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In the Western Hemisphere, particularly in the United States, terms such as Hispanic and Latino have been used to identify and give more visibility to people whose linguistic or cultural roots fall within the Spanish-speaking linguistic, ethnic, or cultural context: Spain, Latin America, or the Caribbean. Far from representing a monolithic cultural or ethnic group, these identity categories refer to people with various ethnic and linguistic characteristics and ancestry that intersect in many ways.The Spanish-Speaking United StatesThe Hispanic population in the United States in 2010, with the original Republic of Mexico (until 1848) outlined in red. Source: Wikimedia Commons:The arrival of the Spanish Empire to the Americas in 1492, initiated by Christopher Columbuss transatlantic travels, brought the Spanish language to the Western hemisphere, which later spread through colonial rule to other places in the American continent. The later colonial influence of the Portuguese, French, and Dutch brought other Latin-descendant languages (romance languages) to other places in present-day Latin America and the Caribbean. These languages became the official languages in many countries in the region.The Spanish language has been present in the US since the 16th century when Juan Ponce de Len led the first Spanish expedition in what is now the territory of Florida. Later in the 19th century, after Mexico lost more than half of its territory because of US intervention, many Spanish-speaking people living in what is now Texas, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming, California, Nevada, and Utah became US citizens. Nonetheless, throughout the history of the US, social segregation between white people and other ethnic groups, such as Latinos or Black people, was normalized in some places. For instance, speaking Spanish became punishable in schools, and Blacks and Latinos were not allowed in public spaces. This historical background has greatly influenced todays racism in the US and the unequal opportunities for development mostly affecting Latinos and Black people.Photograph of Mexican-Americans in a rally at the California State Capitol to protest against discrimination. Source: History.comToday, although Hispanic and Latino/a/x people are considered a minority in the US, the Pew Research Center calculates that they represent 19% of the countrys population, some 62.5 million people. Their primary origins are Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Cuba, though many come from Guatemala, Colombia, Honduras, and other countries in the Western Hemisphere as well. Spanish-speaking communities represent an important social, cultural, and economic part of the US. Almost 10.7 million Hispanic and Latino people have been born in the US, while 1.1 million have a migratory origin.European Identity: SpanishPhoto of a protest in support of the referendum for the independence of Catalunya (speaking Catalan) from Spain by Javier Zorilla, 2017. Source: The New York TimesPerhaps the most straightforward term, Spanish refers only to people from Spain in Europe. Although Spanish is the name of the official language spoken in this country as well as throughout the Hispanic world, it is more accurate today to refer to it as Castilian Spanish because this is the dialect now dominant across Spain. Though less well known, other languages are also spoken in Spain, including Catalan/Valencian, Galician, Basque, and Occitan, and are spoken by nearly half of Spains population. Combined with some political and territorial issues, there is a considerable debate in Spain between those who think that Spanish should be the only unifying language of the country and those from the Autonomous Communities who want to preserve their linguistic and cultural roots.Hispanic: The Spanish ConnectionA 20-cent commemorative stamp honoring Hispanic Americans designed by Robert McCall, 1984. Source: SmithsonianThe term Hispanic has a linguistic connotation and refers to people who speak Spanish or whose ancestors come from Spain or any Spanish-speaking country on the American continent: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, and Venezuela.It excludes non-Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America, like Brazil where the primary language is Portuguese, Caribbean islands that speak English or French, and places where Dutch is spoken, like Curaao.The US government first used the term Hispanic in the 1970s to register the communities already settled in the US and the increasing migratory communities from Spanish-speaking countries. It became an important term to bring visibility to people coming from Spanish-speaking countries and an important category of ethnicity for the census. However, the term has been criticized since the 1990s because it is reminiscent of the Spanish colonial past, which caused immense damage to native lands, territories, and people on the American continent. This perspective led to the proposal of Latino as an alternative that could be more inclusive and decoupled from the colonial connotation.Latino, Latina, Latinx: Seeking InclusivityMap of Latin America by the Central Intelligence Agency, 2006. Source: Library of CongressThe term Latino has a geographical meaning and refers to everyone from Latin America or whose ancestors are Latin Americans. The term Latino is different from Hispanic because while Hispanic refers to the people who are culturally or linguistically related to the Spanish language, Latino refers to the places where people come from. Latin America comprises different countries of the Western hemisphere where Romance languages are spoken, but both broad and narrow conceptions of the term mean the exact countries included remain up for debate.The term Latino can have other cultural, identitarian, and political nuances that are important to know. Because of the presence of Europeans in the Americas from the 16th century, the slave trade, and the mixing of different ethnic groups, today, people from Latin America have varied ethnic backgrounds. Latinos can be Black, Indigenous, white, or even Asian (in Peru, for example). This suggests that the designation Latino should not be used to describe race or ethnicity but rather where people come from, either geographically or culturally.More recently, it has become common to use the terms Latina or Latinx, in consideration of the gender implications of Latino. Spanish is a gendered language, where most words ending with -a correspond to feminine nouns and with -o to masculine ones. For decades, feminist movements have criticized how, in the Spanish language, the masculine form of words has been used universally to include both male and female, in effect erasing women in public discourse. Because of this, Latina and Latinx (pronounced Latin-ex) have gained more legitimacy in cultural and political discourses, as they can be used to represent and give more visibility to feminine-identifying people and people who do not identify with the gender binary masculine or female, respectively. Latinx can also be used as a neutral category to include everyone regardless of gender identification. However, there has been some debate on the anglicization of the Spanish word, the unclear pronunciation, and even some who might prefer gendered terms over a general one.Photo of members of a womens organization celebrating their graduation from the Whittier College in California, one of the most ethnically diverse colleges in the US, Karla Gachet, 2018. Source: National GeographicAlthough some conceptions of Latin America include the Caribbean, it is uncommon for people from this region to identify as Latino/a/x. For instance, people from Haiti who speak mainly French and French Creole and people from Jamaica who speak English might prefer to identify as Caribbeans, Afro-Caribbeans, or simply by their specific country of origin.Another example of cultural and ethnic specificity is the term Afro-Latino, which refers to Latino/a/x people with African ancestry. The linguistic visibility of these people is important because, historically, Afro-descendants have been among the most marginalized people in Latin America due to historical and structural racism and segregation inherited from colonial times. Afro-Latinos/as/x are around 133 million people living mostly in Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, and Ecuador.Best Practices: Using Hispanic, Latino, and Similar TermsPhoto of a protester holding a US flag during a rally in support of immigration reform in Washington, 2014. Source: MSNBCAlthough some conceptual characteristics of the terms Hispanic, Latino/a/x, and Spanish can be agreed on, what is most important to consider when using them is to pay attention to how people account for their identity and which terms they prefer or do not prefer to use. Although identity categories help us understand peoples geographical, ethnic, and linguistic diversity and ancestry, these terms are not absolute and require nuanced reflection and care when used.For instance, second-generation Mexicans living in the US who do not speak Spanish may not associate with the term Hispanic and prefer Latino/a/x. For people whose parents migrated from another country to the US and who have dual nationality, it is common to identify with both, such as Colombian-American, Argentinian-American, Mexican-American, etc. Others might avoid using Hispanic because of the colonial association with Spain, or others might insist on using Latinx because of its increasing legitimacy and representativity in the academic and political discourse.Beyond the conceptual complexity, here are some important reminders to consider when using these terms:Not everyone who speaks Spanish is Spanish; people can identify as Latino/a/x or Hispanic without having any cultural relationship with Spain.People from Spain are not Latino/a/x.Even people who speak Spanish or are culturally or linguistically rooted in a Spanish-speaking country might prefer not to call themselves Hispanic because of its colonial connotation.Not all Latinos/as/x speak Spanish.While the Caribbean islands are sometimes included in the conception of Latin America, using the term Caribbean for people from this region is more common.Because the term Latino is borrowed from a gendered language, it can also be adjusted in consideration of gender: Latina may be used for women and Latinx for people who do not identify with either gender. Latinx can also be used as a more inclusive, non-gendered term, however, this is still subject to debate.People who identify with both Latin and African ancestral roots may prefer the term Afro-Latino/a/x or Afro-Caribbean.When the correct or preferred term is unclear, the best practice is simply to ask.

On September 18, 1931, the explosion of the Japanese-owned railway track near the city of Mukden, Manchuria in northeastern China, marked the beginning of a full-scale Japanese invasion of Manchuria. With minor resistance from the Chinese army, Japanese troops occupied the region within months and declared the territory an autonomous state of Manchukuo under the control of the Japanese military. China appealed to the newly established League of Nations for assistance, but the international body could not do much.Japans Quest for an EmpireMeiji Dignitaries by Toshinobo Yamazaki, 1877. Source: Library of CongressFollowing the restoration of imperial rule in 1868 under Emperor Meiji, Japan embarked on a radical modernization and industrialization of the nation. To support a rapidly growing and developing empire, Japan longed for colonies rich in resources, just like the European powers held.The Korean Peninsula, located just about 50 kilometers from Japans southern region, was rich in coal and iron, an essential natural resource for industrialization. However, China had claimed dominance over the Korean territory. The First Sino-Japanese War in July 1894 served as the first illustration of Japans growing imperialistic aspirations, especially when Japan emerged victorious. China recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and Manchuria in northeast China to Japan.A postcard from 1920 portraying the Japanese empire as a geographically far-flung, diverse assemblage of peoples and places. Source: East Asia Image Collection, Lafayette CollegeWestern powers intervened, notably the Russian Empire, Germany, and France, convincing Japan to return Manchuria to China. To Japans insult, however, the Russian Empire established its presence in Manchuria by building the Chinese Eastern Railway. The railway acted as a bridge between Russian territories and Port Arthur on the Yellow Sea, owned by the Russian Empire.Japan retaliated with a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, sparking the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. The war ended with Japans victory and the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905. The treaty granted Japan control over the Korean peninsula, the south Manchurian railway, and the southern half of Sakhalin Island. To cement its influence over the strategically important railway, Japan stationed military forces in Manchuria.The Russo-Japanese War by Niko Pirosmani, 1904. Source: Art History ProjectJapan joined the AlliesGreat Britain, France, Russia, Italyin World War I. Following Germanys defeat, the Western powers granted Japan the territories of Tsingtao on the Chinese Shantung Peninsula and the formerly German-held islands in Micronesia under the mandate of the newly established League of Nations. Japans national pride had been avenged, as it seemed. Finally accepted by the West as a leading power in Asia, Japans expansionist aspirations were put aside, at least until the 1930s.The 1930s brought economic hardship internationally due to the Great Depression. Japan struggled to meet the demands of an expanding population and faced shortages of raw supplies for its industrialization. This contributed to the radicalization of military and right-wing organizations in Japan. These factions believed that to improve the socio-economic conditions of Japanese society, Japan should pursue aggressive expansionism through military efforts. By 1930, these organizations had carried out multiple assassination attempts on government officials, causing unrest across the nation.The Mukden Incident & Invasion of ManchuriaMap of Korea and Manchuria. Source: Library of Congress.On the night of September 18, 1931, Kwantung Army, a general army of the Imperial Japanese Army under Colonel Seishir Itagaki and Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara, executed an independently devised plan for detonating a small bomb on the Japanese-owned South Manchuria Railway near the city of Mukden, Manchuria, in northeastern China. The explosion was so minor that a train passed the affected section in minutes. Shortly after the incident, Japanese patrols reported about the Chinese attack on the railway, utilizing it as a pretext to invade Manchuria.The next morning, on September 19, in response to the false-flag attack on Japans strategically important railway infrastructure, Japanese military officers opened fire on the Chinese garrison stationed nearby. Unprepared, the Chinese troops did not show strong resistance. By the evening, Mukden was under Japanese occupation.At this point, Commander in Chief of the Kwantung Army, General Shigeru Honj, was among the first to be informed of the incident in Mukden. Despite the initial decision to step back, the Imperial Japanese Army embarked on a full invasion of Manchuria. In just five months, key towns and provinces were under Japans control.In 1932, Japan declared the establishment of a new autonomous state on Manchurian territory named Manchukuo. It was nominally led by Puyi, the last emperor of Chinas Qing dynasty, but ruled by the Japanese military. Manchukuo existed until the end of World War II in 1945.Street scene, Manchukuo, c. 1940. Source: Old TokyoWhile the Japanese forces advanced in Manchuria, the Chinese government faced significant internal challenges and obstacles, including insurrections from the Communist Party. The Chinese army was poorly equipped and trained. A massive flood of the Yangtze River in China in September 1931 resulted in thousands of refugees, creating public chaos. Due to these internal obstacles, on September 19, the Chinese government appealed to the League of Nations to resolve its territorial dispute with Japan. On October 24, the League of Nations issued a resolution calling for Japan to withdraw from Manchuria by November 16. Japan rejected the resolution, insisting on direct negotiation with the Chinese government.The swift takeover of Manchuria by Japan created unease among the global community. As previously mentioned, Western powers were in economic recession in the wake of the Great Depression. Struggling to maintain their own economies, entering a new war in Asia was widely perceived as unfavorable. For the same economic reasons, imposing economic sanctions on Japan did not acquire much political support either.US Diplomatic Involvement: The Stimson DoctrineA political cartoon referring to the League of Nations and the conflict between China and Japan. Source: Branksome Hall AsiaThe United States refrained from involvement or economic sanctions in the face of a rapidly escalating crisis on the Asian continent and chose to join the League of Nations council meetings, despite not being a member of the league itself. The United States suggested that the League of Nations persuade the conflicting parties to enforce the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which had been signed by 15 participating nations, including Japan, on August 27, 1928. The pact prohibited war as a means to advance national policy and called for the peaceful resolution of conflicts.Another American contribution to resolving the crisis was the Stimson Doctrine, issued in 1932. Created by Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson, the doctrine regarded the Japanese invasion of Manchuria as a violation of international law and the previous treaties to which Japan had been a signatory.According to the doctrine, the United States would adhere to the policy of non-recognition, implying that any territorial or administrative changes imposed upon China by Japan would not be in compliance with international law.The League of Nations brought up the Stimson Doctrine during the Mach 1932 Assembly meeting, condemning Japans invasion of Manchuria as it violated the Leagues principles of peaceful resolution of conflict and respect for the sovereignty of all nations. Regarding the effectiveness of his doctrine, Stimson later remarked that he only had spears of straw and swords of ice at that time.The League of Nations Diplomatic Involvement: The Lytton ReportMembers of the Lytton Commission by Dennis M. Ogawa Nippu Jiji. Source: Densho Digital Repository / Courtesy of the Hawaii Times Photo Archives FoundationOn December 19, 1931, the League of Nations passed a resolution to establish a commission of inquiry, widely referred to as the Lytton Commission, headed by British diplomat Lord Victor Bulwer-Lytton. The commission was tasked to investigate the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and report all the circumstances leading up to the Sino-Japanese conflict. Under no circumstances could the commission mediate or negotiate between the conflicting parties. Each national government of the Leagues Assembly nominated members of the commission based on their qualifications.The five-member commission was sent to Manchuria in April 1932.By the time the League of Nations released the resulting report, also known as the Lytton Report, in October, Japan had already established the puppet state of Manchukuo. The report found both Chinese nationalism and Japanese militarism to be responsible for the escalating crisis. However, because the establishment of the puppet state violated Chinas territorial integrity, Manchukuo was dismissed as a legitimate actor in the international system. As such, the report concluded that Manchuria should be returned to China. In 1933, the League of Nations approved the report. Japan responded by formally leaving the League of Nations in March 1933.Japan will oppose any attempt at international control of Manchuria. It does not mean that we defy you, because Manchuria belongs to us by right, thehead of the Japanese delegation, Yosuke Matsuoka, declared in a speech at the Geneva League of Nations assembly held on February 24, 1933. Matsuoka then left the conference room.Japans Invasion of Manchuria as a Prerequisite of World War IIJapanese troops in gas masks during the Battle of Shanghai. Source: Military History ReviewThe dramatic walkout of the Japanese delegation from the Geneva meeting exemplified the League of Nations limitations in resolving the conflict through peaceful means. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria was the first case since the League of Nations establishment in 1920, when the organization was given the chance to set the precedent for pacific settlements of territorial disputes. However, the lack of enforcement mechanisms, the absence of military power, and its dependence on the will and ability of member states to enforce the decision led to its failure.Witnessing Japans smooth withdrawal from the League of Nations following the occupation of Manchuria, other European powers with imperialist and expansionist ambitions saw an opportunity to pursue their national interests: Italys fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in October 1935. On March 7, 1936, Germany, under Adolf Hitler, remilitarized the Rhineland, a demilitarized zone according to the Treaty of Versailles. On July 7, 1937, a minor clash between Chinese and Japanese troops at the Marco-Polo Bridge inChina sparked the Second Sino-Japanese War.Japans occupation of Manchuria illustrated the League of Nations limitations in enforcing its decisions, highlighting obstacles to international diplomacy and collective security in the fragile international order established after World War I. Other nations with expansionist interests felt encouraged to pursue their goals, which ultimately led to the outbreak of World War II.