is unknown, but Willoughby seems the likeliest candidate of the three because of a mention in the book of the village of Kingsnorth near Ashford in Kent as a center of cheesemaking. Kingsnorth had no reputation for cheeses at all, nor did the county of Kent for that matter, so this suggests the author had special localized knowledge of the area. On the other hand, the work repeatedly references Galen, the 3rd century Greek physician whose writings on anatomy and medicine based on the four humors theory was the foundation of Western medical thought well into the 17th century. As a physician, Bayley was very well-versed in Galens writings, and left two of his works to Oxford in his will. The treatise also addresses medicinal uses of cheese, including a revolting prescription of Galens calling for smearing rancid cheese and bacon fat on the swollen joints of a gout patient so that the skin breaks and the fluids causing the swelling run out.The manuscripts elegant secretary hand was transcribed by Ruth Bramley, one of 200 living historians at the 16th century manor house of Kentwell Hall who re-enact the functions and events of the Tudor mansion, creating immersive historical events for visitors to experience. She is a spinner and weaver, but she has become adept at reading 500-year-old handwriting in the course of her work. Another of Kentwell Halls living historians has a unique insight into the treatise thanks to her practical experience in Tudor cheese-making.[Bramleys] colleague Tamsin Bacchus, who works in the Tudor Dairy at Kentwell, comments, What warmed my heart towards the author of the Pamflyt is that when he finds conflicting ideas among his learned sources, he turns to his contemporaries who actually know the work: he diligently inquyred of countrey folke, who have experience in theis matters, and they settled the argument for him.The debate about whether one can eat cheese on certain religious fasting days because of the animal element in the rennet feels surprisingly modern. An alternative suggested was to use fish guts to curdle the milk! Its also reassuring to find written down what we know from our actual practice in the Kentwell Dairy: that to make a really hard cheese to keep indefinitely (Suffolk Thump) you skim off all the cream. Hes a bit scathing about it, though, calling it the worste kind of cheese, accordinge to our Englishe proverbe, hit is badde cheese when the butter is gone to the market.'