This year's $10,000 Schweickart Prize is going to a team of students who are proposing a panel to address the risks that could arise when we start tinkering with asteroids.

Ares was the Greek god of war and battle frenzy. He numbered among the twelve Olympian gods who ruled over the cosmos. While his sister Athena was a goddess of war, representing strategy and temperance, Ares represented battle lust and the horrors of war. He was often followed into battle by his children and attendants, Phobos and Deimos, the gods of fear and terror. Characterized by his strength of arms and rashness, one of his epithets in Homers Iliad was Man-Slaying, capturing his violent and cruel nature.1. Birth of AresSeated goddess holding flowers (Flora?), Italy, c. 1550-1575 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe earliest surviving written account about Ares, written by Hesiod in the 8th century BCE, says that he is the legitimate son of Hera and Zeus. However, the Roman poet Ovid in his Fasti claims that Ares, like Hephaestus, was born from Hera through parthenogenesis, meaning a virgin birth.Ovid wrote that Hera was upset that Zeus had given birth to Athena without her, so she decided to repay him in kind. She was helped by a nymph named Flora. She told Hera about a flower in Olenus, in the Peloponnese, that could be used to make a barren cow pregnant. Flora tried it, and sure enough, the cow became pregnant. She suggested the same for the goddess.The nymph plucked the flower and touched Hera with it, and straight away she became pregnant. Hera rushed off to Thrace and gave birth to Ares in secret. Zeus was none the wiser and falsely believed Ares to be his son.While the account uses the gods Latin names, Ovids inclusion of the Greek city of Olenus suggests that the myth was Greek in origin. The Romans knew Ares as Mars.2. Preventing Letos LaborPelike showing the death of Tityos, by Polygnotos, c. 450 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtWhen Leto was pregnant with the divine twins, Apollo and Artemis, Hera sought to punish her for her affair with Zeus. Not only did she tell the goddess of childbirth to prolong Letos labor, but she also sent Ares to threaten any city that Leto went to for refuge. The threat of Ares, who in the Iliad was frequently called the sacker of cities, caused every city on land to turn Leto away. It was only when the island of Asteria, or Ortygia, which was a wandering island in the sea that was not rooted to the earth, accepted her was she able to finally give birth.3. Affair With AphroditeTerracotta Antefix showing Venus and Mars, Rome, c. 1st century BCE/CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe most common myth about Ares has to do with his affair with the goddess of love, Aphrodite. Recounted in Homers Odyssey, while Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, Ares and Aphrodite had a secret affair. They were discovered by Helios, god of the sun, who immediately told Hephaestus about the infidelity.The smith god Hephaestus knew that he was no match physically for the god of war, so he devised a trap. He crafted a bronze net so fine that it was nearly invisible, then laid it above the bed. The next time Ares and Aphrodite went to bed together the trap was sprung, and they were captured. Hephaestus summoned the rest of the gods to shame them, but they were set free at Poseidons request.A later account by Lucian added that Ares stationed Alectryon outside the room to warn them when he sees Helios, since the god was known to be all-seeing, but Alectryon fell asleep. As punishment, Ares turned him into a rooster so that every morning hed cry out when the sun rose.4.Aloadae GiantsRed-Figure Krater showing Zeus and the giants, Italy, c. 350 BCE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St PetersburgThe Aloads, or Aloadae, were the sons of Poseidon and the mortal woman Iphimedeia, named Otus and Ephialtes. They were referred to by their patronymic because their mother was the wife of a Thessalian prince named Aloeus. They grew in size every year, and by the time they were nine years old the two boys were over five stories tall.In their arrogance, the Aloadae sought to overthrow the gods. In order to reach Olympus, they piled mountains on top of each other, and threatened to pile so many mountains into the seas that the sea would become land and the land become sea. They even managed to capture Ares in a bronze jar and held him captive for thirteen months. It was only by the intervention of Hermes that Ares was eventually freed, but the embarrassment of his capture remained with him.5. Cadmus and the Foundation of ThebesCalyx-Krater showing Cadmos and the Serpent, attributed to the Spreckles Painter, c. 450 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtCadmus was a prince of Phoenicia and the brother of Europa. When Europa vanished, their father sent all his sons out to search for her and told them not to return until they had found her. After searching for a long time, Cadmus and his brothers eventually gave up and decided to settle elsewhere.Cadmus and his mother settled in Thrace, where they lived until his mother passed away. Cadmus then decided to ask the oracle of Delphi about his lost sister, Europa. The oracle told him not to worry about her, but instead to use a cow as a guide and follow it until it fell down exhausted, and then to found a city on that spot.Marble relief fragment of Mars, Roman, c. 3rd century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtTaking the road from Delphi through Phocis, Cadmos bought a cow from a herdsman named Pelagon and proceeded to follow it into Boeotia, where it eventually fell down. Wanting to sacrifice the cow to Athena, Cadmus sent some of his travel companions to fetch water from a nearby river. This river, however, was guarded by a dragon said to be the child of Ares. The dragon killed many of his companions. When Cadmus heard of this, he flew into a rage and killed the dragon himself. On the instructions of Athena, Cadmus sowed the dragons teeth into the earth. From the teeth sprang fully armed and armored men called the Spartoi. They all proceeded to kill each other, but five survived to help Cadmus found the city of Thebes.In order to atone for killing the dragon, Cadmus served Ares for eight years. At the end of his service, he was granted kingship over Thebes and Zeus gave him Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, as a wife.6. First Murder CourtNymph statue, attributed to Polly, c. 1805-1810 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtAres had another daughter named Alcippe with a princess of Athens. One day, Alcippe was bathing in a spring by the Acropolis when a son of Poseidon named Halirrhothios came upon her and tried to rape her. Ares caught him in the act and killed him without hesitation. Poseidon was upset at the death of his son, so he brought criminal charges against Ares and held a trial in front of the twelve Olympians.Due to the nature of the crime the god of war was ultimately acquitted. The hill in Athens where the trial was conducted was henceforth known as the Areopagus, the Hill of Ares. The story explained why murder tribunals and other cases involving blood-guilt were tried on the Areopagus.7. Against HeraklesAmphora showing Herakles fighting Cycnus, attributed to the Amasis Painter, c. 6th century BCE. Source: Louvre MuseumOn three occasions Ares faced off against another son of Zeus, Heracles. Their first encounter, recounted in Hesiods Shield of Heracles, says that Ares fought Heracles in the city of Pylos, but was wounded when the hero stabbed him in the thigh and forced him to retreat. The next two encounters were to avenge the murders of his sons, both named Cycnus.The first Cycnus was Ares son by a woman named Pelopia and lived in Thessaly. According to the Scholiasts on Pindars Olympian Ode 2, this Cycnus used to behead passing strangers in order to build a temple for his father. Apollo stirred Heracles to kill Cycnus. Cycnus violent nature meant that he already wanted to kill Heracles, so a confrontation was inevitable. Cycnus challenged him to fight, and was supported by Ares. Luckily Heracles was supported by Athena. Heracles blocked Cycnus spear throw with his shield and, when the son of Ares lunged for a strike, plunged his own spear into his neck. Ares flew into a rage and hurled a spear at Heracles, but Athena intervened and turned it aside. This gave Heracles the chance to strike Ares in the thigh, wounding him. The god of war was then forced to flee back to Olympus.The second Cycnus was the son of Pyrene and lived in Macedon. The more common tradition, recounted briefly, is that, as the two combatants were about to clash, Zeus broke up the battle by throwing a thunderbolt between them. Hyginus, however, wrote that Heracles killed Cycnus (whom the Romans called Cygnus), and it was when he was about to clash with Ares that Zeus stopped the fight with a thunderbolt.8. The IliadShield depicting the Siege of Troy, France, c. 1580-90 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtDuring the events of the Iliad, Ares violent nature was on full display. Representations of him throughout history remained consistent with his characterization from this epic. As the god of war, Ares reveled in the blood and death that was wrought by the Trojan War.Many gods took sides in the war, but Ares cared only for battle. He changed allegiances at a whim, fighting on the side of whoever had the upper hand. From the beginning he had promised his mother, Hera, that he would support the Greeks, but he quickly changed sides at the urging of Aphrodite. Multiple times in the epic he is called a liar and oath breaker, such as when he was confronted by Athena while she was aiding the Greek hero, Diomedes.Diomedes was the son of Tydeus and king of Argos, and was regarded as nearly equal in skill and valor to Achilles. Spurred on by Athena, Diomedes clashed with Ares on the battlefield. They charged each other in chariots and Ares hurled his spear at the Argive king, but Athena, using the cap of Hades to make herself invisible, caught it and turned it aside. Diomedes then stabbed his spear at Ares, striking the god in the stomach. Wounded and defeated, Ares fled back to Olympus.In Book 20, Ares directly confronted Athena in combat. Zeus had banned the gods from participating in the war, but later revoked that rule and bid the gods to go down to earth and aid whichever side they wanted. Ares sided with the Trojans and pitted himself against Athena, who sided with the Greeks. He vowed to pay Athena back for lending her support to Diomedes in wounding him and he attacked her. He hit her directly in the chest, but she was protected by the aegis, armor made by Hephaestus that not even Zeus thunderbolt could break. Athena picked up a stone and swung it into Ares neck, knocking him to the ground and ending the fight. Aphrodite then led the defeated Ares away.

During the 10th century CE Sayf al-Dawla, Sword of the Dynasty, ruler of the Emirate of Aleppo became the most prominent antagonist of the Byzantine Empire. Taking up the call of jihad, he launched devastating raids year after year across the Taurus mountains into the lands of the Byzantine Empire and won many pitched battles against the Byzantines. In 960, he once again crossed the Taurus mountains with the largest army he had ever assembled, ready to raid and pillage the lands of the Byzantines.Sayf al-Dawla The Sword of the DynastyMap of Sayf al-Dawlas Emirate of Alepp 955 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 944 CE, Ali ibn Abul-Hayja Abdallah, better known by his epithet Sayf al-Dawla meaning Sword of the Dynasty, became the emir of the independent Emirate of Aleppo. Having established his Syrian-Mesopotamian state, Sayf turned his attention to the Jazira Thugar, the fortified mountain frontier protecting northern Syria, and the Byzantine empire that lay beyond. Taking up the call of jihad or holy war, Sayf mainly preoccupied himself with fighting the Byzantines, becoming the chief antagonist of the Byzantine Empire during the 10th century.He proved a brilliant strategist and led several devastating large-scale raids against the Byzantines, returning with plenty of plunder and slaves. He quickly built a reputation as the sword of Islam, winning several victories against the Byzantines. As emir, Sayf quickly turned his emirate into a thriving cultural center attracting the likes of the famed poet Al-Mutanabbi and the philosopher al-Farabi, which further enhanced Sayfs reputation and that of his Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo.War With ByzantiumCitadel of Aleppo, the heart of Sayf al-Dawlas Emirate by Guillaume Piolle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSayfs enmity with the Byzantines even predated his becoming the emir of Aleppo. In the late 930s and early 940s, he already led several raids against Byzantine lands with some Muslim sources claiming a victory over the great Byzantine general John Kourkouas. By the end of his life, it is said that Sayf had fought more than 40 battles against the Byzantines.Sayf led his first raid as emir into Byzantine lands in the winter of 945946. It was a minor raid but a taste of things to come. The raid was followed by a prisoner exchange and a truce that would last until 948. When hostilities resumed Sayf gained a victory over the Byzantines in 948 but suffered a setback when his army was outmanoeuvred by Leo Phokas who attacked and sacked Hadath, an important Muslim fortress town. In 949, Sayf led another raid into Byzantine territory but was met with stiff resistance and decided to retreat. However, as the year before, the Byzantine circumnavigated his army and invaded his lands.Depiction of Sayf al-Dawla, the Emir of Aleppo, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 950, Sayf gathered a large army consisting of contingents from Aleppo, Cilicia, and several tribal auxiliaries, and once again crossed the Tauras mountains. He raided deep into Byzantine lands, pillaging and causing great devastation wherever he went. Sayf was eventually confronted by Bardas Phokas, the Domestic of the Schools (Commander-in-chief of the Byzantine armies) in the Armeniac theme. Sayf proved a dangerous foe and Bardas suffered a humiliating defeat on home soil at the Battle of the Lycus River. Sayfs victory, however, was short-lived. On his march back home, laden with prisoners and booty, the army was ambushed by Leo Phokas (Bardas son) while crossing through the narrow mountain passes and suffered a devastating defeat losing 8,000 men. Sayfs defeat was dubbed ghazwat al-musiba (the dreadful expedition).The Defender of IslamByzantine Frontier Zone by Cplakidas, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTrue to his character, Sayf refused the offer of peace made by the Byzantines. His legitimacy was based on his image as the heroic warrior and defender of Islam that he so carefully cultivated. Accepting peace would only undermine his legitimacy. As a show of force and demonstration of his dedication to war with Byzantium, he launched another raid into Byzantine lands in the very same year as the dreadful expedition but was forced to retire due to the onset of winter.Sayf decided to consolidate and fortify his side of the Jazira Thugar border before launching further raids. He spent the majority of 951 upgrading and improving the defenses of Germanicea (Marash), Adata (Hadath), and Samosata (Samsat). These upgrades would allow Sayf to better guard his borders, provide various bases from which to supply and launch his raids, and better scouting and defense for his return through the passes after raiding. This is something the Byzantines simply could not allow. Bardas Phokas decided to lead the Byzantine army in person to put a stop to Sayfs fortification efforts. Again, Sayf proved himself a dangerous enemy in a pitched battle and defeated Bardas in 952 and again in 953. Sayf followed up his victory over the Byzantines with another large-scale raid into Byzantium, ravaged the surrounding lands of Malatya, and captured the fort of Arqa (modern-day Akada) in the very same year of 953.Muslim Forces Defeat the Byzantines in Battle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn his return home, Sayf received news that Bardas had yet again invaded his territory. The emir marched his best troops to confront the Domestic of the Schools. Sayf caught up with Bardas near Germanicea (Marash) and the two armies clashed in a hard-fought battle. The Byzantines were once again badly beaten by Sayf al-Dawla. Bardas suffered a vicious facial wound and barely escaped the battle with his life. To make matters worse, Constantine Phokas, the youngest son of Bardas was captured at the battle and imprisoned in Aleppo. Sayf returned home to a heros welcome and his reputation as the defender of Islam spread throughout the Muslim world.The White Death of the SaracensByzantine Forces Besiege Arab City, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSoon after his defeat, Bardas was struck with the terrible news that his son Constantine died in captivity. The Arabs claimed he died from natural causes, but Bardas suspected foul play and, in his grief, the Domestic executed several of his high-ranking Muslim prisoners, some were family members of Sayf al-Dawla. He led another campaign in person in 954 and again in 955 but was defeated in both campaigns.Bardas was almost eighty years old and clearly not up to the task of defeating Sayf al-Dawla. In 955 he was succeeded by his oldest son, Nikephoros Phokas who became the new Domestic of the Schools. Nikephoros was a brilliant commander and capable strategist. Under his command, the army was reformed and drilled into a more professional force. He also reintroduced the use of cataphracts, super heavy cavalry with horses and riders armored from head to toe.Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas from a 15th-century manuscript; Venice, Biblioteca Marciana. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSayf followed up his success with yet another raid into Byzantine lands in 956. On his return home he found his path through the mountains blocked by John Tzimiskes, nephew of Nikephoros Phokas and a capable commander in his own right. What ensued was a bloody battle where Sayfs superior numbers won the day. The Byzantines, however, had sent a separate army under Leo Phokas to raid Sayfs lands while the emir was occupied raiding their lands. Leo managed to catch Abul-Ashair, Sayfs cousin, and his army completely off guard, and in the ensuing battle, Abul-Ashair was captured and sent off to Constantinople in chains.Sayf responded by launching another raid into Byzantine lands that same year, causing great devastation as he went. The raid, however, was cut short, and Sayf had to turn his army around to come to the aid of Tarsus, his most valuable ally, who suffered an amphibious assault by the Byzantines. While Sayf moved his army toward Tarsus, the Byzantines struck at his lands, raiding and pillaging around the area of Martyropolis (Mayyafariqin).Battle scene between Byzantines and Arabs forces, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt had become clear that Sayf was now facing a far more capable commander in Nikephoros, one who was able to apply a strategy of multiple-pronged attacks. While Sayf was a dangerous enemy in the field, he could not be in more than one place at a time. Every time he could not protect his allies or his own lands against the enemy attack chipped away at his reputation and legitimacy. Nikephoros future successes against the Muslim forces would eventually place him on the very throne of Byzantium and earn him the epithet of the White Death of the Saracens, referring to the Arabs turning pale with fear whenever he rode onto the battlefield.The Turning PointByzantine army of Nikephoros Phokas capture Arab city, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 957, Nikephoros led an army in person and sacked the city of Adata (Hadath). Nikephoros demonstrated his diplomatic skills by establishing secret communication with Sayfs Turkish mercenaries, offering them wealth to betray the emir. Sayf however caught wind of this and surrounded his Turkish contingent and massacred them with his loyal troops. The sudden lack of manpower and the distrust of his own men meant that Sayf was unable to come to the aid of Adata.The following year, in 958, Nikephoros sent another army under the command of Tzimiskes in Sayfs lands. Sayf sent a large army of 10,000 troops under the command of his most able commander, Nadja to confront the Byzantines. The newly reformed Byzantine army, however, was smashed through the Nadjas troops, killing 5,000 and capturing a further 3,000. Having received additional reinforcements, Tzimiskes followed up his victory with a siege of Samosata, an important Muslim city due to its wealth and strategic location. Sayf could not afford to lose the city and collected as many troops as possible to march to the aid of the city. He was however defeated by Tzimiskes at the Battle of Raban. Samosata fell soon afterward.Sayfs weakness was exploited, and the Byzantines led a major raid of Sayfs territories the following year.The Cretan Expedition and the Battle of AndrassosByzantine armies landing on Crete, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Byzantines lost the Island of Crete to the Muslims in the 820s. From then on, it served as a raiding base and a festering thorn on the side of the Byzantines. Several attempts were made to recapture the island, but all failed. In the 960s, Nikephoros led a major campaign to recapture the island. This would, however, require a huge amount of manpower, leaving the empire undefended. Sayf saw an opportunity in this and called for jihad. With his army numbering 30,000 troops, swelled with volunteers from the Muslim world, contingents supplied by Tarsus, and his armies from Aleppo, the emir launched a massive raid into Byzantium. As expected, Sayf was met with little resistance and laid waste to Byzantine lands, capturing a large amount of booty and prisoners. Leo Phokas, who was left in charge of the defense of Byzantium, simply had too few troops to face Sayfs large army in the field. Leo thus settled on an ambush in the mountain passes where Sayfs numbers would count for little.Sayf was marching his army home to fame and glory, reveling in his successful raid and the large amount of plunder he had gained. However, he still had to cross the Taurus mountains. The Tarsiots advised Sayf not to return home through the same pass he had come, but the emir was confident that the Byzantines would not dare attack his large army. The Tarsiots did not share his confidence, broke away from the main army, and returned home through a different route. On November 8, Sayf, completely unperturbed, led his forces through the Andrassos pass through which he came. As the army and its baggage train entered the narrow defile, Leos troops lay in their position, waiting for the signal to strike. When the entire column entered the defile, Leo gave the signal. When the trumpets sounded, followed by a nerve-shattering war-cry, the Byzantine soldiers appeared from all sides and rushed down upon the unexpecting column. Despite their numerical superiority, Sayfs troops were exhausted by their long march, taken by surprise, and completely unprepared for combat. It was more of a massacre than a battle. Sayf himself barely escaped with his life, saved only by casting all the coins on his person on the ground which made his pursuers stop to collect the discarded wealth. According to a later Arab source, Sayf escaped with a mere 300 cavalrymen.What Was the Aftermath of the Battle of Andrassos?Sayf al-Dawla fleeing after the defeat at Andrassos, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt was a devastating defeat. Leo the Deacon claimed that the bones of the defeated army could still be found in the pass, many years after the defeat. John Skylitzes again states that the Byzantines had taken so many prisoners that the cities and farmsteads were crowded with slaves. Both contemporary and modern historians agree that the Battle of Andrassos broke Safys offensive power. Never would he be able to launch large-scale raids into Byzantine lands after his defeat. He had simply lost too many men. His followers had also lost faith in his ability and his call to arms and jihad would never again draw so many soldiers to his banners. A mere two years later in 962, Nikephoros Phokas led his troops against Aleppo itself. Sayf was powerless to stop him and was forced to abandon his city. The Byzantines stormed Aleppo and sacked the very capital of Sayf al-Dawla, the once formidable enemy of Byzantium.

While many stories survive about Norse mythology and legendary Viking warriors, these mostly come from later Christian accounts, as the pagan Vikings wrote very little about themselves. But symbols were powerful in the Viking world. They could be used as shorthand for important concepts and were often believed to have magical or divine properties. This article looks at the historical context and meaning of eight of the most important symbols from the Viking Age.1. Mjolnir: Thors HammerMjolnir pendant found at deshg, Sweden, c. 10th century CE. Source: Statens historiska museer, SwedenMjolnir, or Thors Hammer, is probably the most famous symbol surviving from the Viking Age. The symbol appears inscribed on runestones and as pendants worn by Viking men and women.According to mythology, Thor, the Norse god of thunder, wielded a hammer called Mjolnir that was crafted for him by the dark elves, also known as dwarves, the master craftsmen of the Norse cosmos. Due to mischief caused by Loki, the hammer was made defective and with a shorter handle than anticipated. While it was still considered the greatest weapon ever created, it required exceptional strength, like that possessed by Thor, to wield it.Mjolnir can be translated as lightning maker, and according to mythology, it caused cracks of lightning and sounds of thunder whenever Thor smashed the weapon into the enemies of the gods, the Jotun or giants. The weapon was powerful enough to level mountains.Thor with his Hammer, manuscript NKS 1867 4to, fol. 94v, Iceland, 1760. Source: Det Kongelige Bibliotek, CopenhagenAs well as being a weapon of destruction, Thors hammer was considered a ritual tool for hallowing places, things, and events for their intended purpose. For example, when the giant Thrym stole Thors hammer, which the god seems to have left carelessly lying around, he said that he would only return the weapon in exchange for the hand of the goddess Freyja in marriage. Since she refused to participate in any ruse, Thor had to go undercover and dress up as Freyja to retrieve the hammer, with Loki shapeshifting into a handmaid to assist him. When Thrym was ready to sanctify his marriage to the woman he thought was Freyja, he brought out the hammer to hallow the union. This gave Thor the opportunity to take it back and kill all the giants present.More than 150 examples of T-shaped pendants from the Viking Age have been recovered from Scandinavia, Iceland, England, the Baltics, and Russia. These have been identified as Mjolnir amulets and it is argued that they were worn to invoke the protection of the gods and as symbols of devotion to the Norse gods.Mjolnir pendant with a runic inscription, Denmark, c. 1000 CE. Source: National Museum of DenmarkWe know that these often crudely shaped pendants represent Thors hammer as the same shape appears on several runestones with identifying inscriptions. Further evidence was discovered in 2014 when a metal detectorist in Denmark found a Thors hammer amulet with an inscription reading Hmar is x, or this is a hammer.The surviving examples are made from a variety of metals, though iron followed by silver are the most common. There are also examples in lead, gold, and amber, and they were probably made in more degradable materials such as wood and clay for humbler individuals. While the most famous examples were elaborately decorated, most were plain. This includes examples from elaborate ship burials, suggesting that this was the standard. Most surviving examples have a punch mark in the handle, suggesting that they were worn as a pendant, handle side up.Thors hammer with cross etched pattern, via the Swedish History Museum, StockholmMjolnir pendants continued to be used by individuals well into the Christian period. There is evidence that Christian crosses and Viking Mjolnir symbols were made in the same workshops. There are also examples of Mjolnir pendants with crosses inscribed into them, combining the two iconographies. This reinforces the idea that Mjolnir pendants were worn as signs of protection and devotion since that matches the purpose of the cross.2. Gungnir: Odins SpearDrawing of part of a bronze helmet plate representing Odin, Sweden, c. 7th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile Thor carried Mjolnir, Odin, the god of war and the most important Norse god, carried the spear Gungnir, also made for him by the dwarves. It was so well balanced that the weapon would never miss its target, regardless of the skill of the warrior, and oaths sworn on the spear could never be broken. Gungnir was such an essential part of Odin that it is one of the key attributes used to identify the god in a variety of depictions.Above is a drawing of a plate from a bronze helmet dating to the Vendel Era, just before the start of the Viking Age. The figure depicted is clearly Odin, identified not only by his spear, but by the two ravens that fly nearby. These are Huginn and Muninn, whose names mean thought and memory. They would fly out into the world each day as the eyes and ears of Odin, reporting everything they saw. When Odin himself ventured into the world, they would accompany him. Odin was also one of the few gods often depicted on horseback.Stone from Hunninge on the island of Gotland, Sweden, c. 8th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe figure on horseback with a spear on the Gotland stone depicted above is almost certainly Odin. Below him seems to be a scene of warriors sailing across the sea to Valhalla, Odins afterlife for brave dead warriors. This identification is based on a female figure, who can be seen holding a drinking horn. She is probably one of the Valkyries that served the fallen warriors in Valhalla.Why would the Norse god of war carry a spear rather than a sword? Spears were in fact the most common weapons carried by Viking warriors. They were relatively easy and affordable to make and significantly extended the reach of the warrior. Meanwhile, for most of the Viking Age, swords were complex and expensive to make and therefore were only carried by the wealthiest Vikings.According to legend, at the start of the Aesir-Vanir War, Odin threw his spear over the enemy army and cried Odin owns you all! The Vikings would also sometimes throw their spears over the heads of their enemies in imitation of Odin. Myth also states that Odin hung himself from Yggdrasil, the world tree, for nine days and nights while pierced by his own spear to learn the secrets of the runes. When the Vikings sacrificed men to Odin, they would often hang them and stab them with a spear.3. Valknut: Symbol of ValhallaStora Hammars I Runestone, Gotland, Sweden, c. 700-900 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Valknut is probably one of the most enigmatic symbols from the Viking world. Its name is modern and means knot of slain warriors. It is applied to a symbol of three interlocking triangles that commonly appeared in the Viking Age. But we dont know what the Vikings themselves called the symbol.The Valknut almost always appears in association with both the dead and with Odin, which is why it is speculated that the Valknut was probably the symbol of Valhalla. While the Vikings had many afterlives, most wanted to end up in Valhalla, Odins great hall in Asgard. Odin, with the help of the Valkyries, only chose the bravest fallen warriors to join him there, where they would feast and train, preparing to fight alongside the gods at Ragnark.The Valknut appears on the Stora Hammars I Runestone, set above what appears to be a burial mound. There is a man standing nearby holding a spear and two ravens in the vicinity, suggesting that the man must be Odin. Behind the burial mound, another warrior can be seen hanging from a tree, which may also be a reference to Odin hanging himself from Yggdrasil.The Valknut also appears on grave goods, such as objects from the Oseberg ship burial from Norway dating to around 800 CE. The Valknut even appears on some contemporary Anglo-Saxon artifacts and on the grave goods of some Germanic peoples.Gold finger ring recovered from the Nene River, England, c. 8th-9th century CE. Source: British MuseumIt seems likely that the Valknut was used either to indicate that the dead person was in Valhalla, or perhaps as a magical talisman to call on the Valkyries to come and take the dead man to Valhalla. The Vikings believed that only those who died in battle could go to Valhalla and they would sometimes stab the bodies of warriors who died of illness to try and trick their way into Odins Hall.4. Yggdrasil: The World TreeYggdrasil detail on Overhogdal Tapestry, Sweden, c. 12th century. Source: Researchgate.netYggdrasil is an enormous, ever-green ash tree that acts as the backbone of the Norse cosmos. The nine worlds that made up the Norse universe are held among its roots and branches.The tree is mentioned several times in the surviving sources and described in detail. Yggdrasil is fed by three wells, Urdarbrunnr, the Well of Destiny and the dwelling place of the Norns, the Norse fates; Mimisbrunnr, the Well of Wisdom and the home of Mimir, the wise dead god; and Hvergelmir, the burning hot well located in Niflheim that feeds the eleven rivers that flow through the Norse realms.The dragon Nidhogg lives among the roots of the tree, and at the top is an unnamed eagle that has a hawk called Verflnir sitting between its eyes. A squirrel named Ratatoskr runs up and down the tree and four stags representing the four winds, called Dinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Durarr, eat the trees foliage.But while Yggdrasil is often mentioned in the sources and is a popular symbol in modern art, very few representations of Yggdrasil survive from the Viking Age. One notable exception are the Overhogdal Tapestries, from 12th century Sweden. Depicted above, a large tree appears at the center of three of the four surviving tapestries. That the tree is Yggdrasil is clear since a bird of prey sits atop the tree.Door carving on Urnes Stave Church, Norway, c. 11th century CE. Source: Wikipedia Commons; with Tree and bird detail on Sdermanland 101 Runestone, Sweden, c. 1030 CE. Source: National Antiquities Authority, SwedenWhile other obvious tree depictions are not common in Norse art, complex patterns formed by branches are a regular motif in Norse art. It is very likely that these represent the branches of Yggdrasil, which penetrate throughout the Norse universe and connect all things. For example, they can be seen in the animal and branch carvings on the door of the 10th century Urnes Stave Church in Norway. There is also a tree detail with a perched bird on the Sdermanland 101 runestone from 11th-century Sweden.5. Horned Triskelion: Bards and WordsmithsDetail of Horned Triskelion on Snoldelev Runestones, Denmark, c. 9th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Horned Triskelion is a symbol of three interlocking horns that is found on the 9th-century Snoldelev rune stone from Denmark. Alongside the symbol is an inscription that refers to a reciter for one of the local communities.This suggests that the symbol could relate to bards, and potentially the Mead of Poetry.The Mead of Poetry was a magical drink made by two dwarves from the blood of Kvasir, the smartest being in existence, who they murdered for that purpose. It was said to give anyone who drank it complete mastery of the spoken word, a skill valued among the Vikings.The mead was then taken from the dwarves by the giant Suttungr, and he placed it under the protection of his daughter Gunnlod. When Odin learned of the existence of the mead, he coveted its knowledge. He tricked his way into the mountain fortress where the mead was held and pretended to be in love with Gunnlod to access the mead.She eventually agreed to give Odin three sips of the mead so that he could find the words to describe his love for her. However, he used this as an opportunity to drink all the mead and hold it in his stomach. He then turned himself into an eagle and flew back to Asgard where he deposited the mead in three great drinking horns that were prepared for that purpose. The horns of the Triskelion would seem to represent these.On his journey, Odin let some of the mead spill over Midgard. It is unclear whether the mead spilled from his mouth or exited his body as urine. Regardless, the small amount of mead that found its way to men was considered responsible for the talent of the best bards.6. Hrafnsmerki: RavensGold bracteate featuring a warrior on horseback and ravens, Scandinavia, c. 400-600 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtRavens are an extremely common symbol in Norse art. Often the raven is mixed with an image of a warrior, creating a beaked helmet and making it difficult to clearly distinguish between the two. When ravens appear alongside a man, that man is usually identified as Odin, since ravens were his familiars.Scandinavian bracteates from the 5th and 6th centuries show warriors on horseback either with ravens flying alongside them, or helmets with raven elements. Ornaments from the same period are shaped like ravens but with the unmistakable image of a warriors head embedded in the decoration. Many Mjolnir pendants, like the one depicted at the start of this article, have what appears to be a cross between a warrior and a ravens head on the handle.According to literary sources, Ragnar Lodbrok used a raven banner when he started to invade England, and his sons later used the same banner when they invaded England with the Great Heathen Army to avenge their father. The banner was later adopted by Danish kings, and by the Danes who settled in England. The Vikings in York minted coins with raven symbols.7. Sleipnir: Divine SteedGotland Runestone, Sweden, c. 700-900 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSleipnir is the amazing eight-legged steed of Odin that shows up regularly in Viking art and Norse mythology. Grey in color, Sleipnir is faster and stronger than other horses and can slide between the worlds of the Norse cosmos, a feat beyond most creatures. His name, Sleipnir, means sliding one.Sleipnir was the child of Loki, conceived when the trickster shapeshifted into a mare to distract a steed called Svadilfari as part of one of his schemes. When the incredible horse was born, he gifted it to Odin as his steed.Odin is one of the few gods that is often depicted on horseback, because of his close relationship with Sleipnir. However, the horse is not always depicted with eight legs. On the bronze helmet plate discussed above, Odin with his spear is riding a regular horse. Similarly, on the raven bracteate, the horseman is probably Odin, on a regular four-legged steed. But on the Overhogdal Tapestry depicted above, the eight-legged creature that can be seen near the base of Yggdrasil is almost certainly Sleipnir. In addition, a depiction of the eight-legged horse, mounted by Odin, survives on an 8th century runestone from Gotland, depicted above.8. Swastika: Odins CrossThe handle of the Buddha-bucket (Buddha-btte), found with the Oseberg ship burial, c. 800 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile the Swastika is a controversial symbol today, it was widely used in the ancient world by various cultures. Among the Vikings, it is believed to have been a symbol of good luck.Examples of the symbol in Scandinavia survive as early as the 3rd century, and the last known examples come from several brooches dating to the 10th century. It survives on rune stones, funerary urns, and precious bracteates. A similar symbol with a cross inside a round circle, sometimes called a sun wheel, is thought to be a variation of the Swastika.A bracteate from Denmark discovered in 2020 and dating to the 4th century CE seems to show either Odin or an important chief in the form of a larger-than-life head on horseback. There is a swastika and a horseshoe beside the head of the warrior. The inscription on the charm reads: He is Odins man. This seems to confirm a link between the symbol and the god.

Humans age-old desire to tell time has helped propel the rise of more advanced time-telling tools. The need to track the different parts of the day and night led people in ancient civilizations, such as those in Greece and Egypt, to develop water clocks, sundials, and other early time-telling instruments. By the 13th century, the growing need for more accurate time-telling instruments compelled innovative craftsmen to develop the gear clock.What Were the Earliest Timekeeping Devices?The worlds oldest sundial, from Egypts Valley of the Kings (1500 BC).The earliest time-telling instruments can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, and they included sundials. Sundials relied on a pointer that cast a shadow on the ground indicating the hour. At the time, the tool allowed people to track time with reasonable accuracy. The first sundial artefact dates back to around 1500 BCE and was referred to as the Egyptian shadow clock. The tool used the suns path across the sky to indicate the hour. A bar was set to the west in the morning so as to cast a shadow to the east. The pointer helped to indicate time using marked hour lines.At night, the Egyptians used a tool called a merkhet. The tool had two rods with one of them lined up with the Pole star to determine the meridian. By tracking the stars movement, the merkhet helped them to determine the time of the night as certain stars crossed the meridian.How Were Water Clocks Used to Tell Time Before the Modern Clock?A Korean sundial made in the Joseon period.A water clock is a category of clocks that uses water as a means to track time. There are mainly two types of water clocks inflow and outflow water clocks. Inflow water clocks work by slowly taking in water from a container or a source. Outflow water clocks, on the other hand, work by letting water move slowly from a container into another container which can be connected to a water wheel that then turns a mechanical clock.Two outflow water clocks on display at the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens.These types of clocks have been used in the past. The oldest documented water clock was placed in the grave of Amenhotep I, the second Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt, around 1500 BC. By about 325 BC, the Greeks had started to use the devices to track time. They called them clepsydras, which roughly translated to water stealer.The clocks were often used in courts to limit how long a person could speak. They were also helpful when it came to telling time after dark. Time was determined by checking the water levels inside the central container. Despite their usefulness, water clocks did have some issues. For example, they wouldnt work in freezing weather. Even with these issues, water clocks remained a common and trusted method of tracking time until mechanical clocks were invented.What Are Chiming Clocks and How Were They Used to Tell Time Before the Modern Clock?A man surrounded by chiming clocks.The earliest chiming clock, a timepiece that sounds a bell once every hour, was created in China around 100 AD. The clocks had spread across Europe by 1100 AD. Many of the early bell clock towers that used the system are still standing today. The clocks were developed in medieval Europe and were used to indicate the proper time to ring the monastery bells. They were regulated by a verge and foliot system weight-system that combined earlier concepts from Islamic and European systems.Pocket watch movement. Source: UnsplashFrom the 17th century, there was a major advancement in clock making following the discovery that clocks could be controlled by steady motion pendulum systems. Some of the issues that affected the reliability of early pendulum clocks included temperature changes, a problem that was solved by the English clock makers who included George Graham and John Harrison in the 18th century. As the technology evolved, the electric clock, first built in 1840 by Scottish clock-maker Alexander Bain, was used to power more precise pendulum clocks.The wristwatch, also known as a trench watch, powered by a wound mainspring, became an essential instrument during the Boer War and World War I.How Do Modern Digital and Mechanical Clocks Work?Modern digital clock. Source windows.netToday, timekeeping devices are exceedingly accurate due to the perfection of tracking mechanisms over the years. Almost every PC and mobile phone, for example, has a digital clock that displays time. Many of them are powered by a battery or electricity. Additionally, time signals sent from Global Positioning System satellites help to align the time displayed on the gadgets.

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