Ksem Sultan, initially a concubine, then the wife of the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I, was a controversial figure even in her own time. She not only exercised power through three different sultans but influenced court politics in her own right. She had her son Ibrahim deposed from power but was eventually assassinated by his wife, Hatice Turhan, an equally ambitious woman.Kosems Humble BeginningsTopkapi Palace Harem Quarters. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKsems story begins in the Balkans where she was born as Anastasia in the year 1589. Various sources claim that she was Bosnian, Greek, or Circassian. Ksem was most likely going to live a life like other female villagers of her time: a life filled with fieldwork, household duties, and childrearing. Yet fate had other plans for her.Although information is scarce, it is known that as a child, she was enslaved and employed in the palace of the beylerbeyi (governor-general) of the province of Bosnia. Realizing that she was a bright and beautiful girl, the beylerbeyi sent her to the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. During this period, it was common for officials and those seeking the Sultans approval to gift talented and promising slaves to the sultans palace.She was given the name Mahpeyker. However, her leadership and guidance of the other girls of the harem earned her the moniker Ksem. This term referred to a ram used by shepherds to lead herds of sheep. It can therefore be inferred that Ksem, from a young age, was skilled in controlling and influencing others.Life as the HasekiPortrait of Ksem, 17th century, Venetian School. Source: SothebysKsems expressive brown eyes, pale complexion, and striking physique werent the only things that attracted the attention of the Valide Sultan (Queen Mother) Handan Sultan. The girls intelligence and skill in various fields like literature, mathematics, and music made her a good candidate for the future mother of an Ottoman prince.At around age 15, she became Sultan Ahmed Is haseki, or chief consort, a title first granted to Hrrem, wife of Suleyman the Magnificent. This gave Ksem certain privileges, such as a salary of 1,000 aspers per day. Ahmed was reportedly infatuated with the lively and positive Ksem, who was careful not to interfere too openly in political issuesStill, her intelligence made her an important advisor to the Sultan. According to the Venetian ambassador Contarini, she was listened to in some matters. Her role in governance was later remarked upon by the English envoy Thomas Roe, who noted that Ksem had governed Sultan Ahmed.When Ahmeds powerful grandmother Safiye Sultan was banished to the Old Palace, and his mother Handan Sultan died in 1605, a special opportunity presented itself to the ambitious Ksem. In the absence of other senior female figures, the already commanding Ksem took charge of harem politics. Her influence was not only exercised over the Sultanwho eventually married herbut also over major court officials like Mustafa Aa, leader of the janissary corps.Ksem and Court PoliticsA garden party, hosted by the Valide Sultan for Madame Girardin, wife of the French Ambassador, late 17th century. Source: Bibliothque NationaleOttoman court politics in the early 17th century was plagued by several issues. Ottoman power was decreasing with losses in wars across Europe. Queen mothers and Hasekis were competing for power and influence in a period dubbed the Sultanate of Women. Added to this was the introduction of child sultans (starting with Ahmed I).Ksem was immediately introduced to this world when she entered the palace and witnessed the old Valide Sultan Safiye being sent away from the palace to be replaced by Ahmed Is mother, Handan. Yet, instead of being crushed by this system, Ksem adapted to it. She gained the respect of the Valide Handan Sultan and treated Ahmeds children from his other concubines as her own.She likewise maintained a good relationship with Ahmeds half-brother Mustafa and convinced the Sultan not to have his brother killed. This would later benefit her children; Should Mustafa come to the throne one day, he would be merciful towards Ksems sons and not institute the policy of fratricide, where a sultan would have his brothers executed to ensure political unity.Following the death of Ahmed in 1617, his half-brother Mustafa was indeed declared sultan. However, due to Mustafas questionable mental state, he was replaced by Ahmeds son Osman II. Osmans efforts to institute state and military reforms gained him many enemies, and at 18 years old, he was imprisoned and murdered. Mustafa once again acceded to the throne. This time, however, it was Ksem who would put an end to his reign.Becoming the Valide Sultan: Queen MotherMiniature of Ksem, acquired by Swedish envoy Claes Ralamb (d.1698), ca. 1657. Source: Library of CongressTo ensure both her childrens security and her own, Ksem wanted her son Murad to become sultan. She achieved this goal by gaining the support of courtiers and viziers. In 1623, Murad IV became sultan at age eleven. Since he was a minor, his mother Ksem had to take power. For the first time in 300 years of Ottoman rule, a woman assumed the official title of regent.Ksem was an apt political player. She attended the divan meetingsalbeit from behind a screenduring which the viziers discussed important state affairs. She also was in correspondence with foreign ambassadors and statesmen. Her kira, or agent, was a Jewish woman who would often write her letters for her and represent the valide in meetings with male dignitaries or tradesmen.Yet Ksems regency was rocked by political and economic instability. Uprisings, raids, and wars threatened the Ottoman state throughout the 17th century. Economic issues also arose due to a loss of territories like Baghdad and the plague in Egypt, which was a major revenue source for the Ottoman state.Despite Ksems efforts in battling inflation and appeasing the dissatisfied janissary troops, her son Murad had come to see his mothers power in a negative light. After nine years of rule, Ksem was distanced from power by her son. Her most loyal courtiers and companions were also removed from power and replaced by individuals who supported Murad.Here Comes TroubleEngraving of Ibrahim I (The Mad), by English diplomat Paul Rycaut, ca. 1694. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKsems ambitious nature would not allow her to lead a life removed from political power. When her son went on military campaigns, she was formally left in charge of the empire. In addition to running the harem, she advised her son on important political issues like executions and diplomatic proceedings.When Murad fell ill, the Ottomans realized that their state was in serious threat of ending. The Sultan had executed all but one of his four brothers: Ibrahim the Mad. Ksem had managed to dissuade Murad from executing Ibrahim, arguing that he was mentally ill and therefore not a threat to Murads power. As a result, on Murads death in 1640, Ibrahim was declared Sultan. Ksem once again became the valide, this time exercising power over a mentally unstable adult son.But she had not factored in how Ibrahims mental instability would play out. The sultans erratic personal relationships, his lustful obsession with women and his tendency to act violently when displeased were among some of the factors that made him unpopular at court. Ksem, like the religious and political elite, believed that getting rid of Ibrahim would be beneficial to the state.In his youth, Ibrahim had lived under house arrest in the kafes (a restricted part of the Harem) and was paranoid about being assassinated. Though he was now free, this fear became a reality when Ksem conspired to have him removed from power. Although it is said that she only wished for him to be imprisoned in the kafes, he was eventually strangled in 1648.Assassinating the Queen MotherEngraving of the murder of Ksem Sultan, by Paul Rycaut, ca. 1694. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter Ibrahims murder, his six-year-old son Mehmed IV was put on the throne. As a child, Mehmed was to rule through a regent. Naturally, this would be his mother, Hatice Turhan Sultan. However, Ksem refused to relinquish power so easily, and a dangerous rivalry began between the two women.Hatice Turhan was the official Valide Sultan and therefore had more right to power. To counteract this, Ksem had herself declared Byk (elder) Valide. The court also became highly factionalized due to this competition; Hatice Turhan wanted Siyavush Pasha to become the grand vizier, while Ksem preferred Melek Ahmet Pasha, the husband of her granddaughter Kaya Sultan.This rivalry, and the political turmoil that followed, was possibly a major factor that led to the assassination of Ksem. In 1651, eunuchs entered Ksems quarters and strangled her to death, according to some accounts with her own braids. The news of Ksems death caused a degree of civil and social disorder. Crowds gathered near Topkapi Palace demanding revenge on Ksems murderers, and the city went into mourning for three days.Another Side to Ksem?The inilli Camii (Istanbul, Turkey), patronized by Ksem in 1638. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKsem has been depicted in various ways throughout the ages. Her contemporaries, too, had differing views about her. The Venetian ambassador Contarini said that she was generally respected. English traveler George Sandys, however, noted that she had an unnatural influence over the Sultan because she was a witch.Ksem was also a controversial figure among the local populace. Prominent Ottoman theologians and statesmen argued that her immense wealth was a result of financial abuse in a period that saw poverty and inflation.Others praised her charitable acts: Ksem built mosques, fountains, and madrasas (institutes of theological teaching), built in the Ottoman architectural style around the empire. As a former slave, she perhaps even felt some sympathy towards other enslaved women. Ottoman historian Mustafa Naima (d.1716) wrote that Ksem would free her female slaves after two to three years of service. Additionally, she would give them an annual wage, and have them married.Like other politically-savvy women throughout history, Ksem was a product of her environment. This was a male-dominated world in which she had to fight to survive and prosper.

Most people traveling through Peru head south, enticed by big-ticket highlights like Machu Picchu, Cusco, the Sacred Valley, or the Amazon. But in the north, hidden treasures abound. This dry, coastal region was once home to the Moche, a powerful pre-Inca culture known for its massive temples, advanced irrigation, and striking, intricately painted ceramics. Their legacy remains here, scattered across the arid region. Far less visited than Perus southern highlights, Northern Peru offers a rare chance to explore an older, often overlooked chapter of Andean history, one thats just as fascinating.Who Exactly Were the Moche?The Moche civilization thrived along Perus northern coast between roughly 100 and 800 CE. They never built a formal empire, as such, but their influence stretched across a wide network of valleys. Known for their exceptional engineering skills, they turned an inhospitable arid desert into farmland using complex irrigation systems.The Moche were also skilled metalworkers, producing delicate gold and copper objects. But not every aspect of their story is beautiful. Ritual sacrifice, elite burials, and strict social hierarchies were also part of everyday life for the Moche, as was the case for many ancient cultures the world over.The incredibly intricate Moche ceramics. Photo by Daderot, via Wikimedia Commons.Power, Ritual, and the (Super)Natural WorldThe Moche didnt leave behind any written records, so most of what we know about them comes from what they built and buried, like their temples, tombs, and above all, their pottery. These ceramics are incredibly detailed. They show scenes of farming, fishing, battle, and even human sacrifice. In a world where writing didnt exist, these images became the record.What they reveal is a culture where power, nature, and the spiritual world were tightly connected. The Moche believed life and death were part of a cycle that had to be kept in balance through ritual offerings. Some ceremonies likely took place at temples like Huaca de la Luna, where raised platforms were used for public displays. Sacrifice wasnt just a show of force but, as they saw it, a way to keep the land fertile and their world in order.When you walk through these archaeological sites, try to picture them not just as ancient ruins, but as places where spiritual belief was once acted out in very concrete ways.Where to Explore Moche History in Northern PeruIf you want to understand the Moche, the best place to start is near Trujillo, a coastal city with fantastic ceviche and several major archaeological sites just a short drive away.Huaca de la Luna (Temple of the Moon) and Huaca del Sol (Temple of the Sun)These two massive adobe structures once anchored the Moche capital. Huaca de la Luna is the better preserved, with layers of painted murals, ceremonial platforms, and buried offerings uncovered by archaeologists over the past few decades. You can walk through the site with a guide, wholl point out details like the faces of Moche deities still visible on the temple walls. Across the river, the larger but more eroded Huaca del Sol is still mostly unexcavated, but its scale alone is impressive. Some estimates say it once had over 140 million bricks.Moche deities still mark the temple walls at Huaca de la Luna after more than 1,000 years. Photo by Burkhard Muecke via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 3.0).El Brujo and the Lady of CaoHead a little further north to visit the El Brujo complex, site of the discovery of the Seora de Cao. This obviously high-ranking woman, with elaborate tattoos still visible on her skin, was buried with all sorts of ceremonial objects. The discovery was a major turning point in how archaeologists understood power and gender roles in Moche society. The museum is excellent, and the startling location, on a dramatic arid bluff overlooking the Pacific, is just one more reason to visit.The Lady of Cao was a tattooed high priestess buried with gold and weapons. Photo of a replica by Manuel Gonzales Olaechea, via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 3.0).The Royal Tombs of SipnThe discovery of Sipn in the late 1980s was a game-changer for Peru and, particularly, the northern region. Often called the Tutankhamun of the Americas, the Lord of Sipn was found buried with an extraordinary collection of gold, silver, and copper ornaments, along with sacrificed guards, animals, and offerings. The tomb had remained untouched for over a thousand years.Although you can visit the original burial site in Huaca Rajada, the real draw is the nearby (spectacular) Royal Tombs of Sipn Museum in Lambayeque. The museum is modern, drop-dead gorgeous, and displays many of the treasures exactly as they were found.The Royal Tombs Museum in Lambayeque displays treasures from Sipn exactly as they were foundgold, copper, and centuries of buried power. Photo above is a reconstruction of the actual burial site, by Bernard Gagnon, via Wikimedia.Tcume and BeyondWhile Tcume is mostly associated with the later Lambayeque culture, it overlaps with Moche influence and offers a fascinating look at how northern cultures evolved. The site includes dozens of adobe pyramids spread over a wide desert plain. Its easy to visit from Chiclayo and pairs well with a stop at the Brning Museum, which also has Moche artifacts.Dont Skip Chan Chan!It might not be Moche, but it would be criminal to explore northern Peru and miss Chan Chan while youre in the area. Just outside Trujillo, this enormous adobe city was once the capital of the Chimu, who rose to power several centuries after the Moche (and were conquered by the Inca).At its height, Chan Chan was the largest city in pre-Columbian South America. Whats left today is a vast complex of ceremonial courtyards, corridors, and decorative walls that still hold incredible detail. The scale alone is worth the visitand it helps connect the dots between Perus coastal cultures. Many archaeologists believe the Chimu built on Moche foundations, both literally and culturally, so seeing both adds context to the regions long and very layered history.A visit to Chan Chan typically starts at the Nik An Palace complex, the most accessible and best-restored part of the site. Walking through its corridors gives you a sense of the citys original scale. The fish and bird motifs carved into the adobe walls reflect the Chimus close connection to the sea. Bring a hat and water and load up on the sunscreen. This area is hot and dry, and theres very little shade. But the reward is seeing one of the most impressive adobe cities ever built, anywhere.Chan Chan, built by the Chimu, is the largest adobe city in the Americas, and one of Northern Perus crown jewels. Photo by yandi, via Flickr (CC BY 2.0)How to Visit the Land of the MocheMost travelers base themselves in either Trujillo or Chiclayo, two mid-sized cities along the northern coast. Trujillo gives easy access to Huaca de la Luna, Huaca del Sol, and El Brujo. while Chiclayo is your jumping-off point for Sipn, Tcume, and the Royal Tombs Museum in Lambayeque. Both cities are connected by frequent flights from Lima and have solid hotel options.If youre short on time, Trujillo is a great base for a few days of archaeological exploration. But if you can, combining both regions gives you a much fuller picture of the Moche world. Guided tours are available, but its also possible to visit independently by hiring local taxis (bartering is a must) or using regional bus lines.The dry season from May to October is the best time to visit, when temperatures are mild, and theres little rain. Most museums are open daily, and entrance fees are very affordable.The region isnt overrun by tourists, which means fewer crowds and less English signage. Although you dont need to be a history expert to enjoy the region, youll likely leave wanting to learn more. Bringing a simple field guide or doing a little reading in advance can really enhance the experience, especially when interpreting murals or museum displays. Many travelers say Northern Peru feels refreshingly real and wonderfully authentic. Its a chance to explore ancient cultures without the crowds, price tags, or polished staging of more popular sites. If youre looking for something different, this part of Peru delivers in spades and in subtle, fascinating ways.

The Nazca Lines in southern Peru fascinate history enthusiasts worldwide. Since these glyphs first began to be studied in the early 20th century, the theories for their origin and purpose have ranged from astronomical markers to representations of the Nazca peoples mythology and worldview, as well as possible messages to the gods. However, while the true meaning of the glyphs remains in debate, their refined techniques and symmetrical patterns provide a window to the technological sophistication of the ancient Nazcans.Who Were the Nazca People?Textile fragment, Nazca culture, 500-600 CE. Source: Art Institute of ChicagoThe Nazca civilization flourished between 200 BCE and 650 AD in the Nazca desert, years prior to the emergence of the Inca Empire. They are culturally related to the earlier Paracas culture, which emerged in the valleys of Pisco and Ica around 800 BCE.Located on the southern desert coast of Peru, the beautiful landscape of the Nazca desert is also one of the most arid regions in the world, with limited rainfall and extreme conditions that challenge activities such as agriculture and water management. The harsh landscape distinguishes the Nazca civilization for its remarkable ingenuity and adaptability: the creation of subterranean aqueducts known as puquios and other advanced irrigation techniques enabled them to flourish despite the environmental difficulties.For roughly eight centuries the Nazca produced impressive cultural artifacts, such as pottery, textiles, and the famous Nazca lines. The material evidence left behind provides valuable insights not only into the skill and technological advancement of this pre-Columbian culture, but also their mythological and religious worldviewwhich is often represented in their artifacts.Discovering the Nazca LinesPhotograph of a system of aqueducts built by the ancient Nazcans, PsamatheM, January 30, 2019. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Nazca lines were first mentioned in literature by the Spanish explorer Pedro Cieza de Len in 1553. At this time, the local Indigenous peoples attributed them to ancient, pre-Inca cultures. Archaeological interest in the Nazca lines emerged only centuries after. In the early 20th century, the Peruvian archaeologist Toribio Meja Xesspe noticed some of the glyphs while hiking through the area and brought them to the attention of the international community during an archaeological conference in 1939. A few years later, American historian Paul Kosok flew over the lines while studying the ancient irrigation systems of the region. He noticed not only that the lines were shaped in animal and humanoid forms, but also that they tended to converge on the horizon during the winter solstice.Kosok was joined by the German mathematician Maria Reiche in what is credited as the first in-depth study of the Nazca lines. This initial work led to the first theories regarding the purpose, meaning, and techniques used to create the glyphs. But as much as these earliest finds provided some hints as to the origin of the lines, they also opened up a great deal of debate regarding their true purpose. Differing interpretations and ongoing discussions are sparking debate among scholars even today, with no single, universally accepted theory.Shaping Sand: How the Nazca Lines Were MadeA condor geoglyph in Nazca, Peru, by Roger Canals. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHow have the glyphs survived the arid landscape of the Nazca desert? Archaeological surveys and remote sensing techniques have enabled researchers to determine the techniques behind their endurance.These studies found that the lines were created by creating trenches 10 to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) deep, removing the reddish-brown surface soil layer and exposing the lighter-colored, lime-rich earth below that contrasts sharply with the surrounding environment. This underlayer of soil hardens when exposed, thus preventing the erosion of the newly created shapes.The climate of the Nazca desert favored the preservation of the glyphs. With dry, stable, and almost windless days, conditions for natural preservation were ideal. But while modern technology has revealed the methods behind their construction and long-term survival, uncovering the true purpose of the glyphs has proven far more complex.Early Theories From Archaeo-AstronomyMaria Reiche, the so-called Lady of the Lines, responsible for the first archaeo-astronomical theories. Unknown photographer, 1972. Source: FlashbakIt was during the early stages of the scientific investigation that initial ideas regarding the purpose of the lines were proposed. Theories often revolved around the relationship between the lines and celestial bodies, relying on theories from archaeo-astronomy and complex calculations.Mathematician Maria Reiche mapped and assessed the lines in accordance with their relationship with astronomical events, which enabled her to verify both the mathematical precision of the lines and their convergence on the summer and winter solstices. Through meticulous measurements and fieldwork, Reiche developed the theory of the lines as sun calendars and observatories for astronomical cycles. She also proposed that some of the figures represented constellationsfor example, the representation of Ursa Major in the Monkey glyph. Her theory became famous worldwide after the publication of her book The Mystery on the Desert in 1949.Aerial photograph of the Monkey geoglyph by Diego Celso, 2015. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHer ideas sparked debate among scholars. Although earthworks with astronomical functions can be found among other Indigenous cultures in the Americas, many researchers were skeptical about the theory of the lines astronomical function. In 1990, archaeo-astronomers Gerald Hawkins and Anthony Aveni concluded that the evidence presented by Reiche was insufficient to support her claims.However, the relevance of Maria Reiches work with the Nazca lines is undeniable. She became known as one of the primary people responsible for the protection and preservation of the glyphs, and her work on their documentation, preservation, and dissemination brought wider public interest. Reiche was recognized for her work with the title of Doctor Honoris Causa by the National University of San Marcos, in Lima, Peru. Following her death, her home in the Nazca desert was converted into the Maria Reiche Museum.Symbols in the Sand: The Nazca Lines as MythologyBowl Depicting a Costumed Ritual Performer with Abstract Plants, Holding a Captive, Nazca Valley, 180 BCE-500 CE. Source: Art Institute of ChicagoCurrent research into the Nazca lines suggests that rather than star trackers and astronomical calendars, the glyphs were created for religious and ceremonial purposes. The animal, humanoid, and geometric shapes represented in the glyphs potentially contain symbolic meaning and acted as a bridge between humans and nature or the divine.Since the Nazca people left no written record, interpreting the symbolism behind the lines can be quite a challenge. Researchers have combined studies of the glyphs with other material evidence, including pottery and textiles, which often feature similar animal figures and geometric patterns. This comparison can offer some insight into the importance of certain animals and symbols in Nazca religion and everyday life, helping to interpret the meaning of the glyphs.Modern interpretations also rely on ethnographic studies to better grasp the meaning of the glyphs. Comparisons with beliefs and practices found among other Andean cultures enable archaeologists and historians to hypothesize regarding the roles that the lines may have played in ancient rituals. These interdisciplinary approaches have helped piece together possible symbolic meanings for the Nazca lines.Nazcas Most Unusual DesignsWhat Could They Mean?Aerial photograph of The Whale geoglyph, by Diego Celso, 2015. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSome of the most enigmatic glyphs highlight the complexity behind the interpretation of the Nazca lines. This is illustrated by the presence of peculiar animals that are often detached from the local environment, as well as unusual shapes that were initially complicated to identify.One example is The Whale: displaying a simple but instantly recognizable form, the glyph stands out due to its uniqueness. The whale, a marine creature far removed from the arid landscape, could symbolize the importance of water or fertilityan essential and scarce resource in the Nazca desert. The whale is also frequently present in Nazcan pottery, which hints at a mythical significance of the animal to their culture. The large representation of this animal in the material culture of the Nazca could potentially hint at their connection with other civilizationsin this case, those that lived by the coast.The Astronaut geoglyph on a hill, 2011, Aleksandr P. Thibaudeau. Source: FlickrAnother particularly strange glyph is the so-called Astronaut. Displaying a humanoid look with exaggerated featuressuch as large eyes and a rounded head interpretations for this glyph are many. It may depict a deity, shaman, or spiritual leader in the Nazca religion, perhaps related to celestial or otherworldly powers. The exaggerated features, such as the large eyes, might symbolize a connection to the supernatural or a visionary state.The presence of glyphs with these unusual forms suggests a symbolic meaning behind the lines, inviting continued speculation about the beliefs and cosmology of the Nazca civilization.The Nazca Glyphs as Ritual PathsAerial photograph of the Tree geoglyph, by Diego Celso, 2015. Source: WikidataNewer theories on the role of the lines for the ancient Nazca culture suggest that these geoglyphs were not just meant to be seen from above but also experienced on the ground. Evidence of worn surfaces, compacted soil, and pottery fragments and offerings associated with the glyphs indicate that they could have served as ceremonial walkways for religious rituals. This is particularly interesting as it suggests that the lines had an active role in Nazcan society, being used in processions to honor the gods, communicate with spirits, or make offerings to divine beings.These findings are particularly interesting as they suggest that, contrary to previous assumptions, the lines were made to be interacted with. Rather than serving solely as symbols to be observed from afar, the lines may have functioned as sacred spaces for communal religious experiences.Nazca in the AI Age: Ongoing DiscoveriesNewly discovered glyphs using AI technology, 2024. Source: Yamagata University Institute of NascaRecent research has relied on artificial intelligence (AI) to both identify new glyphs and shed further light on earlier discoveries. In 2019, a team of Japanese researchers from the University of Yamagata used AI and machine learning to analyze satellite images and aerial photographs.The technology was able to detect hundreds of geoglyphs in the region, nearly doubling the number of known figures. As the over 300 newly discovered geoglyphs were associated with the Paracas culture, who inhabited the desert prior to the Nazca people, these new discoveries help researchers better understand the transition between these two civilizations.These new tools and technologies offer a unique opportunity in studying the Nazca lines. The combined use of AI and low-flying drones made it possible to cover several kilometers each day, enabling the identification of smaller figures that could not be reached during past flyovers. As the desert continues to reveal more hidden geoglyphs, researchers are faced with the ongoing challenge of putting together prior and new knowledge, compiling even more evidence regarding the beliefs and culture of the ancient Nazca people.The Future of the Nazca LinesSatellite photograph of potential looting and erosion in the Nazca Desert. Source: TEDThe ongoing discovery of Nazca lines emphasizes how much there is still to explore and understand. As more advanced technology is employed, it may be possible to uncover even deeper meanings behind these enigmatic lines, helping archaeologists to further reveal the rich culture and sophisticated technology of this past civilization.But this excitement needs to be balanced with preservation and conservation measures. The cultural and historical significance of the glyphs led the Nazca lines to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994. This brought worldwide attention to the importance of protecting the site, threatened by increasing urbanization and the construction of roads in the surrounding areas. The ongoing climate crisis poses even more challenges, as increased regional rainfall could cause irreversible damage to the site.While researchers may never come to a final conclusion on the meaning of the lines, their uniqueness makes them stand out as a valuable resource with undeniable potential to help uncover the worldview and talents of this fascinating society. Whether as astronomical calculators, ritual tools, or a way to represent their mythological symbols, the Nazca lines invite us to dive into the minds and sophisticated technology of the sand sculptors behind their creation.

The Warhammer 40k Space Marine remaster is a strange beast. The new Master Crafted Edition is an overhauled and upgraded version of the beloved 2011 original, but it landed to a surprisingly damp reception, with next to no active players and those that did pick it up delivering it a damning 29% Steam review score. Now, developer Sneakybox and publisher Sega are offering a full refund to anyone who bought a copy, and have introduced a limited-time discount for those who wish to upgrade from the old Anniversary Edition. Continue reading Warhammer 40k Space Marine dev offers full Steam refunds, and a new upgrade pathMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best RPG games, Best Warhammer 40k games, Best space games

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By Daniel KeenanI started my homebuilding business eleven years ago, and since then, Ive built over a hundred single-family homes and projects in Arizonas East Valley. Whenever I drive anywhere