It is often assumed that the Spanish and Portuguese colonization of Latin America subjugated all but a few remote Indigenous tribes, and that European culture (and to a lesser extent African culture imported with slaves) almost completely displaced native practices. However, many Indigenous Americans successfully employed creative strategies to preserve their unique cultures, sometimes hidden within the new European culture. This article explores four ways in which Indigenous cultures resisted colonialism in Latin America.1. They Fought Back with ForceCapture of Tenochtitln by Corts, unknown artist, c. later 17th century. Source: Library of CongressAlthough most Indigenous peoples of Latin America eventually succumbed to European military might, they did not go down without a fight. While European colonizers quickly established footholds in the Caribbean and other territories where local Indigenous communities lacked the military means to fight back, they encountered much stiffer resistance as they penetrated the mainland of Mesoamerica and South America.Moreover, the Spanish did not conquer the two great Indigenous empires of Latin America with military might alone. They were assisted by Indigenous allies and convenient happenstance. For example, it was only with help from the Indigenous enemies of the Aztec Empire that the conquistador Hernn Corts was able to conquer Mexico in 1521. Even then, it was only after months of brutal combat culminating in the siege of Tenochtitlan.Pizarro Seizing the Inca of Peru, by John Everett Millais, 1846. Source: Victoria & Albert Museum, LondonFurther south, in the early 1530s, the conquistador Francisco Pizarro encountered a weakened Inca Empire embroiled in civil war. Coupled with the rampant spread of European diseases and the deceitful capture and execution of the Inca leader Atahualpa, Pizarro conquered Peru within a few short years.However, in both cases, conquering the Aztecs and the Inca did not put an end to Indigenous military resistance. In Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere in colonial Latin America, Indigenous guerrilla warfare and periodic rebellions continued to threaten colonial rule for decades and even centuries following the initial conquest.El Rebelde Tupac Amaru, unknown artists, c. 1784-1806. Source: Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Buenos AiresOne of the most notable Indigenous rebellions of the colonial era was led by the Quechua chieftain Tpac Amaru II. This rebellion occurred following the implementation of the Bourbon Reforms in the 18th century, which sought to centralize the Spanish military and administrative system throughout the empire, reducing Indigenous autonomy. In response, Indigenous peoples in what are today Peru and Bolivia rose in rebellion, asserting a resurgent Inca identity. Although this rebellion was crushed by the Spanish authorities, it signaled that even after more than two centuries of colonialism, armed resistance was still a viable strategy of Indigenous cultural survival.Armed Indigenous resistance to colonialism did not end with the wars for Latin American independence from Spain and Portugal in the 19th century. Resistance continued throughout the 20th and even into the 21st century. Today, groups like the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) of Mexico demonstrate that some Indigenous peoples continue to use military means to preserve their autonomy.2. They Fled from the European AdvancePhotograph of Lacandons, by Teobert Maler, 1901. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhere armed conflict proved unfeasible, some Indigenous communities opted to flee from the European advance. These communities migrated away from centers of colonial power in a bid to preserve their autonomy.Some of the societies that later explorers and colonists would describe as remote or isolated, such as Amazonian tribes, were the result of mass exodus during the colonial era. Some were the survivors of European conquest and disease seeking to reestablish their communities far from the colonizing foreigners. Others, hearing about the Europeans in advance of their arrival, moved deeper into the hinterlands to avoid encountering them directly. This ensured that some Indigenous cultures were able to thrive for decades or even centuries longer than they otherwise would have.Photograph of members of an uncontacted tribe in the Brazilian state of Acre, by Gleilson Miranda, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the Indigenous communities that successfully preserved their cultural identity by moving away from colonized areas was the Lacandon Maya, offshoots of the ancient Maya civilization whose cities and temples still dot the landscape of Mesoamerica. They inhabit the Lacandon Jungle of the Mexican state of Chiapas, a region that remains remote and sparsely populated. In the colonial era, the Lacandon Maya escaped the worst excesses of Spanish rule by remaining in small farming communities far from both the Spanish and other Maya living under the colonial system.Only since the mid-20th century have the Lacandon Maya come into greater contact with the outside world, although they still retain a distinct culture thanks to their centuries of relative isolation and autonomy. The Lacandon are an outlier today, but historically, many other Indigenous communities benefited from the same strategy. A few dozen tribes, mostly in the furthest reach of the Amazon, remain in voluntary isolation.3. They Adopted Catholicism but Practiced Indigenous Religions in SecretPhotograph of the Kamnt people of Colombia carrying a portrait of the Virgin of Las Lajas, a Catholic figure, while celebrating a precolonial festival, 2023. Source: Rowan Glass.One of the major objectives of European colonialism in Latin America was to spread Catholicism, typically by forced conversion. Every major conquistador expedition took at least one priest with it, whose job it was both to serve the troops and to proselytize to the Indigenous people. Likewise, one of the first steps the Europeans took when conquering a new territory was to build churches, often on Indigenous sacred sites, and to quickly establish a local presence of Catholic clergymen. This ensured that the spread of Christianity went hand-in-hand with European political domination. Whats more, the Spanish Inquisition was perhaps even more vicious in attacking heresy and dissent in Latin America than in Spain itself.Predictably, these tactics resulted in the rapid spread of Catholicism among the Indigenous peoples of colonial Latin America. However, the types of Catholicism that developed in Indigenous areas were often markedly distinct from the mainstream Catholicism promoted by the European authorities. Instead, Indigenous cultures developed syncretic forms of Catholicism that allowed them to preserve elements of their pre-colonial religious beliefs.Our Lady of Guadalupe, a popular (and Church-sanctioned) folk saint in Mexico. Source: Carmel Catholic High SchoolOne of the most emblematic symbols of Latin American religious syncretism is the Virgin of Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico. Although a Catholic figure representing an apparition of the Virgin Mary, the Virgin of Guadalupe is also a distinctly Mexican figure that incorporates elements of Indigenous religious symbology. For instance, the Virgin of Guadalupe is depicted wearing a blue-green mantle, a color associated with the Mesoamerican deities Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl. The sunrays emanating from behind her are associated with the spines of the maguey plant, from which Mesoamericans produced the sacred drink pulque long before the Spaniards came. Furthermore, the Virgin of Guadalupe first appeared to an Indigenous man, Juan Diego, who was later named a saint by the Catholic Church.Some depictions of the Virgin of Guadalupe include other symbols associated with Indigenous Mesoamerican spirituality, making it unclear where Indigenous religion ends and Catholicism begins. The merging of Catholic and Indigenous symbols in this figure is evidence of the ability of Indigenous traditions and beliefs to powerfully retain their meanings under a Catholic veneer.In other cases, Catholicism was only given lip service by Indigenous people who secretly practiced their ancestral religions. Some people in remote regions of the Andes and the Amazon still practice the old ways.4. They Learned Spanish and Portuguese but Continued to Speak Their Own LanguagesThe author on his way to Lima, Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, c. 1615. Source: Royal Library, Copenhagen, Denmark.While Spanish and Portuguese quickly became the official languages of colonial Latin America, many Indigenous people continued to speak their own languages. Learning the languages of the colonizers was a means to gain access to and prestige within the colonial system. This was important for Indigenous peoples when interacting with Europeans and mestizos (mixed race). Local elites learned Spanish and Portuguese, while continuing to speak their own languages.Moreover, millions of Indigenous people never learned the colonial languages. For most, it was not necessary since Indigenous communities under European rule were highly restricted in terms of freedom of movement, both in and out. This meant that for many, encounters with Europeans and mestizos were rare.Photograph of detail from the Codex Borbonicus. Source: Natural History Museum, ParisFor several centuries of the colonial era, European languages were not even the most widely spoken languages in much of Latin America. Instead, Indigenous languages such as Quechua (spoken in the Andes), Nahuatl (spoken in Mexico), Maya dialects (in Central America), and Tupi-Guaran (Brazil and Paraguay) served as regional lingua francas. Because it was not always possible or effective to preach in Spanish or Portuguese, colonial missionaries and administrators often found it necessary to learn Indigenous languages themselves. Quechua and Nahuatl, therefore, became missionary languages employed by Europeans to aid in their proselytizing. This had the effect, however, of also strengthening Indigenous identities by preserving the use of their languages.Some indigenous languages continue to be spoken widely. In Peru, for example, it is estimated that a quarter of the population today speaks Quechua, while in Mexico, there are over one million Nahuatl speakers. These contemporary numbers indicate the historic success of this final strategy of Indigenous cultural survival.Indigenous Resurgence and Ongoing ThreatsPhotograph of an Amazonian Shaman, 2020. Source: Amaznia LatitudeIn recent decades, the Indigenous people of Latin America have been rising up again against oppression and subjugation. They are retaking ownership of their identity and transforming it into a symbol of empowerment, promoting their language and music and gaining a stronger voice in politics. This is reflected in the election of Evo Morales as the first indigenous president in Latin America in 140 years (2006-2019).Nevertheless, Indigenous culture is still under extreme threat due to forced displacements caused by deforestation, construction, and mining activities. In addition, since their culture is often deeply connected to the land for subsistence and livelihoods, they are disproportionately impacted by climate change. Plus, Indigenous cultures are not immune to the cultural assimilation that accompanies globalization. This, combined with continued challenges such as poverty, lack of access to healthcare and education, and poor infrastructure, means that the fight to preserve Indigenous Latin American cultures is ongoing.