While many stories survive about Norse mythology and legendary Viking warriors, these mostly come from later Christian accounts, as the pagan Vikings wrote very little about themselves. But symbols were powerful in the Viking world. They could be used as shorthand for important concepts and were often believed to have magical or divine properties. This article looks at the historical context and meaning of eight of the most important symbols from the Viking Age.1. Mjolnir: Thors HammerMjolnir pendant found at deshg, Sweden, c. 10th century CE. Source: Statens historiska museer, SwedenMjolnir, or Thors Hammer, is probably the most famous symbol surviving from the Viking Age. The symbol appears inscribed on runestones and as pendants worn by Viking men and women.According to mythology, Thor, the Norse god of thunder, wielded a hammer called Mjolnir that was crafted for him by the dark elves, also known as dwarves, the master craftsmen of the Norse cosmos. Due to mischief caused by Loki, the hammer was made defective and with a shorter handle than anticipated. While it was still considered the greatest weapon ever created, it required exceptional strength, like that possessed by Thor, to wield it.Mjolnir can be translated as lightning maker, and according to mythology, it caused cracks of lightning and sounds of thunder whenever Thor smashed the weapon into the enemies of the gods, the Jotun or giants. The weapon was powerful enough to level mountains.Thor with his Hammer, manuscript NKS 1867 4to, fol. 94v, Iceland, 1760. Source: Det Kongelige Bibliotek, CopenhagenAs well as being a weapon of destruction, Thors hammer was considered a ritual tool for hallowing places, things, and events for their intended purpose. For example, when the giant Thrym stole Thors hammer, which the god seems to have left carelessly lying around, he said that he would only return the weapon in exchange for the hand of the goddess Freyja in marriage. Since she refused to participate in any ruse, Thor had to go undercover and dress up as Freyja to retrieve the hammer, with Loki shapeshifting into a handmaid to assist him. When Thrym was ready to sanctify his marriage to the woman he thought was Freyja, he brought out the hammer to hallow the union. This gave Thor the opportunity to take it back and kill all the giants present.More than 150 examples of T-shaped pendants from the Viking Age have been recovered from Scandinavia, Iceland, England, the Baltics, and Russia. These have been identified as Mjolnir amulets and it is argued that they were worn to invoke the protection of the gods and as symbols of devotion to the Norse gods.Mjolnir pendant with a runic inscription, Denmark, c. 1000 CE. Source: National Museum of DenmarkWe know that these often crudely shaped pendants represent Thors hammer as the same shape appears on several runestones with identifying inscriptions. Further evidence was discovered in 2014 when a metal detectorist in Denmark found a Thors hammer amulet with an inscription reading Hmar is x, or this is a hammer.The surviving examples are made from a variety of metals, though iron followed by silver are the most common. There are also examples in lead, gold, and amber, and they were probably made in more degradable materials such as wood and clay for humbler individuals. While the most famous examples were elaborately decorated, most were plain. This includes examples from elaborate ship burials, suggesting that this was the standard. Most surviving examples have a punch mark in the handle, suggesting that they were worn as a pendant, handle side up.Thors hammer with cross etched pattern, via the Swedish History Museum, StockholmMjolnir pendants continued to be used by individuals well into the Christian period. There is evidence that Christian crosses and Viking Mjolnir symbols were made in the same workshops. There are also examples of Mjolnir pendants with crosses inscribed into them, combining the two iconographies. This reinforces the idea that Mjolnir pendants were worn as signs of protection and devotion since that matches the purpose of the cross.2. Gungnir: Odins SpearDrawing of part of a bronze helmet plate representing Odin, Sweden, c. 7th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile Thor carried Mjolnir, Odin, the god of war and the most important Norse god, carried the spear Gungnir, also made for him by the dwarves. It was so well balanced that the weapon would never miss its target, regardless of the skill of the warrior, and oaths sworn on the spear could never be broken. Gungnir was such an essential part of Odin that it is one of the key attributes used to identify the god in a variety of depictions.Above is a drawing of a plate from a bronze helmet dating to the Vendel Era, just before the start of the Viking Age. The figure depicted is clearly Odin, identified not only by his spear, but by the two ravens that fly nearby. These are Huginn and Muninn, whose names mean thought and memory. They would fly out into the world each day as the eyes and ears of Odin, reporting everything they saw. When Odin himself ventured into the world, they would accompany him. Odin was also one of the few gods often depicted on horseback.Stone from Hunninge on the island of Gotland, Sweden, c. 8th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe figure on horseback with a spear on the Gotland stone depicted above is almost certainly Odin. Below him seems to be a scene of warriors sailing across the sea to Valhalla, Odins afterlife for brave dead warriors. This identification is based on a female figure, who can be seen holding a drinking horn. She is probably one of the Valkyries that served the fallen warriors in Valhalla.Why would the Norse god of war carry a spear rather than a sword? Spears were in fact the most common weapons carried by Viking warriors. They were relatively easy and affordable to make and significantly extended the reach of the warrior. Meanwhile, for most of the Viking Age, swords were complex and expensive to make and therefore were only carried by the wealthiest Vikings.According to legend, at the start of the Aesir-Vanir War, Odin threw his spear over the enemy army and cried Odin owns you all! The Vikings would also sometimes throw their spears over the heads of their enemies in imitation of Odin. Myth also states that Odin hung himself from Yggdrasil, the world tree, for nine days and nights while pierced by his own spear to learn the secrets of the runes. When the Vikings sacrificed men to Odin, they would often hang them and stab them with a spear.3. Valknut: Symbol of ValhallaStora Hammars I Runestone, Gotland, Sweden, c. 700-900 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Valknut is probably one of the most enigmatic symbols from the Viking world. Its name is modern and means knot of slain warriors. It is applied to a symbol of three interlocking triangles that commonly appeared in the Viking Age. But we dont know what the Vikings themselves called the symbol.The Valknut almost always appears in association with both the dead and with Odin, which is why it is speculated that the Valknut was probably the symbol of Valhalla. While the Vikings had many afterlives, most wanted to end up in Valhalla, Odins great hall in Asgard. Odin, with the help of the Valkyries, only chose the bravest fallen warriors to join him there, where they would feast and train, preparing to fight alongside the gods at Ragnark.The Valknut appears on the Stora Hammars I Runestone, set above what appears to be a burial mound. There is a man standing nearby holding a spear and two ravens in the vicinity, suggesting that the man must be Odin. Behind the burial mound, another warrior can be seen hanging from a tree, which may also be a reference to Odin hanging himself from Yggdrasil.The Valknut also appears on grave goods, such as objects from the Oseberg ship burial from Norway dating to around 800 CE. The Valknut even appears on some contemporary Anglo-Saxon artifacts and on the grave goods of some Germanic peoples.Gold finger ring recovered from the Nene River, England, c. 8th-9th century CE. Source: British MuseumIt seems likely that the Valknut was used either to indicate that the dead person was in Valhalla, or perhaps as a magical talisman to call on the Valkyries to come and take the dead man to Valhalla. The Vikings believed that only those who died in battle could go to Valhalla and they would sometimes stab the bodies of warriors who died of illness to try and trick their way into Odins Hall.4. Yggdrasil: The World TreeYggdrasil detail on Overhogdal Tapestry, Sweden, c. 12th century. Source: Researchgate.netYggdrasil is an enormous, ever-green ash tree that acts as the backbone of the Norse cosmos. The nine worlds that made up the Norse universe are held among its roots and branches.The tree is mentioned several times in the surviving sources and described in detail. Yggdrasil is fed by three wells, Urdarbrunnr, the Well of Destiny and the dwelling place of the Norns, the Norse fates; Mimisbrunnr, the Well of Wisdom and the home of Mimir, the wise dead god; and Hvergelmir, the burning hot well located in Niflheim that feeds the eleven rivers that flow through the Norse realms.The dragon Nidhogg lives among the roots of the tree, and at the top is an unnamed eagle that has a hawk called Verflnir sitting between its eyes. A squirrel named Ratatoskr runs up and down the tree and four stags representing the four winds, called Dinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Durarr, eat the trees foliage.But while Yggdrasil is often mentioned in the sources and is a popular symbol in modern art, very few representations of Yggdrasil survive from the Viking Age. One notable exception are the Overhogdal Tapestries, from 12th century Sweden. Depicted above, a large tree appears at the center of three of the four surviving tapestries. That the tree is Yggdrasil is clear since a bird of prey sits atop the tree.Door carving on Urnes Stave Church, Norway, c. 11th century CE. Source: Wikipedia Commons; with Tree and bird detail on Sdermanland 101 Runestone, Sweden, c. 1030 CE. Source: National Antiquities Authority, SwedenWhile other obvious tree depictions are not common in Norse art, complex patterns formed by branches are a regular motif in Norse art. It is very likely that these represent the branches of Yggdrasil, which penetrate throughout the Norse universe and connect all things. For example, they can be seen in the animal and branch carvings on the door of the 10th century Urnes Stave Church in Norway. There is also a tree detail with a perched bird on the Sdermanland 101 runestone from 11th-century Sweden.5. Horned Triskelion: Bards and WordsmithsDetail of Horned Triskelion on Snoldelev Runestones, Denmark, c. 9th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Horned Triskelion is a symbol of three interlocking horns that is found on the 9th-century Snoldelev rune stone from Denmark. Alongside the symbol is an inscription that refers to a reciter for one of the local communities.This suggests that the symbol could relate to bards, and potentially the Mead of Poetry.The Mead of Poetry was a magical drink made by two dwarves from the blood of Kvasir, the smartest being in existence, who they murdered for that purpose. It was said to give anyone who drank it complete mastery of the spoken word, a skill valued among the Vikings.The mead was then taken from the dwarves by the giant Suttungr, and he placed it under the protection of his daughter Gunnlod. When Odin learned of the existence of the mead, he coveted its knowledge. He tricked his way into the mountain fortress where the mead was held and pretended to be in love with Gunnlod to access the mead.She eventually agreed to give Odin three sips of the mead so that he could find the words to describe his love for her. However, he used this as an opportunity to drink all the mead and hold it in his stomach. He then turned himself into an eagle and flew back to Asgard where he deposited the mead in three great drinking horns that were prepared for that purpose. The horns of the Triskelion would seem to represent these.On his journey, Odin let some of the mead spill over Midgard. It is unclear whether the mead spilled from his mouth or exited his body as urine. Regardless, the small amount of mead that found its way to men was considered responsible for the talent of the best bards.6. Hrafnsmerki: RavensGold bracteate featuring a warrior on horseback and ravens, Scandinavia, c. 400-600 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtRavens are an extremely common symbol in Norse art. Often the raven is mixed with an image of a warrior, creating a beaked helmet and making it difficult to clearly distinguish between the two. When ravens appear alongside a man, that man is usually identified as Odin, since ravens were his familiars.Scandinavian bracteates from the 5th and 6th centuries show warriors on horseback either with ravens flying alongside them, or helmets with raven elements. Ornaments from the same period are shaped like ravens but with the unmistakable image of a warriors head embedded in the decoration. Many Mjolnir pendants, like the one depicted at the start of this article, have what appears to be a cross between a warrior and a ravens head on the handle.According to literary sources, Ragnar Lodbrok used a raven banner when he started to invade England, and his sons later used the same banner when they invaded England with the Great Heathen Army to avenge their father. The banner was later adopted by Danish kings, and by the Danes who settled in England. The Vikings in York minted coins with raven symbols.7. Sleipnir: Divine SteedGotland Runestone, Sweden, c. 700-900 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSleipnir is the amazing eight-legged steed of Odin that shows up regularly in Viking art and Norse mythology. Grey in color, Sleipnir is faster and stronger than other horses and can slide between the worlds of the Norse cosmos, a feat beyond most creatures. His name, Sleipnir, means sliding one.Sleipnir was the child of Loki, conceived when the trickster shapeshifted into a mare to distract a steed called Svadilfari as part of one of his schemes. When the incredible horse was born, he gifted it to Odin as his steed.Odin is one of the few gods that is often depicted on horseback, because of his close relationship with Sleipnir. However, the horse is not always depicted with eight legs. On the bronze helmet plate discussed above, Odin with his spear is riding a regular horse. Similarly, on the raven bracteate, the horseman is probably Odin, on a regular four-legged steed. But on the Overhogdal Tapestry depicted above, the eight-legged creature that can be seen near the base of Yggdrasil is almost certainly Sleipnir. In addition, a depiction of the eight-legged horse, mounted by Odin, survives on an 8th century runestone from Gotland, depicted above.8. Swastika: Odins CrossThe handle of the Buddha-bucket (Buddha-btte), found with the Oseberg ship burial, c. 800 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile the Swastika is a controversial symbol today, it was widely used in the ancient world by various cultures. Among the Vikings, it is believed to have been a symbol of good luck.Examples of the symbol in Scandinavia survive as early as the 3rd century, and the last known examples come from several brooches dating to the 10th century. It survives on rune stones, funerary urns, and precious bracteates. A similar symbol with a cross inside a round circle, sometimes called a sun wheel, is thought to be a variation of the Swastika.A bracteate from Denmark discovered in 2020 and dating to the 4th century CE seems to show either Odin or an important chief in the form of a larger-than-life head on horseback. There is a swastika and a horseshoe beside the head of the warrior. The inscription on the charm reads: He is Odins man. This seems to confirm a link between the symbol and the god.