In the spring of 1296, Edward I King of England invaded Scotland. For Edward, he was merely enforcing his suzerainty over his vassal, Scotlands king, John Balliol, who Edward had helped raise to the throne. For the people of Scotland, however, the invasion became a threat to their nations existence and their personal freedom. This article will explore the origins and key moments of the 30-year-long war, as well as its leaders, tactics, and how it changed England and Scotland forevermore.Prelude to Edwards Invasion of Scotland: The Great CauseA stained glass painting of Margaret, the Maid of Norway, Lerwick Town Hall, at one point she was engaged to Edward, prince of England, had she survived and married Edward. Source: GeographIn the early 1290s, Scotland was in political turmoil. Her last king, Alexander III, had died in 1286 and his only surviving heir, granddaughter Margaret the Maid of Norway, followed four years later. Soon many claimants were arguing over the crown in a crisis known as the Great Cause. To avoid civil war, the interim Scottish government, a council of nobles known as the Guardians of Scotland, invited Englands King Edward I, to choose the next king.The idea was sound. Edward, as a foreign party, had no bias for any claimant, and they had all sworn to respect the final choice. However, Edward had a strong diplomatic relationship with Scotland, even planning to marry Margaret to his son. Also, though Scotland was an independent nation, many Scottish nobles held lands in England and paid homage to Edward for these lands under feudal law. There was, however, one small problem: Edward himself.Edward, nicknamed Longshanks for his great height, was one of Englands most ruthless and ambitious kings, likened to a Leopard for his cunning and ferocity. He was a warrior from a young age, battling against rebellious barons and campaigning in France. Many historians speculate that he aimed to create a new Empire of Britannia under his rule. He had already conquered Wales when he received the request for arbitration. In one of the great ironies of British history, the man originally invited to save Scotland nearly destroyed it.Edward I Moves on ScotlandThe Great Seal of Scotland, used by the Guardians to issue legal documents in the absence of a monarch. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEdwards first response was to declare that choosing the next king would make him Lord Paramount, i.e. the feudal overlord, of Scotland, unless the Guardians legally proved otherwise. The Guardians prevaricated against this legal deviousness brilliantly, stating that only an anointed King of Scotland could legally recognize Edward as Lord Paramount.Undeterred, Edward persuaded the claimants to pledge loyalty to him if made king. Truthfully, the choice really boiled down to two men. One was Robert de Brus, fifth Lord of Annandale, closest to Alexander III by blood and an old and wily political operator. The other was John Balliol, the most senior claimant by feudal primogeniture but younger and less politically experienced than Robert.In November of 1292, Edward chose John, who formalized his oath of homage to Edward in his coronation. Edward wasted little time exercising his new dominance over Scotland. He demanded submission from all the Scottish nobles and regularly interfered in Scottish legal affairs, even ordering John to appear in court as a defendant against one of his own vassals.Whether Edward was deliberately antagonizing John or was merely acting as an archetypal feudal overlord, John and his supporters soon reached their limit in early 1296. Edward ordered Scotland to provide levies and funds for his new war in France. Instead, John, alongside a newly elected council of Guardians of Scotland signed the Treaty of Paris, a mutual defense pact between France and Scotland, now known as the Auld Alliance. The ink on the treaty was barely dry before Edward would respond.The First InvasionCarlisle Castle in Carlisle, the site of one of the first sieges in the war. Source: GeographInterestingly, instead of marching straight over the border, Edwards first move was to offer John peace if he renounced the treaty, re-pledged homage, and handed over a few border castles. This might have been of dubious sincerity but either way, John responded by initiating hostilities. In March 1296, Johns army, led by his brother-in-law John Comyn, raided England and besieged Carlisle, then defended by Robert de Brus, sixth Lord of Annandale and the son of Johns rival claimant.So why was a powerful Scottish lord fighting for England? Feudal customs and legal traditions made vassal autonomy and homage a complicated issue. With nobles holding estates on either side of the border, their ties of loyalty were not solely dictated by nationhood. The Brus family were a great Scottish house, but they had lands and familial ties in England, and plenty to gain siding with Edward. They were certainly not the only Scottish nobles to join Edward, some English nobles even sided with John, though they were rare given Edwards strong rulership. At this stage, the war was less Scotland versus England, and more a factional feudal struggle for supremacy.Meanwhile, Balliols military initiative ended swiftly and disastrously. Responding to Balliols raid, Edward crossed the border, sacked Berwick-upon-Tweed, Scotlands richest city, and besieged the vitally important Dunbar Castle. Balliol hastily recalled his forces from Carlisle to relieve the fortress. However, this ended in disaster when his army was outmaneuvered and surrounded by the English, and the Scottish loyalist nobles were taken prisoner. Soon all the remaining nobles, Scottish strongholds, and even Balliol himself, followed suit.Occupation and Popular DiscontentA depiction of John Balliol, complete with a broken crown and scepter to display his subjugation and humiliation, 16th century. Source: Worldhistory.orgEdward then symbolically demonstrated his dominion over Scotland. John had the Scottish royal coat of arms physically torn from his clothes, he was thereafter known as Toom Tabard or empty coat, before being packed off into exile. Edward then seized the sacred Stone of Scone, upon which the Kings of Scotland were crowned, and had it put into a new coronation chair in Westminster Abbey. In addition to symbolic gestures, Edward also forced changes onto Scotland but in his ambition, he overreached.He forced personnel upon the Church in Scotland, disbanded the Guardians of Scotland, and replaced almost every Scottish official and administrator with English ones. This angered Scotlands senior clergy and alienated his noble supporters while strengthening his opponents and aggravating the common people, who were exploited by the English bureaucrats. The worst were Lieutenant Governor John De Warenne, and Treasurer Hugh De Cressingham, who brutally taxed the people of Scotland to enrich himself.It was only a matter of time before resentment boiled over. The first rebellion began in 1297, in the Northern Highlands under the command of staunch Balliol loyalist Andrew Moray. Soon after, the most famous uprising began under the legendary William Wallace.Rebellion and the Battle of Stirling BridgeStirling Bridge, where Wallace and Moray won a stunning victory by ambushing the English army as they attempted to cross the narrow bridge. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWallaces rebellion began with the murder of a tyrannical English Sheriff. Soon many Scotsmen flocked to his side to make life hell for the English. The Scottish traditions of cattle raids and clan warfare, along with their ability to easily traverse difficult terrain, made them ideal guerilla fighters, harassing the English at will before disappearing into the hills.De Warenne and De Cressingham, overseeing Scotland while Edward campaigned in France, charged their Scottish noble allies to deal with the rebellion. However, they made only token efforts to apprehend Moray or Wallace and by the summer of 1297, the two rebels had joined forces and much of the Scottish nobility had also revolted.In response, the English officials raised an army roughly twice the size of Wallace and Morays rebels, moving north in September 1297. They brought the mutinous nobility to heel at the Capitulation of Irvine before moving on to meet Wallace and Moray outside the English-held Stirling Castle on the river Forth.The English offered terms, but Wallace supposedly rebuffed them, saying We are not here to make peace but to do battle and liberate our kingdom. So, on September 11, 1297, the English marched across the river to meet the rebels. However, as half the English army struggled over the narrow bridge of Stirling, the rebels fell upon them. The Scottish Schiltrons, a dense formation of spearmen like the Classical phalanx, pinned the English to the riverbanks while blocking off the bridge, preventing any reinforcement. The English were slaughtered, De Cressingham was killed and, legend has it, his skin turned into a sword belt for Wallace.Scottish Defense and FalkirkStatue of William Wallace on the righthand side of Edinburgh Castles gatehouse. Source: GeographStirling was a stunning victory, but it came at a heavy price. Moray was grievously wounded and shortly afterward. Nevertheless, as 1298 dawned, the rebels, renamed the Army of the Realm of Scotland, liberated the rest of Scotland. Wallace, recently appointed as a Guardian of Scotland, led a raid into England to pressure Edward into submission.Instead, an enraged Edward returned from France in April 1298, swiftly crossed the border and a desperate game of cat and mouse began. For nearly two months Wallace fought a brilliant guerilla campaign but Edward, far superior to the previous bumbling English commanders, cornered Wallace at Falkirk on July 22. There the English noble cavalry routed their Scottish counterparts while Welsh longbowmen rained death upon the Schiltrons of spearmen.Wallace escaped but resigned as Guardian, yet all was not necessarily lost. Despite the victory, Edward couldnt fully capitalize on his success due to a lack of supplies, and so returned to England. Meanwhile, Wallace looked for international support, persuading the King of France to threaten Edward out of attacking Scotland again. Meanwhile, two new Guardians were appointed: John the Red Comyn, and Robert de Brus, or the Bruce to differentiate from his forebears, the respective sons of the commanders at the siege of Carlisle.This clearly shows how Scotlands nobles were putting aside their differences to face a national threat. However, the Guardians bitter family rivalry and personal animosity proved insurmountable on the issue of either choosing a new king or preserving Balliols throne. Eventually, Robert, fed up with Comyn and the Balliol loyalists, defected to Edward who, having made peace with France, invaded Scotland in 1303.The invasion force, which included the terrifying Warwolf, the largest trebuchet ever made, quickly overwhelmed Scotland. Edward, learning from his mistakes, promised greater Scottish autonomy and offered good terms to those who surrendered.The Death of Wallace and Rebellion of the BrucePainting of Wallaces mock trial for treason by Edward I in the Hall of Westminster, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWallace, however, refused to surrender, continuing his guerilla war alone. Inevitably though, he was captured and charged with treason in a sham trial. His defense, that he never pledged loyalty to Edward, was ignored and in 1305 he was hanged, drawn, and quartered. Thus, to all rebels! Edward may have thought as Wallaces remains were put on gruesome public display. However, the very next year, a new uprising blazed across Scotland, led by a previous English supporter.Truthfully, Robert the Bruce had defected more out of hatred for Comyn than love for England. Behind the scenes, he limited his material support for Edward and quietly planned his own bid for the Scottish throne. Edward was certainly suspicious of Robert, but the Bruces were too powerful to be made enemies.After Wallaces execution, Robert tried mending things with Comyn, offering his own titles and lands for Comyns support for the crown. Ironically, Comyns response would, against his intentions, see Robert become king. Comyn leaked the deal forcing Robert to flee Edwards court in London for Scotland. Robert then sought to negotiate with Comyn at Greyfriars Abbey in Dumfries. However, an argument broke out and Comyn was killed, either by Roberts hand or by a servant at his request.Robert could have begged Edward for mercy. Yet given what happened to the last man Edward declared traitor, Robert decided the die was cast on his behalf and doubled down as a rebel. Even though the Pope excommunicated Robert for murder on sacred ground, thanks to Edwards previous mistreatment of the Church in Scotland the senior clergy fell in behind Robert. They absolved Robert of the murder and in March 1306, the Bishop of St Andrews crowned Robert king, even without the Stone of Scone.The Civil War of Robert the BruceStatue of Robert the Bruce on the left of the gatehouse of Edinburgh castle, opposite the other guardian, William Wallace. Source: Wikimedia CommonsYet the odds remained very much against Robert. After losing the Battle of Methven, he was forced into hiding off the Scottish coast while his family was imprisoned and many of his supporters executed without trial. Legend has it that Robert was inspired to continue fighting while watching a spider patiently rebuild its web. If at first you dont succeed, try and try again. Historically, Robert succeeded through adapting, cunning, and luck.In February 1307, Robert returned to the Bruce heartlands of Carrick where he combined Wallaces guerilla strategies with his own aristocratic prestige to rebuild support and weaken the English. In May, he won a brilliant victory at Loudon Hill which forced the English defensive and triggered more pro-Bruce uprisings across Scotland. Robert then moved on to a new challenge. Many pro-Balliol nobles joined England against Robert, while the Comyns still sought vengeance for the murdered John Comyn. To liberate his country, Robert needed to conquer it first.Interestingly, despite his noble opposition, Robert appeared to have widespread popular support. He won several victories after the opposing forces deserted or mutinied instead of fighting their anointed king. The clearest example was at Barra in February 1308 CE. Here Robert defeated the Earl of Buchan, cousin to the murdered John Comyn, and unhelpfully also named John Comyn, when his army fled rather than face the Bruce.Robert repaid this favor by committing the Harrying of Buchan, effectively torching the whole county to destroy Comyns power base. This atrocity is the starkest reminder that this was as much a civil conflict as it was one against English oppression. Speaking of the English, their surprising passivity during Roberts civil conquest comes down to some very unfortunate (or fortunate depending on perspective) timing.Edward IIs Response and Roberts RuleThe tomb of Edward I in Westminster Abbey, compared to some of the neighboring royal caskets, appears curiously plain, however, given the type of man he was, he needed little royal fanfare to be remembered. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn July 1307, Edward, marching to personally nip Roberts rebellion in the bud, died of dysentery. The leopard Edward Longshanks, warlord and would-be emperor of Britannia left Scotland in open rebellion and his son, Edward II, to pick up his mantle.Edward Is epitaph reads: Edward I, Hammer of the Scots. An apt description, given all he had done to Scotland in just eleven years. However, at his death, the Scots were not yet fully beaten into submission. His son Edward II, ironically the first English king to be crowned on the Stone of Scone, simply lacked the tools to finally finish the job and properly nail Scotland. Edward lacked his fathers iron will and political ability to control his vassals, nor the funds, frittered away on his fathers costly wars, to finance a campaign.Despite promising his dying father that he would end Roberts rebellion, it took nearly four years before Edward could organize another Scottish expedition. All the while Robert strengthened his rule over Scotland, holding a parliament at St Andrews, creating a new government, and capturing remaining English strongholds. Edward II finally invaded again in 1311, but Robert simply responded with scorched earth and guerilla attacks.Edward, lacking his fathers military aptitude, could not force a decisive battle and was forced home by a lack of supplies, funds, and brewing discontent back in England. It took three more years before, in June 1314, Edward could invade again. This time, he force marched more than 20,000 men to relieve Roberts siege of Stirling Castle, one of Englands last strongholds in Scotland.Bannockburn and the Irish Proxy WarThe earliest depiction of the battle of Bannockburn, from the Scotichronicon, 15th-century manuscript. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite having barely half Edwards numbers, Robert anticipated Edwards plan and deployed his Schiltrons to intercept the English vanguard on June 23. Robert almost died dueling an English knight, but the Scots held the field, forcing Edwards exhausted army to camp in front of a river known as the Bannockburn.Had Edward been half the general his father was, he would never have encamped so close to the Scottish line in such a dubious position after a forced march. As it was, when the Scottish suddenly attacked the next morning, the weary English struggled to respond. Just as at Stirling Bridge, they became trapped between the Scottish and a river. The flower of English nobility fell to either Scottish spears or the waters of the Bannockburn. Edward fled Scotland via ship, the other survivors struggled home overland or were hunted down by the vengeful Scots.Bannockburn is perhaps Scotlands most iconic military victory, as anyone who has heard Flower of Scotland can attest to. However, contrary to popular belief, it did not end the war but even so, the serious fighting was effectively over, save for one final fascinating campaign.In 1315, Roberts brother Edward took a Scottish army to join forces with the ONeils of Ulster, to drive out the English from Ireland. The expedition began brightly, and Robert apparently made plans for a united Gaelic kingdom under the Bruce dynasty. However, the Irish support was limited, for they saw little difference between the English and Scottish occupiers and tragically Edward Bruce was killed in 1318.The Treaty of Edinburgh Northampton and the Wars EndA monument at the site of the Battle of Bannockburn where Robert allegedly planted his standard before the battle, the plaque contains a quote from the famous Declaration of Arbroath. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite losing his brother, Robert was not seriously weakened by the Irish venture. Over the next years, he and his nobility lobbied for international recognition.In 1320, Scotlands most powerful nobles wrote the Declaration of Arbroath to Pope John XXII. They urged the Pope to lift Roberts ex-communication and recognize Scottish sovereignty and made a passionate commitment to their country:Because, while a hundred of us remain alive, we will not submit in the slightest measure, to the domination of the English. We do not fight for honor, riches, or glory, but solely for freedom which no true man gives up but with his life.This is a far cry from the squabbling Scottish from the 1290s. Undoubtedly, the war had brought Scotland together, though Roberts suppression of any dissent to his reign also helped. Regardless, the Declaration helped persuade the Pope to lift Roberts excommunication and recognize Scottish sovereignty, and France would renew the Auld Alliance soon after as well.Miniature of John XXII, 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1327, Edward II was deposed in favor of his 13-year-old son Edward III under the regency of his mother. The new regime soon decided to cut Englands losses and agree to peace 14 years after Bannockburn, and 32 after the war began. The treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton recognized Robert as king and restored the borders to the status quo antebellum in exchange for 20,000.Peace wouldnt last, of course. After Robert died in 1329, John Balliols son Edward invaded with English support to replace Roberts son, David on the throne. The First Scottish War was never as simple as Scotland unifying against England, as seen by the cause of the second war.However, the First Wars transformation of Scottish sovereignty was profound. Edward Balliol eventually lost the Second War because of popular opposition to his submission to England. For all its twists and turns, the First Scottish War of Independence has become the story of the forging of Scotlands identity.